Give a classification of methods of pedagogical research. Characteristics of the main methods of pedagogical research, their classification
TOPIC 2
METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
SCIENTIFIC AND PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH
Methodology of pedagogy, its objectives and structure. Methods of pedagogical research, their classification. Logic scientific pedagogical research.
Basic concepts: methodology, methodology of pedagogy, research method, method of pedagogical research.
§ 1. Methodology of pedagogy, its tasks and structure
Under methodology science is understood as a set of initial philosophical ideas that underlie the study of natural or social phenomena and which decisively affect the theoretical interpretation of these phenomena.
Methodology of pedagogy - this is the doctrine of pedagogical knowledge, the process of their production and practical application.
Leading tasks of pedagogical methodology:
defining and clarifying the subject of pedagogy and its place among other sciences, the most important issue in pedagogical research;
establishing principles and methods for acquiring knowledge about pedagogical reality;
determining directions for the development of pedagogical theory;
identifying ways of interaction between science and practice, the main ways of introducing scientific achievements into teaching practice;
analysis of foreign pedagogical research.
The structure of the pedagogy methodology is presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Pedagogical methodology structure
§ 2. Methods of pedagogical research, their classification
Ways and methods of knowing objective reality are usually calledresearch methods .
Methods of pedagogical research name ways of studying pedagogical phenomena.
The whole variety of pedagogical research methods can be divided into three groups: methods for studying teaching experience, methods of theoretical research and mathematical methods.
The classification of pedagogical research methods is presented in Table 2.
table 2
Classification of pedagogical research methods
1. Methods for studying teaching experience– these are ways to study the actual developing experience of an organization educational process.
Observation– purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. At the same time, observation records (protocols) are kept.
Observation stages:
determination of goals and objectives (why, for what purpose is the observation being carried out);
choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);
choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe);
choosing methods for recording observation results (how to keep records);
processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).
A distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is being conducted, and non-involved observation - observation “from the outside”; open and hidden (incognito); continuous and selective.
Observation is a very accessible method, but it has its drawbacks due to the fact that the results of observation are influenced by personal characteristics(attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.
Conversation– an independent or additional research method used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during observation.
The conversation takes place according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting questions that require clarification, and is conducted in free form without recording the interlocutor’s answers.
Interviewing – a type of conversation in which the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, responses are recorded openly.
Questionnaire– a method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed provide written answers to the questions. Conversations and interviews are called face-to-face surveys, questionnaires are called correspondence surveys.
The effectiveness of conversations, interviews and questionnaires largely depends on the content and structure of the questions asked.
Studying students' work. Valuable material can be provided by studying the products of students' activities: written, graphic, creative and test works, drawings, blueprints, details, notebooks in individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide information about the student's personality, his attitude towards work and the level of skills achieved in a particular area.
Studying school documentation(personal files of students, medical records, cool magazines, student diaries, minutes of meetings, sessions) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.
Pedagogicalexperiment– research activities in order to study cause-and-effect relationships in pedagogical phenomena.
Research activities include:
experimental modeling of a pedagogical phenomenon and the conditions for its occurrence;
active influence of the researcher on the pedagogical phenomenon;
measuring response, results of pedagogical influence and interaction;
repeated reproducibility of pedagogical phenomena and processes.
There are 4 stages of the experiment:
theoretical – formulation of the problem, determination of the purpose, object and subject of research, its objectives and hypothesis;
methodological – development of research methodology and its plan, program, methods for processing the results obtained;
the experiment itself - conducting a series of experiments (creating experimental situations, observing, managing the experience and measuring the reactions of the subjects);
analytical – quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained facts, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.
According to the conditions of the organization, a distinction is made between a natural experiment (under the conditions of a normal educational process) and a laboratory experiment (creation of artificial conditions).
According to the final goals, the experiment is divided into ascertaining, which establishes only the real state of affairs in the process, and transforming (developing), when its purposeful organization is carried out to determine the conditions (content of methods, forms) for the development of the personality of a schoolchild or children's group. A transformative experiment requires control groups for comparison.
2. Methods of theoretical research.
During theoretical analysis Usually, individual aspects, signs, features or properties of pedagogical phenomena are identified and considered. By analyzing individual facts, grouping and systematizing them, researchers identify the general and special in them, establish general principles or rules.
Theoretical studies use inductive And deductive methods. These are logical methods for summarizing empirically obtained data. Inductive method involves the movement of thought from particular judgments to a general conclusion, deductive - on the contrary, from a general judgment to a particular conclusion.
Theoretical methods are necessary to define problems, formulate hypotheses, and evaluate the collected facts. They are associated with the study of literature: the works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents; periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teacher; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.
3. Mathematical methods are used to process data obtained by survey and experimental methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena being studied.
Mathematical methods help evaluate the results of an experiment, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations. Most common mathematical methods, used in pedagogy, are registration, ranking, scaling.
Registration– identifying the presence of a certain quality in each group member and a general count of those who have or do not have this quality (for example, the number of students actively working in class and often passive).
Ranging– arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence (in descending or ascending order of any indicators) and, accordingly, determining the place in this series of each person being studied.
Scaling– introduction of digital indicators in the assessment of individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, subjects are asked questions, answering which they must choose one of the specified assessments.
§ 3. Logic of scientific and pedagogical research
Pedagogical research involves a number of stages: preparatory, practical solution to the problem, quantitative processing of the data obtained, their interpretation, formulation of conclusions and proposals.
On preparatory stage practical activities are analyzed in order to determine the most relevant pedagogical problem, the solution of which will lead to tangible positive results in the development, training and education of students. Preliminary materials are being collected to specify the possible causes of the selected pedagogical problem.
This work ends with the formulation of a hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the most likely possibility of solving this problem. A research methodology is drawn up - the necessary methods are selected, technical means, the conditions for their application and methods for generalizing the data obtained are determined.
Practical solution to the problem associated with the implementation of research methodology in the form of a series of observations, surveys, and experiments.
Quantitative processing of the obtained data carried out using mathematical research methods.
Interpretation the obtained data is carried out on the basis of pedagogical theory in order to determine the reliability or fallacy of the hypothesis, which allows formulate conclusions and offers.
Plan
1. The concept of “research method”. Classification of research methods.
2. Methods of working with scientific information.
3. Theoretical and empirical methods pedagogical research.
4. The role of creativity in research activities. Methods for creative solution of research problems.
Literature
1. Weindorf-Sysoeva M.E. Execution technology and design of scientific research work. Educational and methodological manual. – M.: TsGL, 2006. – 96 p.
2. Zagvyazinsky, V.I. Methodology and methods of psychological and pedagogical research / V.I. Zagvyazinsky., R. Atakhanov. – M., 2005.– 208 p.
3. Research activities of students; tutorial/ Auto-composition T.P. Salnikova. – M.: TC Sfera, 2005. – 96 p.
4. Pedagogy: Textbook for students of pedagogical educational institutions / V.A. Slastenin, I.F. Isaev, A.I. Mishchenko, E.N. Shiyanov. - M.: Shkola-Press, 1997. - 512 p.
5. Tyapkin, B. G. Scientific literature. - TSB
1. The concept of “research method”. Classification of research methods.
In accordance with the logic of scientific research, a research methodology is being developed. It is a set of methods, the combination of which makes it possible to carry out research with the greatest reliability. The use of a number of methods allows for a comprehensive study of the problem under study, all its aspects and parameters.
Research methods are ways of understanding objective reality. Using methods, the researcher obtains information about the subject being studied. Each science uses its own methods, which reflect the characteristics of the phenomena being studied. Methods of pedagogical research are determined by the following features:
The results of training and education depend on the simultaneous influence of many causes and conditions. Ambiguous character pedagogical processes limits the possibilities of using methods known in science. Therefore, pedagogical research uses a combination of methods.
Pedagogical processes are characterized by their uniqueness. The teacher-researcher does not have the opportunity to conduct a “pure” experiment. Repeated research never succeeds in reproducing the same conditions and “material.”
In pedagogical research, the main trend is taken into account, and conclusions are formulated in a generalized form.
Pedagogical research must be carried out without harming the physical and mental health children, the process of their education and upbringing.
The ultimate goal of pedagogical research is to establish patterns in pedagogical processes and phenomena, that is, an objectively existing stable connection between pedagogical phenomena that ensures their existence, functioning and progressive development.
Methods of pedagogical research - ways and means of understanding the objective reality of pedagogical phenomena reveal the procedural part of pedagogical research, which involves drawing up a research plan, describing the methods and techniques of data collection, methods of their analysis, as well as the following interrelated and interdependent stages:
Stage of working with scientific information (goal: find information about the object of research and process it);
Stage of transformation of received information (goal: modify, transform the found knowledge about the object of research);
The stage of creative resolution of the research problem (goal: independently discover the patterns inherent in the object under study).
The structure of pedagogical research is determined by various combinations of the listed stages, which can be carried out in different orders with certain repetitions and changes. Please note that each stage has a specific goal. The method of achieving the goal is called a method. Therefore, carrying out pedagogical research involves the use of the following methods:
Methods of working with scientific information: information search methods; m.
Methods scientific knowledge: observation, comparison, analysis, synthesis, search for analogies, deduction, induction, generalization, abstraction, modeling, concretization, method of putting forward hypotheses, method of generating ideas. Also distinguished special pedagogical research methods: observation method, survey methods, pedagogical council, pedagogical experiment, etc.
Methods for creatively solving research problems: method of structural analysis of the research problem; the method of “heuristic questions”, “brainstorming”, the method of analogies, “synectics”, the “If only...” method, the figurative picture method, etc.
2. Methods of working with scientific information
Scientific information reflects the objective laws of nature, society and thinking adequately to the modern state of science.
To methods of working with scientific information methods includeinformation search; m methods of processing received information; methods of systematization and storage of scientific information.
1). Search for scientific information.
Scientific information is presented in scientific literature. B. G. Tyapkin offers the following definition of n scientific literature: “a set of written and printed works that are created as a result of scientific research or theoretical generalizations and are distributed in order to inform specialists about the latest achievements of science, the progress and results of research. Regardless of the specific branch of knowledge, the subject of content scientific literature is science itself - ideas and facts, laws and categories discovered by scientists. Scientific work is not considered completed if its results are not fixed in writing for transfer to others (in case a question arises about assigning priority to scientific discovery publication of scientific works is necessary).
B. G. Tyapkin draws attention to the fact that p Ancient scientific works were created in the genres of treatises, dialogues, reasonings, “teachings,” “travels,” biographies, and even in poetic genres (odes and poems). Gradually, these forms were replaced by new forms: monographs, reviews, articles, reports, reviews, essays, abstracts, abstracts, abstracts of reports and communications distributed in the form of publications appeared.
Let's consider brief description main scientific texts:
Monograph- treatise one or more authors who share a common point of view, in which a particular problem or topic is explored with the greatest completeness. The monograph summarizes and analyzes the literature on this issue, new hypotheses and solutions are put forward that contribute to the development of science. A monograph is usually accompanied by extensive bibliographic lists and notes, which can be used as a starting point when compiling a list of references on the research problem.
Brochure- non-periodic printed work of small volume (in international practice, no less than 5 and no more than 48 pages); small volume, usually of a popular scientific nature.
Collection of scientific papers - a collection containing research materials from scientific institutions, educational institutions or societies.
Article- scientific work small in size, in which the problem is considered with justification of its relevance, theoretical and applied significance, with a description of the methodology and results of the research. When carrying out pedagogical research, you can refer to the journals “Pedagogy”, “Education of Schoolchildren”, “ Public education", "Questions of Psychology". It must be remembered that the latest annual issue of the journal offers a list of articles that were published in this journal during the year.
Abstracts of the report - summary content of the scientific message.
Tutorial- an educational book designed to expand, deepen, and better assimilate the knowledge provided for by the curriculum and presented in textbooks; complements or replaces (partially or completely) the textbook.
The search for the necessary literature is a long labor. Its significance is enormous, because the quality of educational and research work will depend on the completeness of the study of published material.
It is best to start working in the library by consulting the encyclopedia and special dictionaries. Encyclopedia articles contain not only brief information on the essence of a particular problem, but also a list of the main works published on it.
Having received general information on the topic of research, you can already head to library catalogs.
A library catalog is a set of bibliographic records for documents arranged according to certain rules, revealing the composition and content of the collection of a library or information center. The library catalog can operate in card or machine-readable form.
There are the following types of catalogues: alphabetical, subject, systematic, catalogs of new arrivals.
To the alphabetical catalog apply if they know the name of the required source and the name of its author.
Subject catalog - a library catalog in which bibliographic records are arranged in alphabetical order by subject headings.
In the systematic catalog The titles of the books are grouped by headings and sub-headings, but the headings themselves, unlike the subject catalogue, are arranged not alphabetically, but according to the discipline system.
In the library, you need to carefully study the catalogs. Laconic index cards carry a wealth of information: the author's last name, the title of the book, its subtitle, scientific institution, who prepared the publication, name of the publishing house, year of publication of the book, number of pages. Copy from the catalog card accurate and complete bibliographic information about the book or article. It is better to make your notes on separate cards. Based on these cards, obtained during bibliographic reading, a bibliography.
A bibliography is a sequence of bibliographic descriptions of sources that the researcher used in his work. Let's consider the basic rules for compiling a bibliographic description.
1. Bibliographic description of a book by one author:
Andreev V.I. Heuristic programming of educational and research activities / V.I. Andreev. – M.: Higher. School, 1981. – 240 p.
2. Bibliographic description of a book by two or more authors:
Pidkasisty P.I. Independent activity students in education / P.I. Pidkasisty, V.I. Korotyaev. – M, 1978. – 76 p.
3. Bibliographic description of a magazine or newspaper article:
Amirova S.S. Self-organization of personality in the learning process / S.S. Amirova // Pedagogy. – 1993.– No. 5.– P.50-56.
4. Bibliographic description of the collection of scientific works:
Psychological problems of personal self-realization: Sat. scientific tr. / Ed. O.G.Kukosyan. – Krasnodar, 2001. – 259 p.
5. Bibliographic description of the dissertation abstract:
Fedotova N.A. Development of research competence of high school students in the context of specialized education: Abstract of thesis. diss. …. Ph.D. ped. Sciences / N.A. Fedotova. – Ulan-Ude, 2010. – 24 p.
In the course of carrying out research work, several methods are used to construct a bibliographic list: alphabetical, thematic, chronological.
The alphabetical method involves constructing a bibliographic list alphabetically by the names of authors and titles of sources (if the author is not indicated). It is in the alphabetical way that the bibliographic list of scientific works is compiled.
When is it necessary to reflect development? scientific idea They compile a chronological bibliographic list step by step.
But when working on a study, sometimes the bibliographic list is grouped not alphabetically, but by headings, each of which reflects a list of sources on a separate aspect of the study of the problem.
It should be noted that encyclopedias and reference books that the researcher consulted in the course of his work are listed in a separate list.
2).Reading scientific literature
To successfully work with educational and scientific literature, you must have a reading culture. Reading culture includes: regularity of reading, speed of reading, types of reading, ability to work with information retrieval systems and library catalogs, rationality of reading, ability to keep various types of records.
To master as large a layer of literary material as possible, you need to be able to read quickly. Reading speed is not an end in itself. It must be accompanied by the quality of assimilation of the content of the text, its perceptibility, comprehension and memorization of the most essential information.
It is important for a researcher to be able to determine the purposes of reading, master various types reading.
The following reading purposes are distinguished:
· information retrieval - find the necessary information;
· assimilate - understand information and logic of reasoning;
· analytical-critical - comprehend the text, determine your attitude towards it;
· creative - based on understanding the information, supplement and develop it.
Most often, experts talk about three main types of reading:
1. Search (browsing, approximate): used for preliminary acquaintance with the book (article). The main task is to discover whether the book contains the necessary information. To do this, you usually look at the table of contents, abstract, preface, and conclusion. Sometimes such reading is quite enough to get an idea of the book, the main ideas of the author, and some of the features of the work.
If you try to determine the sequence of actions for this type of reading, you will get the following:
a) highlight headings and sections in order to get a general idea of the content of the structure of the text. A heading or section can be presented in the form of a question. For example, the heading “The education system as a condition for the development of personality” can be transformed into the question “What should be the education system in order to form a growing person as a person?”;
b) look at the first and last paragraphs in order to get a general idea of the content;
c) skim through the entire text;
d) pose questions to the text you are about to read: “What do I know about this topic?” “What do I have to learn?” By looking at subheadings and headings and transforming them into questions, your reading becomes active, the purpose of reading becomes clear, and a connection appears between new information and existing knowledge.
2. Selective reading (introductory, summary) used for secondary reading if there is a need to understand some specific information in more detail. In this case, we pay attention only to those sections of the book (text) that we need.
3. In-depth reading (studying, analytical, critical) -his main task is to understand and remember what he read. At the same time, we pay attention to details, analyze information, evaluate it, critically comprehend and evaluate what we read. This is the most serious type of reading, requiring a thoughtful attitude.
For effective reading, you can suggest the following sequence of actions:
· Browse and Review: Review the Introduction, Table of Contents, and Summary to get an overview.
· Analysis - think about why you are reading this particular book, what motivates your choice.
· Active reading - as you read, highlight the main ideas, formulate them in writing. Write down the questions that arise. After finishing your work, check how well you have understood what you read.
· Development of thought - try to express your own point of view regarding what you read.
All types of reading are interconnected and you need to be able to read in different ways. The effectiveness of reading is determined by the degree of assimilation of the material and the amount of time spent on it. Reading quickly is an important skill for a researcher. The average reading speed is considered to be 200-250 words per minute. However, stories are known to people who read very quickly (O. Balzac, A. Edison, etc.). John Kennedy, for example, read at a speed of approximately 1,200 words per minute.
In order to read quickly, you need training in special exercises. But today you can increase your speed if you pay attention to the following recommendations. They will help you avoid some of the shortcomings that we often make when reading:
· read without articulation, do not pronounce words, internal speech significantly reduces reading speed;
· read from top to bottom, sliding your eyes along the center of the page, and not along the lines;
· read not in words, but in whole lines, expanding your peripheral vision;
· read without regression, that is, do not return to words and phrases already read;
· read carefully, lack of attention when reading leads to the fact that reading occurs mechanically and the meaning of what is read does not reach consciousness;
· read with interest, it is easy to read and remember what is interesting to us, so motivate yourself when reading.
2). Methods for recording received information
Information becomes a resource if it can be distributed in time and space and used to solve a certain range of problems. Information becomes a resource from the moment it is recorded on a medium (paper, electronic).
The primary recording of information can be done as follows: underlining in the book, notes in the margins. To make notes in the margins, you can use the following notation system:
! - very important;
? – doubtful, not clear;
v – the main thing is to pay attention;
Conclusion, summary, summary;
B – write out others.
You can also record information in the form of notes: plans, theses, notes.
A plan is a short program of some kind of presentation; a set of briefly formulated thoughts-headings in a compressed form represents the semantic structure of the text. The plan is the “skeleton” of the text; it compactly reflects the sequence of presentation of the material. An outline as a type of recording usually conveys the content of parts of the text in much more detail than the table of contents of a book or the subtitles of articles. Taking notes in the form of an outline is extremely important for recalling the content of what you read. However, it should be noted that the plan, as a rule, only says what is said in the source, but does not provide information about what is said and how, i.e., it sparingly mentions the actual content and its layout. When making a plan when reading a text, first of all, try to determine the boundaries of thoughts. Mark these places in the book immediately. Give the necessary passages headings, formulating the corresponding point of the plan. Write down any plans in such a way that it can be easily covered at one glance.
The advantages of the plan are that it is the shortest recording, which reflects the sequence of presentation and summarizes what has been read; restores the content of the source in memory; replaces notes and theses; helps in compiling records, etc.
The formulation of the plan only names what needs to be said. What needs to be said can be formulated in a thesis.
PlanIt can be simple, when the main thoughts are recorded in the points of the plan, and complex, with each point being detailed in sub-points.
Actions when drawing up a plan can be as follows:
1. Look through the text and divide it into complete passages. Paragraphs of text can serve as reference points, although the semantic boundary does not always follow them.
2. Determine the main idea of each part, based on keywords and phrases, and formulate it.
3. Clarify the wording and write it down consistently. If you ask a question for each semantic part and write it down, you will have a question plan.
For example, follow the fragment from the book by E.N. Ilyin “The Art of Communication” how the main idea of the passage is determined and the point of the plan is formulated.
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Book fragment |
Plan item |
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“The grades in literature are not at all the same as, say, in physics and chemistry. I am learning to listen to the student in Tolstoy’s style, that is, to hear him and my inner voice... To catch false enthusiasm, pre-prepared ostentatious conviction, someone else’s” blush", a personal attitude, behind which "other people's opinions are only sacred." What does the student think about when he speaks? Does he say what he thinks? Or is he just thinking about what to say for a good grade? High score I appreciate even a timid attempt to say something, to clarify, to add when others are silent. The desire to think is already a result. I ask “difficult” people about difficult things - it’s easier to get them to work this way.” |
Ethicsmarks |
Abstracts- these are provisions that briefly outline an idea or one of the main thoughts or provisions of the book. They can be expressed in the form of affirmation or negation. Theses make it possible to reveal the content and focus on what needs to be remembered or said.
Actions when drawing up abstracts can be the following:
1. In each paragraph of the text, highlight key sentences that carry semantic load
2. Based on the highlighted sentences, formulate the main idea of the paragraph in a common sentence.
3. Classify the main ideas and briefly state what they convey.
Having selected arguments (facts, quotes, etc.) for each thesis and presented them, you will receive the text of your speech, a response to the topic proposed for the seminar. An example of how you can formulate a thesis.
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Fragment from the book by V.F. Shatalova "Teach everyone, teach everyone" |
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“If there is one tape recorder, listening to the recordings is entrusted to a student in a parallel class outside of class time. This honorable work is entrusted only to the best students no more than once academic quarter. Time spent 15-20 minutes. If there are two tape recorders, children from a parallel class listen to the recordings directly in class during written work. On this day, for written work, they are given “automatic fives”, which differ in color from other grades in the open knowledge record sheet. Sometimes the teacher listens to some of the answers. Practice has shown: the children are very strict judges, and in all the years there has not been a single case of a liberal attitude towards the mistakes of their comrades.” |
Role participation of children in the learning process, for example, in assessing work results |
Extracts.IN explanatory dictionary it is said: “To write out means to write off something necessary, important place from a book, magazine, make selections” (from the word “select”). The whole difficulty of writing out lies precisely in the ability to find and select what you need from one or more texts. Extracts are especially convenient when you need to collect material from different sources. Extracts are made after the text has been read in its entirety and is understood as a whole. Beware of excessive automatic writing of quotations in place of creative development and analysis of the text. You can write it out verbatim (quotes) or freely, when the author’s thoughts are expressed in his own words.
Often, notes in the form of a plan and theses are not enough to fully assimilate the material. In this case, they resort to note-taking, i.e. to processing information by collapsing it.
Abstractis called a brief sequential summary of the contents of an article, book, lecture. It is based on an outline, theses, extracts, quotes. An abstract, unlike abstracts, reproduces not only the thoughts of the original, but also the connection between them; the abstract reflects not only what is said in the work, but also what asserted and proven.
There are various types and methods of note-taking. One of the most common is the so-called textual note, which is a sequential recording of the text of a book or article. Such a summary accurately conveys the logic of the material and maximum information.
Notes can be planned, written on the basis of a drawn up plan for an article or book. Each question in the plan corresponds to a certain part of the outline. It is convenient in this case to use a question plan. On the left side of the page you pose the problems raised in the book in the form of questions, and on the right side of the page you give answers to them. For example, a question-and-answer summary “Styles of pedagogical communication”
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1. What is pedagogical communication? |
The process of organizing, establishing, and developing communication, mutual understanding, and interaction between the teacher and students, generated by the goals and content of their joint activities, is multifaceted. |
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2. What styles of software are there? |
Authoritative (the teacher’s sole decision on all issues of life and teaching, tactics of dictatorship and guardianship, persistent conflicts, inadequate self-esteem studying). Democratic (subjective interaction, mutual acceptance, open, free discussion of problems, cooperation). Conniving (formal performance by the teacher of his duties, indifference, disinterest of the teacher, low discipline and academic performance). |
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3. How to establish appropriate relationships with students? |
The influence of the teacher's personality; understanding; empathy, pedagogical tact and authority; adequacy of assessments of student behavior and activities; pedagogical requirement. |
It is very convenient to use a schematic recording of what you read. Drawing up outlines and diagrams serves not only for memorizing the material. Such work becomes a means of developing the ability to highlight the most important, essential in the educational material, to classify information.
The most common are the “family tree” and “spider” type schemes. In the “family tree” diagram, the main components of a more complex concept are highlighted, keywords, etc., and are arranged in a “top-down” sequence - from the general concept to its particular components.
In a “spider” type scheme, the name of the topic or question is written and enclosed in an oval, which makes up the “spider body”. Then you need to think about which of the concepts included in the topic are the main ones and write them down on the diagram so that they form “spider legs.” In order to strengthen their stability, you need to attach to each “leg” key words or phrases that serve as a support for memory.
Schemes can be simple, in which the most basic concepts are written down without explanation. This scheme is used if the material does not cause difficulties in reproduction. In the diagram you can use fragments of text, explanations, explanations, extracts. This entry allows you to better navigate the material when answering.
You can use a mixed (combined) method of note-taking. Such notes are a combination of all (or several) of the listed methods.
With any type of note-taking, it is important not to forget that:
1. Entries should be neat, as much text as possible should be placed on the page, this improves its visibility.
2. It is useful to divide a record; for this purpose the following is used:
Subheadings,
Paragraph indents,
Whitespace lines.
All this is organized by the recording.
3. You need to use design tools:
Make underlines in the text of the note, and cross-outs in the margins of the notebook (for example, vertical),
Conclude laws, basic concepts, rules, etc. in frames
Use different colors when writing,
Write in different fonts.
4. The pages of the notebook for notes can be numbered and a table of contents can be made. In this case, you can quickly find the information you need.
3). Systematization and storage of information
Select the necessary material collected while working with the source. It should be systematized and stored in a file cabinet. scientific articles, extracts, newspaper and magazine clippings. A fact, a question, theoretical principles. Above each extract, indicate the problem of the extract, as well as a bibliographic reference of the source (author's surname, book title, year of publication, page). Cards in the file cabinet are placed in certain categories. The most essential material should be stored, constantly updating it. This is facilitated by familiarity with new scientific, educational, methodological literature and periodical publications.
Modern computer technologies offer great opportunities in systematization and storage of information. So, on a computer you can organize the information space of your research work using rules.
3. Methods of theoretical and empirical pedagogical research
Research method - This is a method that allows you to solve problems and achieve the goal of the study.Using methods, the researcher obtains information about the subject being studied. Each science uses its own methods, which reflect the characteristics of the phenomena being studied.
The range of methods used in carrying out pedagogical research is quite wide. Traditionally, pedagogical research methods are divided into two groups: theoretical and empirical.
Theoretical methods(analysis and synthesis, generalization, abstraction, specification, modeling, etc.)are associated with mental penetration into the essence of the pedagogical phenomenon or process being studied, and the construction of models of their ideal states. Theoretical methods involve a deep analysis of facts, the disclosure of significant patterns, the formation of mental models, the use of hypotheses, etc.
Methods empirical research (observation, survey methods, experiments, etc.)based on experience and practice. The essence empirical methods consists of recording and describing phenomena, facts, and visible connections between them.
Many research methods are used to solve specific problems.
T.P. Salnikova draws attention to the fact that the choice of methods for carrying out pedagogical research is determined by a system of rules and norms and is based on the following principles:
· set (complex) of research methods;
· their adequacy to the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the results expected to be obtained, and the capabilities of the researcher;
· prohibition of experiments and the use of research methods that are contrary to moral standards and can harm subjects.
Selected methods and methods of search activity that are adequate to the tasks make it possible to realize the idea and plan, test hypotheses, and solve the problems posed.
Empirical and theoretical methods of pedagogical research are interconnected and interdependent. Theoretical methods involve penetration into the essence of the process or phenomenon being studied and consist in their explanation, in the construction of an ideal construct for solving a pedagogical problem. And empirical methods make it possible to describe the state of solution of a pedagogical problem in modern educational practice; determine the possibility of practical testing of the designed theoretical construct for solving a pedagogical problem.
Let us consider the main characteristics and features of pedagogical research methods.
Theoretical methods of pedagogical research
Analysis -This is the mental selection of individual parts and connections based on the dismemberment of the whole. For example, when studying the uniqueness of the organization of the pedagogical process in the classes of developmental education, it is possible for analysis to isolate separately its goals, content, principles, methods, forms, means, control. After completing the analytical work, the need arises synthesis, combining analysis results into common system research. Based on synthesis, the subject is recreated as a system of connections and interactions, highlighting the most significant of them.
V.I. Zagvyazinsky draws attention to the fact that analysis and synthesis are closely related methods of abstraction and concretization. Under abstraction understand the mental abstraction of any property or feature of an object from its other features, properties, connections for a deeper study. The limiting case of abstraction is idealization, as a result of which concepts are created about idealized, really non-existent objects. However, it is precisely these idealized objects that serve as models that make it possible to identify much more deeply and completely some connections and patterns that appear in many real objects. In pedagogy, it is also possible to create idealized objects, say, “the ideal student” (devoid of any shortcomings), “the ideal teacher,” “ A perfect school" and etc. Concretization method in its logical nature it is the opposite of abstraction. It consists in taking into account the specificity, originality of the solution to the pedagogical problem under study with a specific child, with specific group students.
Simulation method also serves the task of constructing something new that does not yet exist in practice. The researcher, having studied the characteristic features of real processes, looks for their new combinations, makes their mental recomposition, i.e. models the required state of the system under study. Hypothetical models are created and on this basis recommendations and conclusions are made, which are then tested in practice. These, in particular, are the designed models of new types of educational institutions, for example, schools with multi-level education; and projected models for organizing educational processes, for example, the educational process in a gymnasium historical and legal specialized class.
Empirical methods of pedagogical research
1). Observation - one of the most common methods of pedagogical research. Observation means purposeful, according to a pre-developed plan, recording of those manifestations of personality or activity that interest the researcher.
Observation may be included not included. Participant observation assumes that the researcher himself, for a certain time, becomes a member of the group of children who became the object of study. If you become accepted by children as a member of their community, you will be able to learn so much about them in a way that no other method will allow you to do. Non-participant observation involves observation "from the outside." They also distinguish open observation, when children know that they are objects of study, and hidden, in which schoolchildren do not suspect that their behavior and activities are being monitored.
The advantages of observation as a research method include the fact that it allows you to record an event at the moment it occurs and obtain information about the real behavior of children (with hidden observation). The disadvantages of observation include the following:
The influence of the subjective factor on the interpretation of observation results (personal characteristics of the researcher, his attitudes, previous experience, emotional state),
When using open observation, the result is influenced by the fact that children know that we are being monitored, and the setting for “approved” behavior is triggered;
Observation requires a significant investment of time;
Not all phenomena can be studied using this research method; the scope of observation is limited.
Mandatory conditions for carrying out observation are the presence of a goal (what are you observing and why?), an observation plan and recording of its results in a diary, tables, matrices in which records are kept. For example, you are monitoring a child who is not accepted in the team. One possible reason for this may be the child’s increased anxiety, which complicates his life and becomes a serious emotional barrier in his communication with peers. In this case, the purpose of observation may be the following: to determine the child’s anxiety level. As an observation plan, you can use signs that express forms of “alarming” behavior:
· “plays the hero,” especially when comments are made to him;
· cannot resist “playing a role” in front of others;
· inclined to “play the fool”;
· too bold, takes unnecessary risks;
· take care to always be in agreement with the majority;
· imposed on others, easy to control;
· loves to be the center of attention;
· plays with children older than himself;
· brags in front of children;
· clowns around (pretends to be w uta)
· behaves noisily when the teacher is not around;
· imitates the hooligan antics of others.
· You can record observation data in the table:
|
Signs of behavior |
Frequency of occurrence |
||
|
Often |
Sometimes |
Never |
|
|
Plays the "hero" |
|||
|
Plays a “role” in front of others |
|||
|
Tends to pretend to be a “fool”, etc. |
|||
Then the frequency of manifestations is summed up and only after summing up the results of the observation can a conclusion be made.
2). Survey methods
The survey method is becoming increasingly popular in the practice of educational research. Survey May be direct(conversation, interview) and indirect(questionnaire). They also distinguish group and individual survey, full-time and correspondence, oral and written.
Conversation - This is a method of obtaining information based on a dialogue between the researcher and the subject. The main condition for a successful conversation is establishing personal contacts with the child, creating a friendly atmosphere and trust. When a child sees an interested person who strives to understand him and help, does not criticize, does not judge, does not impose his point of view, but can simply listen or give useful advice, then you can count on the student’s sincerity. The conversation requires special flexibility and sensitivity, knowledge of the individual characteristics of the children, the ability to listen and understand the emotional state.
The conversation can be individual, group or collective. In any case, it requires serious preparation. It is necessary to think through the purpose of the conversation, determine the subject of the conversation, draw up a plan for its conduct, formulate questions, select problematic situations, conflicting points of view on the problem under discussion, etc. When setting the purpose of the conversation, you cannot limit yourself only to the objectives of your research. For schoolchildren she must wear educational character. For example, during a conversation on the topic “How do we conduct our free time?" The student, together with the guys, answered the questions "What time can be considered free?", "Do we have a lot of free time?", "What can you do in your free time?", "Where can you go in your free time in our city?" etc. Data obtained in conversations with children are recorded and compared with data obtained using other research methods.
The conversation is in the nature of a mutual exchange of information. In the case where the researcher only asks questions without expressing his opinion, we have business with interviewing.
If the survey is conducted in writing, we are talking about survey. The big advantage of questionnaires is that the study can cover any number of students, and the data obtained is quite easy to process. However, it should be borne in mind that compiling questionnaires is a complex process that requires professional knowledge, so it is better to use ready-made questionnaires.
According to the form, questionnaires can be divided into open, when the answer to the question posed is formulated by the students themselves, and closed, when a list is proposed possible options answer.
For example, open-ended survey questions:
What happens if education is made optional for teenagers?
What does it mean, in your opinion, to be happy?
What do you think a harmonious person is?
Closed questions:
1. Are you satisfied with your school achievements?
a) very pleased
b) happy
c) not entirely satisfied,
d) not happy
d) not happy at all.
2. When comparing yourself to others, you find that:
a) you are underestimated,
b) you don't worse than others
d) you are fit to be a leader.
A variant of semi-closed questions is used, in which the list of answer options ends with the word “other”. For example:
In my free time I most often
a) I’m walking,
b) I communicate with friends,
c) I read books,
d) I watch TV,
d) I draw,
e) other
Often, questionnaires use a dichotomous form of answers, when the child chooses one of two mutually exclusive answers, for example,
1. I get annoyed by teachers who can’t understand me.
a) true,
b) incorrect.
2. To me it can be difficult in unfamiliar company
a) yes,
b) no.
If you compose the questionnaire yourself, you should adhere to the following rules:
1. Survey questions should be relevant to the problem you are studying and the purpose of your survey.
2. The wording of the questions should be clear, understandable and understandable to the child, and correspond to his level of knowledge and life experience.
3. The proposed questions should ensure sincerity and truthfulness of the answers.
4. The questionnaire includes the most significant questions, the answers to which can only be obtained through a questionnaire.
3). The researcher is always interested in not the external side of the activity (action), but its internal essence (motive of the action, interests, views, assessments). Relationships reveal themselves only in a situation of choice, which is created by the experimenter with the help of various diagnostic techniques . With their help, group and personal attitudes, relationships to friends, to oneself, to the future, etc. are studied. Let's consider some techniques:
- Unfinished sentence :
UI always want to argue when...
For me school is...
A real teacher- this is the one who...
In class I strive to...
- Unfinished story method:
“Returning home from school, I saw a homeless mongrel with a wounded paw near my entrance...”
- Drawing up a list of priorities: Arrange suggested concepts in order of importance for you:Appearance. Honesty. Success. Education. Family. Prestige. Freedom. Law-abiding. Property. Power. Health. Equality. Money. Creation.
- Choosing a life motto: Which life motto would you choose as your guiding idea?
· Fight, search, find and don’t give up.
· Live like everyone else.
· Beauty will save the world.
· Take care of your honor from a young age.
· You make yourself in this life only by yourself.
· Everything is achieved through training.
· Another motto (write)
- Choosing a role model: “Who are your role models in your life?
· historical figures,
· literary heroes.
· contemporaries."
- Drawing up a description of yourself:
· Write the words that, in your opinion, best describe you.
· Write a characteristic about yourself that you would like to learn from those around you.
· Imagine that you are already 40 years old and you need to write your autobiography. What would you write in it?
- Fantastic selection:
· We're going to desert island forever, what will we take with us?
· If you were a wizard, what would be the first thing you would do?
· If our class was a ship, what do you think it would be?
-Association test:
WITHWhat color (animal, historical period, branch of the military, household appliance, plant, part of an apartment, etc.) is associated with your school?
- Color chart:Place red cards on the table if you liked our conversation or liked the matter, blue cards if you didn’t like it very much, white cards if you didn’t like it at all.
Such methods make it possible to get to know a child in a relatively short period of time and trace the dynamics of his development. It should be noted that the above methods are not only a researcher’s tool, but also methods for children to self-know themselves. A child who thought about who he is, what he is like, has taken a big step in his development.
4) Testing is a research method that uses standardized questions and tasks - tests, which allow, with a known probability, to determine the current level of development of an individual’s knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics, as well as determine their compliance with certain standards or compare with the development of the quality under study in the subject in an earlier period.
Testing assumes that the subject performs a certain activity: this can be solving problems, drawing, telling a story based on a picture, etc. - depending on the technique used; a certain test takes place, based on the results of which the researcher draws conclusions about the presence, characteristics and level of development of certain properties.
There are the following main types of tests:
Achievement tests are tests used to identify educational or professional knowledge, skills and abilities, including solving problems that have educational or professional content. As an example, all cases of test examinations can serve, for example, the Unified State Exam.
Ability tests are a specially selected standardized set of tasks used to assess a person’s potential ability to solve various problems. Ability tests are designed to measure the level of development of certain abilities (memory, thinking, intelligence, professional, etc.). Any type of intelligence test can also be considered an aptitude test. Thus, the Stanford-Binet test, Wechsler scales and various group intelligence tests are used in educational institutions all levels as tests of academic ability because they are recognized as predictive of academic performance. Special tests are developed to identify specific abilities, such as science or languages.
Personality tests are tests that measure various aspects of an individual’s personality: attitudes, values, relationships, emotional, motivational and interpersonal properties, typical forms behavior.
In this case, questionnaires or projective tests are used. Personality questionnaires are a type of questionnaire aimed at measuring various features personality. Personality questionnaires are divided into: a) personality trait questionnaires; b) typological questionnaires; c) motive questionnaires; d) interest questionnaires; e) values questionnaires; f) attitude questionnaires.
Projective is one of the methods of personality research. Based on identifying projections of the subject’s personality traits in the experimental data with subsequent interpretation. The method is provided by a set projective techniques(projective tests), among which are distinguished: a) associative (for example, the Rorschach test, the test of unfinished sentences, etc.); b) interpretative (for example, a thematic apperception test is one in which you need to interpret social situations, shown in the pictures); c) expressive (psychodrama, drawing of a person or non-existent animal, etc.).
Thus, the test is always associated with measuring the manifestation of one or another psychological property of a person and assessing the level of its development or formation.
When conducting testing, you must adhere to a number of rules:
5). Study of activity products - a research method that uses a system of procedures aimed at collecting, systematizing, analyzing and interpreting the products of human activity, this method allows you to indirectly study the formation of knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, abilities of a person, without coming into contact with him.
Analysis of personal documents (photos, diaries, autobiographies, personal files, notebooks, creative works) provides material for research life path personality, her attitude to learning, the level of knowledge acquisition, the development of skills and abilities.
In pedagogical research, students’ essays, creative work, test papers, their drawings, and crafts can be considered as materialized products of students’ activities.
The study of the products of activity makes it possible to judge a person’s readiness to participate in a certain type of activity, the level of activity achieved and the process of performing the activity itself, the person’s attitude to the activity and its results.
6). Content analysis. Often of interest are the reflections of the subject himself about what changes have occurred in him in the process and as a result of his inclusion in some system of interactions and relationships. In this case we are talking about the use of such a method of pedagogical research as content analysis.
Content analysis (eng. contents) - scientific method identifying and assessing the characteristics of texts and speech messages.
The procedure for applying the content analysis method involves: collecting texts compiled by subjects; identification of units of analysis of textual material that are significant for the study; interpretation of test messages from subjects from the perspective of selected units.
6). Study and generalization of teaching experience
Any pedagogical research turns to the experience of practical workers: teachers, educators, methodologists. Some scientists understand pedagogical experience as practical pedagogical activity and the result of this activity, i.e. they consider pedagogical experience in in a broad sense words. In a narrower under the pedalGogical experience is understood as the skill of a teacher. They often talk about advanced pedagogical experience, which means “the work experience of a particular teacher, school, district, etc., achieving results that best meet the requirements at a particular stage of development” (M. V. Zvereva) .
What criteria can be used to determine best practices? Let's list some of them:
· Better performance in academic or educational work than others.
· Scientific validity of the work.
· Sufficiently long-term operation (at least a year).
· Creative novelty.
· Relevance.
· Reducing the time required to achieve high results (compared to typical ones).
By degree creative best practices could be:
· modification, i.e. someone's experience is used in new conditions,
· combinatorial, which combines approaches and techniques used by different teachers,
· innovative, involving the creation of fundamentally new methods,
· research experience.
Ways to learn from experience:
· Analysis of publications.
· Analysis of teacher documentation (reports, reports, plans, etc.).
· Observing the activities of a teacher or educator.
· Analysis of student work (notebooks, essays, crafts, drawings, etc.).
· Studying the level of training and education of students.
· Conversation with teacher, students, parents, colleagues.
· Generalization and description of experience
The work on studying teaching experience takes place in several stages:
1. Gathering facts using the methods listed above.
2. Classification of collected information by problem.
3. Structuring the teacher’s activities based on the collected material ; representation of his experience as an integral system.
4. The role of creativity in research activities Methods for creatively solving research problems
As A.F. Zakirova notes, artistic and figurative means that “invade” pedagogical research (metaphors, comparisons, allegories), just like the means of everyday language, perform in creative process an active heuristic function, being a kind of catalyst for creativity, stimulating the nomination and original development of pedagogical solutions.
A.F. Zakirova emphasizes that scientific creativity, which has a spiral nature, is characterized by an alternate predominance (emphasis) of the rational-logical and subjective-emotional aspects.
Methods of creative activity : method of structural analysis of a research problem, figurative picture method, method of “heuristic questions”, “synectics”, brainstorming method, etc.
Method structural analysis research problems consists in the researcher identifying the structural components of the problem under study, determining distinctive features each component.
Figurative painting method recreates such a state for the researcher when the perception and understanding of the object seem to merge, a holistic, undivided vision of the object occurs. The researcher, with the help of drawings, symbols, and key terms, expresses the basics of the problem under study.
Heuristic question method developed by the ancient Roman orator Quintilian. To find information about an event or object, the following seven key questions are asked: Who? What? For what? Where? How? How? When? Paired combinations of questions generate new question, for example: How-When? The answers to these questions and their various combinations give rise to unusual ideas and solutions regarding the object under study.
Brainstorming method. One of the effective methods for solving creative problems is brainstorming or brainstorming.The main task of the method "Brainstorm" - collect as much as possible more ideas as a result of the liberation of discussion participants from the inertia of thinking and stereotypes. Everyone can express their ideas, supplement and clarify them. An expert is assigned to the groups, whose task is to record the ideas put forward on paper. The “assault” lasts 10-15 minutes.
Work is carried out in the following groups: idea generation, analysis problematic situation and evaluation of ideas, generation of counter ideas. The generation of ideas occurs in groups according to certain rules. At the idea generation stage, any criticism is prohibited. Then the ideas received in groups are systematized and combined according to general principles and approaches. Next, various obstacles to the implementation of the selected ideas are considered. Critical comments made are evaluated. Only those ideas that have not been rejected by criticisms and counter-ideas are finally selected.
Synectics method – This is brainstorming done using analogies. There are several types of analogies:
- Direct analogy . The object (process) under consideration is compared with a similar one from another field of science, technology or living nature to find a sample solution. Thus, at one time, a term appeared in pedagogical science, the concept of “technology,” borrowed from the field of technical production.
- Personal analogy (empathy). The researcher imagines himself in the place of the subject.
- Symbolic analogy. It is required to define the object (concept) in a paradoxical, metaphorical form, highlighting its essence. The definition must consist of two words (usually an adjective and a noun), where one word contradicts the content of the other, i.e. the connection between words must contain something unexpected, surprising, for example, a book (defined concept) - a silent storyteller (definition).
The creative nature of the research is also given by the methods of meaningful and semantic analysis of one’s own thinking, which involve obtaining answers to the following questions : what I want to explore; why, why am I conducting research on this topic; why did you choose this particular problem and not another problem for research; what is the purpose of the research I am doing; what I know and what I would like to know about the problem of interest; what the problem situation is; what needs to be done to eliminate the problem situation; what interferes with solving a problem situation or achieving a goal; what issues need to be addressed to solve the problem; what research methods should be used, why these particular ones, etc.
Methodology and methods of pedagogical research
The concept of pedagogy methodology.
Methodological principles of pedagogical research.
Classification and characteristics of pedagogical research methods.
The concept of pedagogy methodology.
Methodology– the doctrine of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity. Methodology of science– the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge (Encyclopedic Dictionary).
Methodology of science- this is a set of initial philosophical ideas that underlie the study of natural or social phenomena and which decisively affect the theoretical interpretation of these phenomena.
Methodology is a system of principles and methods for constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of the method of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world.
Over the past decades, the methodology has undergone significant development. First of all, its focus on helping the researcher and developing his special skills in the field of research work has increased. Thus, the methodology acquires, as they say, a normative orientation, and its important task becomes the methodological support of research work.
2. Methodological principles of pedagogical research.
The methodology of pedagogy is based on:
A) dialectical method studying social processes of activity, communication, relationships, interaction (studying the surrounding life in development);
b) structural approach in the description of pedagogical processes and objects of activity in their functions, stable connections and relationships between elements of the organization;
V) value-semantic and personal-time approach in considering pedagogical phenomena and processes from the standpoint of active aspirations, value orientations, motives, interests, the level of aspirations of a particular person’s personality (discovering meaning, prospects, significant benefits for students);
G) system analysis pedagogical processes and phenomena in their holistic construction (formulation of the final and intermediate goals, means, object and subject of research and a program of activities that ensures the achievement of target results in a specific situation).
3. Classification and characteristics of pedagogical research methods.
Research methods refer to methods for solving research problems. These are various tools for a scientist to penetrate into the depths of the objects under study. The richer the arsenal of methods of a particular science, the higher the success of scientists. The stock of scientific tools of pedagogy is continuously replenished through the construction of new methods and the borrowing of methods from other sciences suitable for pedagogical purposes.
Let's consider the main methods of pedagogical research. For a generalized presentation, let’s group these methods (Table 2).
METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC AND PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH
CLASSIFICATIONS
ObservationSingle-stage: School:
analysis of activity products (questionnaires, (classrooms,
studying school documentation testing) extracurricular)
Questioning (observation, (in artificial
Testing experiment) conditions)
sociometric methods
self-esteem
Passive:
Active: Long-term: Laboratory:
THEORETICAL
EMPIRICAL
comparative historical analysis observation
modeling conversation; interview
cause-and-effect analysis questionnaire
analysis and synthesis generalization of independent characteristics
Observation method. It is defined as the researcher’s direct perception of the pedagogical phenomena and processes being studied. Along with direct tracking of the progress of observed processes, indirect tracking is also practiced, when the process itself is hidden, and its real picture can be recorded by some indicators. For example, observations are being made of the results of an experiment to stimulate the cognitive activity of students. In this case, one of the indicators of changes is the academic performance of schoolchildren, recorded in the forms of assessments, the pace of mastering educational information, the amount of material mastered, and the facts of students’ personal initiative in acquiring knowledge. As we see, the cognitive activity of students itself can be recorded indirectly.
There are several types of observations. Direct and indirect, where either the researcher or his assistants act, or, as stated above, the facts are recorded using several indirect indicators.
Further, continuous or discrete observations are distinguished. The first is to cover processes in their entirety. From their beginning to the end, to completion. The latter represent a dotted, selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying nervous situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, for these events to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teachers and students.
Research observation is organized from three positions: neutral, from the position of the head of the pedagogical process, and when the researcher is involved in real natural activities. For example, a scientist monitors the decline and rise of students’ intellectual initiative during lessons in humanities and non-humanities school disciplines. In this case, he is positioned in the classroom so as to keep everyone in sight, but to be invisible himself. It is ideal when his presence is not felt by either the teacher or the students. Observation from the second position assumes that the researcher himself teaches the lesson, combining practical and research tasks. Finally, the third position involves the inclusion of the researcher in the structure of the action of the subjects as an ordinary performer of all cognitive operations, together with the students for self-testing in the role of the latter.
The types of scientific observations in pedagogy include such as open and secret observations. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Conspiratorial observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subjects.
The methodological arsenal also includes such types of observation as longitudinal (longitudinal) and retrospective (turning to the past). Suppose we are studying the conditions for the development of a schoolchild’s mathematical abilities from the first to the eleventh grade. During longitudinal observation, the researcher faces the need to analyze the conditions and their impact on the student over 11 years. With retro-observation, the movement towards obtaining facts goes in the opposite direction. The researcher uses the student's or professional's school background to work with them or their school teachers to identify what had a decisive influence on the progress of the subjects' mathematical abilities during their school years.
Observation materials are recorded using such means as protocol, diary entries, video-film recordings, phonographic recordings, etc. In conclusion, we emphasize that the observation method, with all its capabilities, is limited. It allows one to detect only external manifestations of pedagogical facts. Internal processes remain inaccessible for observation.
Survey methods in pedagogy. Survey methods for studying pedagogical problems are relatively simple in organization and universal as a means of obtaining data on a wide thematic spectrum. They are used in sociology, demography, political science, and other sciences. Survey methods of science include the practice of government services for studying public opinion, population censuses, and collecting information for making management decisions. Surveys of various population groups form the basis of government statistics. And various forms of government reporting are, in principle, close to survey methods for obtaining information about the state of certain structures and processes of social life. Electoral systems around the world cannot do without polling methods.
In pedagogy, three well-known types of survey methods are used: conversation, questioning, and interviewing. A conversation is a dialogue between a researcher and subjects according to a pre-developed program. The general rules for using a conversation include the selection of competent respondents, the justification and communication of the motives for the study 5 corresponding to the interests of the subjects, the formulation of variations of questions, including questions “in the face”, questions with hidden meaning; questions testing the sincerity of answers and others. Open and hidden phonograms of research conversations are practiced.
The interview method is close to the research conversation method. Here the researcher, as it were, sets a topic to clarify the point of view and assessments of the subject on the issue being studied. The rules of interviewing include creating conditions conducive to the sincerity of the subjects. Both conversation and interviews are more productive in an atmosphere of informal contacts and sympathy evoked by the researcher among the subjects. It is better if the respondents’ answers are not transcribed in front of his eyes, but are reproduced later from the researcher’s memory. Both survey methods, which resemble interrogation, are not allowed in pedagogical science.
Questioning as a written survey is more productive, documented, and flexible in its ability to obtain and process information. There are several types of surveys. Contact questioning is carried out when the researcher distributes, fills out and collects completed questionnaires during direct communication with the subjects. Correspondence surveys are organized through correspondent communications. Questionnaires with instructions are sent by mail and returned in the same way to the research organization. Press surveys are carried out through a questionnaire posted in the newspaper. After filling out such questionnaires by readers, the editors process the data received in accordance with the goals of the scientific or practical design of the survey.
There are three types of questionnaires. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers for the subject to choose from. The closed-type questionnaire is structured in such a way that for each question, ready-made answers are given for the respondents to choose from. Finally, a mixed questionnaire contains elements of both. In it, some of the answers are offered for choice and at the same time, free lines are left with a proposal to formulate an answer that goes beyond the limits of the proposed questions.
Organizing a questionnaire survey involves carefully developing the structure of the questionnaire, its preliminary testing through the so-called “piloting”, i.e. trial survey on several subjects. After this, the wording of the questions is finalized, the questionnaires are replicated in sufficient quantities, and the type of questionnaire is selected. The technique for processing questionnaires is determined both by the number of people involved in the survey and by the degree of complexity and cumbersomeness of the content of the questionnaire. Processing “manually” is carried out by counting the types of answers according to memory categories. Machine processing of questionnaires is possible if the responses are indexed and amenable to formalization and statistical processing.
Pedagogical experiment is considered one of the main research methods in pedagogical science. It is defined in a general sense as an experimental test of a hypothesis. Experiments are global in scale, i.e. covering a significant number of subjects, local and micro-experiments conducted with minimal coverage of their participants.
State and government scientific institutions and educational authorities can act as organizers of large experiments. Thus, in the history of domestic education, at one time a global experiment was carried out, in which a hypothesis was tested to test the model of general education for children from the age of six. As a result, all the components of this large scientific project were worked out and the country then switched to educating children from this age.
Certain rules for organizing pedagogical experiments have emerged. These include such as the inadmissibility of risks to the health and development of the subjects, guarantees against harm to their well-being, and against damage to life in the present and future.
In the experimental technique, as a rule, two groups of subjects are distinguished. One receives the status of experimental, the other - control. The first implements an innovative solution. In the second, the same didactic tasks or problems of education are implemented within the framework of traditional pedagogical solutions. Scientists are able to compare two results that prove or disprove the correctness of their hypothesis. For example, the assimilation of a section of mathematics is compared when schoolchildren sequentially study program topics and through the use of enlarged didactic units (UDU). And when the experimenter (Prof. P.M. Erdniev) compared the consequences of his innovative didactic design with the developmental influences of traditional teaching methods, he saw evidence of the superiority of his developments over traditional methods of teaching mathematics.
Further, there are such types of experiments as “mental”, “bench” and “full-scale”. Already by the name it is not difficult to guess that a thought experiment is a reproduction of experimental actions and operations in the mind. Thanks to repeated playback of experimental situations, the researcher is able to discover conditions under which his experimental work may encounter obstacles and require any additional development reconstructions. A bench experiment involves reproducing experimental actions with the involvement of participants in laboratory conditions. It is similar role-playing game, where an experimental model is reproduced in order to test it before including it in a natural experiment, where subjects participate in a real setting of the pedagogical process. As a result, the experimental program, after this kind of preliminary verification, receives a comprehensively corrected and prepared character.
Two types of experiment are also known in pedagogy: natural and laboratory. A natural experiment is carried out by introducing an experimental design into everyday scenarios of educational, educational, and managerial work of the experimental teacher or his partners in scientific research. Laboratory research involves the creation of artificial conditions where the working hypothesis put forward by the author of the study is tested.
Testing occupies a special place in the system of research methods. Testing methods (from the English word “test” - experience, trial) are interpreted as methods of psychological diagnosis of subjects. Testing is carried out using carefully developed standardized questions and tasks with scales of their values to identify individual differences between test takers. Since their development, tests have been used primarily for practical purposes to select specialists based on their abilities and practical preparation for performing various social roles.
There are international tests to compare indicators achieved in the education and development of children and adults. Tests are perceived as examinations of people's suitability for a particular field of activity. Computer testing programs are becoming increasingly widespread, allowing the use of a computer in an interactive dialogue mode in a human-machine system. There are tests to identify students' progress, tests to determine the professional predisposition of people. Tests are also used in pedagogical research. In psychological science, achievement tests, intelligence tests, creativity (ability) tests, projective tests, personality tests, and so on are used.
This is the composition of the most common methods of pedagogical research. We emphasize that each researcher approaches the use of scientific research methods creatively. They are adapted, adapted to the topic and tasks, object and subject, conditions of scientific work. As we see, methods are modified in order to give them optimal abilities to productively solve scientific problems.
General methodological and philosophical principles of scientific knowledge influence the methods of specific scientific knowledge, therefore the scientific method must be chosen according to the field in which the scientific search takes place. That is, depending on the degree of complexity of the study, the methods for solving it, types of experiments, techniques and means also change.
Classification is the distribution of objects, phenomena and concepts into classes, groups, departments, categories depending on general characteristics.
There are various classifications of pedagogical research methods.
Methods of scientific research can be divided into general logical and scientific, which in turn are differentiated into empirical and theoretical.
General logical methods include:
Analysis(Greek - decomposition) - a research method, the essence of which is that the subject of study is mentally or practically divided into its component elements (parts of the object or its characteristics, properties, relationships, and each part is studied separately).
Synthesis(Greek - connection) - this research method allows you to connect elements (parts) of an object dissected in the process of analysis, establish connections between them and understand the objects of research as a single whole.
When studying a specific object of study, as a rule, analysis and synthesis are used simultaneously, since they are interrelated.
Induction(Latin - guidance) is a method of cognition in which general principles and laws are derived from particular factors and phenomena. This is an inference from facts to some hypothesis (general statement). In such an inference, a general conclusion about the characteristics of a set of elements is made on the basis of studying part of the elements of this set. In this case, the facts under study are selected according to a pre-developed plan.
There is a distinction between complete and incomplete induction:
Full induction– a generalization relates to a finitely observable area of facts and the conclusion made exhaustively examines the phenomenon being studied.
Incomplete induction– a generalization refers to an infinite or finitely vast area of facts, and the conclusion made in this case allows one to form only an indicative, preliminary opinion about the object being studied. This opinion may be unreliable. When using the incomplete induction method, errors may occur, the causes of which are:
Hasty generalization;
Generalization without sufficient basis based on secondary or random characteristics;
Substituting a causal relationship with an ordinary sequence in time;
Unreasonable extension of the obtained conclusion beyond the specific conditions in which it was obtained, i.e. replacing the conditional with the unconditional.
Deduction(Latin – deduction) is a method of cognition in which particular provisions are derived from general ones. Through deduction, a conclusion about an individual element of a certain aggregate is made on the basis of knowledge about the characteristics of the entire aggregate, i.e. it is a method of transition from general ideas to particular ones.
Despite their opposites, induction and deduction in the process of scientific knowledge are always used together, representing different aspects of a single dialectical method of knowledge - from inductive generalization to deductive conclusion, to verification of conclusion and deeper generalization - and so on ad infinitum.
Analogy(Greek – correspondence, similarity) is a method of scientific knowledge, with the help of which knowledge about some objects or phenomena is achieved on the basis of their similarity with others. Inference by analogy is when knowledge about an object is transferred to another less studied object, but similar to the first in essential properties and qualities. Such inferences are one of the main sources of scientific hypotheses. Thanks to its clarity, the method of analogies has become widespread in science.
The method of analogies is the basis of another method of scientific knowledge – modeling.
Modeling(Latin – measure, sample) is a method of scientific knowledge that consists in replacing the object being studied with its specially created analogue or model, by which the characteristics of the original are determined or clarified. In this case, the model must contain the essential features of the real object.
Modeling is one of the main categories of cognition; almost any method of scientific research is based on its idea, both theoretical, which uses various abstract (ideal) models, and experimental, which uses subject (material) models. Abstract models include mental, logical, imaginary (logical-mathematical) and mathematical models. The latter are described by equations identical to the original. Material models include physical, material or operating models. They retain the physical nature of the original.
The modeling method is based on meaningful knowledge of the object of study and provides for the solution of such important issues as the relationship between the model and the object of study, the degree of similarity of the model to the original, and the legitimacy of transferring the information obtained during the study of the model to the object.
Modern science knows several types of modeling:
1) subject modeling, in which research is carried out on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of the original object;
2) symbolic modeling, in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. The most important view such modeling is mathematical modeling produced by means of mathematics and logic;
3) mental modeling, in which, instead of sign models, mental visual representations of these signs and operations with them are used.
Astragation- this is a mental distraction from certain aspects, properties or connections of the object of knowledge. Scientific abstraction represents a distraction in the process of cognition from the particular and unimportant aspects of the phenomenon under consideration in order to focus on its general, basic, essential features. By highlighting the essential, scientific abstraction helps to deepen knowledge. At the same time, it is necessary to know the boundaries of abstraction, i.e. abstraction in the study must be theoretically justified.
The following methods are typical for the empirical level of research:
- observation– perception of objective reality, giving knowledge about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the objects being studied;
- description– consolidation and transmission of observation results using certain sign means;
- measurement– comparison of objects according to any properties or aspects;
- comparison- simultaneous comparative study of the process of properties or characteristics common to two or more objects;
- experiment– observation of specially created and controlled conditions.
Observation- purposeful study of objects, based mainly on data from the senses (sensations, perceptions, ideas). In the course of observation, we gain knowledge not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.
Observation can be direct or indirect with various instruments and technical devices (microscope, telescope, photo and film camera, etc.). With the development of science, observation becomes more complex and indirect.
Basic requirements for scientific observation:
unambiguity of the plan; the presence of a system of methods and techniques;
objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control through either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, experiment). Observation is usually included as part of the experimental procedure. An important aspect of observation is the interpretation of its results, interpretation of instrument readings, the curve on an oscilloscope, on an electrocardiogram, etc.
The cognitive result of observation is description - recording, using natural and artificial language, initial information about the object being studied: diagrams, graphs, diagrams, tables, drawings, etc. Observation is closely related to measurement, which is the process of finding the ratio of a given quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit of measurement. The measurement result is expressed as a number.
Experiment– active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process being studied, a corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.
In an experiment, an object is either reproduced artificially or placed in certain predetermined conditions that meet the goals of the study. During the experiment, the object being studied is isolated from the influence of secondary circumstances and is presented in “ pure form" In this case, specific experimental conditions are not only set, but also controlled, modernized, and reproduced many times.
Main features of the experiment:
a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object, up to its change and transformation, b) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher, c) the ability to detect such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions; d) the possibility of considering a phenomenon in its “pure form” by isolating it from circumstances that complicate and mask its course or by changing, varying the experimental conditions, e) the possibility of monitoring the “behavior” of the object of study and checking the results. The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of implementation, etc.); control; interpretation of results. An experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), testing (control), reproducing, isolating, etc. Based on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, and social experiments are distinguished. Of great importance in modern science is the decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of two (or several) competing concepts. Experimental pedagogical work. If we are talking about generalizing experience, then it is clear that scientific research directly follows from practice, follows it, contributing to the crystallization and growth of the new that is born in it. But such a relationship between science and practice today is not the only possible one.
In many cases, science is obliged to stay ahead of practice, even advanced practice, without, however, breaking away from its needs and requirements.
The method of making deliberate changes in the educational and educational process, designed to obtain an educational effect, with their subsequent testing and evaluation is experimental work.
Didactic experiment. An experiment in science is the change or reproduction of a phenomenon in order to study it under the most favorable conditions. A characteristic feature of an experiment is planned human intervention in the phenomenon being studied, the possibility of repeated reproduction of the phenomena under study under varying conditions. This method allows us to decompose holistic pedagogical phenomena into their component elements. By changing (variing) the conditions in which these elements function, the experimenter gets the opportunity to trace the development of individual aspects and connections, and more or less accurately record the results obtained. The experiment serves to test a hypothesis, clarify individual conclusions of the theory (empirically verifiable consequences), establish and clarify facts
The real experiment is preceded by a thought experiment. By mentally playing out various options for possible experiments, the researcher selects options that are subject to testing in an actual experiment, and also receives estimated, hypothetical results with which the results obtained in an actual experiment are compared.
Stages carrying out experimental work:
- diagnostic stage(stating). Identification of the real state of the object under study. At the diagnostic stage, it is necessary to select optimal diagnostic tools, a set of various methods and techniques;
- formative stage experiment, proposes the formation of a new quality, realized by the researcher himself, as a result of practical testing, elements of the author's model, technology of content, forms of methods of educational activity. This stage correlates with the research hypothesis, on at this stage it is necessary to present a step-by-step implementation of the conditions outlined in the hypothesis.
- control (final) stage an experiment in which the results of experimental experimental work are presented.
At this stage, a comparative analysis is presented at the beginning and end of the experiment. The positive dynamics of quantitative indicators according to certain criteria allows us to judge qualitative changes within the framework of the experiment.
Comparison- a cognitive operation underlying judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. Using comparison, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed. To compare is to compare one thing with another in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and important type relations revealed through comparison are relations of identity and difference. This is the method by which, through comparison, the general and special in psychological and pedagogical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting ones is achieved. This method allows us to identify and compare levels in the development of the phenomenon under study, the changes that have occurred, and determine development trends.
Measurement- a process consisting in determining the quantitative values of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon being studied using special technical devices. An important aspect of the measurement process is the methodology for carrying it out. It is a set of techniques that use certain principles and means of measurement. In this case, the principles of measurements mean such phenomena that form the basis of measurements.
There are several types of measurements. Based on the nature of the dependence of the measured value on time, measurements are divided into statistical and dynamic. In statistical measurements, the value we measure remains constant over time (measurement of body sizes, constant pressure, etc.) Dynamic measurements include those measurements during which the measured value changes over time (measurement of vibration, pulsating pressure, etc. .).
Well-developed instrumentation, a variety of methods and high characteristics of measuring instruments contribute to progress in scientific research.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of “mental operations”. The lack of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that an object at a given level of scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge.
This processing is carried out using systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc.
Scientific methods of theoretical research.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge includes such methods as:
Formalization- construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the processes of reality being studied.
Axiomatic - building a theory based on axioms.
Hypothetico-deductive- creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements are derived.
Ascent from abstract to concrete- displaying the essence of the object being studied in its entirety by finding the main connection, its changes, discovering new connections and establishing their interaction.
Systematization- arrangement of thoughts, objects and phenomena in a certain order (according to target characteristics, scale, combination of properties).
Structural-functional analysis- study of the functioning of each element of the structure, the relationship between general and particular functions of various organs or phenomena.
Formalization- display of content knowledge in step-by-step symbolic form. Formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. Expressing thinking in natural language can be considered the first step of formalization. Natural languages as a means of communication are characterized by polysemy, versatility, flexibility, imprecision, figurativeness, etc. It is an open, continuously changing system, constantly acquiring new meanings and meanings. Further deepening of formalization is associated with the construction of artificial (formalized) languages intended for a more accurate and rigorous expression of knowledge than natural language, in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding - which is typical for natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, etc.). The symbolic languages of mathematics and other exact sciences pursue not only the goal of reducing notation; this can be done using shorthand. The language of artificial language formulas becomes a tool of cognition. He plays the same role in theoretical knowledge, like a microscope and telescope in empirical knowledge. It is the use of special symbols that allows you to eliminate the ambiguity of words ordinary language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.
As a universal means of communication and exchange of thoughts and information, language performs many functions. The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and relationships can be obtained from them. Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method of clarifying the content of thought by clarifying it logical form. But it has nothing to do with the absolutization of logical form in relation to content. Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, and the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.
Axiomatic method- one of the ways of deductively constructing scientific theories, in which: a) a system of basic terms of science is formulated (for example, in Euclid’s geometry these are the concepts of point, straight line, angle, plane, etc.); b) from these terms a certain set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof and are the initial ones, from which all other statements of this theory are derived according to certain rules (for example, in Euclid’s geometry: “only one straight line can be drawn through two points” ; "the whole is greater than the part"); c) a system of inference rules is formulated, which allows one to transform initial provisions and move from one position to another, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) into the theory; d) the transformation of postulates is carried out according to rules that make it possible to obtain from a limited number of axioms a set of provable provisions - theorems. Thus, to derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated.
The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application, since it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory.
One of the most recognized and well-known classifications of pedagogical research methods is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananyev. He divided all methods into four groups:
organizational;
empirical;
by the method of data processing;
interpretive.
TO organizational methods the scientist attributed:
comparative method as a comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.;
longitudinal - as repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time;
complex - as the study of one object by representatives of different sciences.
TO empirical:
observational methods (observation and self-observation);
experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.);
psychodiagnostic method;
analysis of processes and products of activity (praxiometric methods);
modeling;
biographical method.
By data processing method:
methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis and
methods of qualitative description.
To the interpretative ones:
genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) method;
structural method (classification, typology, etc.)
Ananyev described each of the methods in detail, but with all the thoroughness of his argumentation, as V.N. notes. Druzhinin, in his book "Experimental Psychology", many unresolved problems remain: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How do practical methods differ from field experiment and instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretive methods separated from organizational ones?
It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to highlight educational psychology three classes of methods:
Empirical, in which externally real interaction between the subject and object of research takes place.
Theoretical, when the subject interacts with a mental model of an object (more precisely, the subject of research).
Among the main theoretical methods pedagogical research V.V. Druzhinin highlighted:
- deductive(axiomatic and hypothetico-deductive), otherwise - an ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc.;
- inductive- generalization of facts, ascent from the particular to the general.
The result is an inductive hypothesis, pattern, classification, systematization; modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, “transduction”, inference from particular to particular, when a simpler and/or accessible for research is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.
Interpretive-descriptive, in which the subject “externally” interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).
Finally, interpretive-descriptive methods are the “meeting point” of the results of the application of theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. Data from empirical research, on the one hand, are subjected to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements for the results from the theory, model, and inductive hypothesis that organize the study; on the other hand, the data are interpreted in terms of competing concepts to see if the hypotheses match the results.
The product of interpretation is a fact, an empirical dependence and, ultimately, justification or refutation of a hypothesis.
All research methods are proposed to be divided into pedagogical and psychological. Methods of other sciences can also be distinguished: ascertaining and transformative, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, particular and general, substantive and formal, methods of description, explanation and forecast.
Each of these approaches carries a special meaning, although some of them are also quite conventional. Let's take, for example, the division of methods into pedagogical and methods of other sciences, i.e. non-pedagogical. Methods classified in the first group are, strictly speaking, either general scientific (for example, observation, experiment) or general methods social sciences(for example, survey, questioning, assessment), well mastered by pedagogy. Non-pedagogical methods are methods of psychology, mathematics, cybernetics and other sciences used by pedagogy, but not yet so adapted by it and other sciences as to acquire the status of actually pedagogical.
The multiplicity of classifications and classification characteristics of methods should not be considered a disadvantage. This is a reflection of the multidimensionality of methods, their different quality, manifested in various connections and relationships.
Depending on the aspect of consideration and specific tasks, the researcher can use different classifications of methods. In the sets of research procedures actually used, there is a movement from description to explanation and prediction, from statement to transformation, from empirical methods to theoretical ones. When using some classifications, the trends in transition from one group of methods to another turn out to be complex and ambiguous. There is, for example, a movement from general methods (analysis of experience) to specific ones (observation, modeling, etc.), and then again to general ones, from qualitative methods to quantitative ones and from them again to qualitative ones.
There is also another classification. All the various methods used in psychological and pedagogical research can be divided into general, general scientific and special.
General scientific methods of cognition- these are methods that are of a general scientific nature and are used in all or a number of areas. These include experiment, mathematical methods and a number of others.
General scientific methods used by various sciences are refracted in accordance with the specifics of each given science using these methods. They are closely related to a group of specific scientific methods that are used only in a certain area and do not go beyond its boundaries, and are used in each science in various combinations. Of great importance for solving most pedagogical problems is the study of the actually developing educational process, theoretical understanding and processing of the creative findings of teachers and other practical workers, i.e. generalization and promotion of advanced experience. The most common methods used to study experience include observation, conversation, questioning, familiarization with the products of students’ activities, and educational documentation. Observation represents a purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material or data characterizing the characteristics of the course of any phenomenon. In order for the researcher’s attention not to be scattered and to be fixed primarily on the aspects of the observed phenomenon that particularly interest him, an observation program is developed in advance, objects of observation are identified, and methods for recording certain moments are provided. Conversation is used as an independent or as an additional research method in order to obtain the necessary clarifications about what was not clear enough during observation. The conversation is conducted according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting issues that require clarification. The conversation is conducted in a free form without recording the interlocutor's answers, in contrast to interviewing - a type of conversation method transferred to pedagogy from sociology. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. The responses may be recorded openly. At survey- the method of mass collection of material using questionnaires - answers to questions are written by those to whom the questionnaires are addressed (students, teachers, school employees, etc.) in some cases- parents). Questioning is used to obtain data that the researcher cannot obtain in any other way (for example, to identify the attitude of respondents to the pedagogical phenomenon being studied). The effectiveness of a conversation, interviewing, questioning largely depends on the content and form of the questions asked, a tactful explanation of their purpose and purpose in particular, it is recommended that the questions be feasible, unambiguous, concise, clear, objective, do not contain hidden suggestions, provoke interest and desire to answer, etc. An important source of obtaining factual data is the study of pedagogical documentation characterizing the educational process in a particular educational institution(grade and attendance records, personal files and medical records of students, student diaries, minutes of meetings and meetings, etc.). These documents reflect many objective data that help establish a number of causal relationships and identify certain dependencies (for example, between health status and academic performance).
The study of written, graphic and creative works of students is a method that equips the researcher with data reflecting the individuality of each student, showing his attitude to work, the presence of certain abilities.
However, in order to judge the effectiveness of certain pedagogical influences or the value of methodological discoveries made by practitioners, and even more so in order to give any recommendations regarding the use of certain innovations in mass practice, the methods considered are not enough, since how they reveal mainly only purely external connections between individual aspects of the pedagogical phenomenon being studied. For more deep penetration in these connections and dependencies applies pedagogical experiment- a specially organized test of a particular method or method of work in order to identify its effectiveness and efficiency. In contrast to the study of actual experience using methods that record only what has already existing experiment always involves the creation of a new experience in which the researcher plays an active role. The main condition for the use of a pedagogical experiment in a Soviet school is to carry it out without disrupting the normal course of the educational process, when there is sufficient reason to believe that the innovation being tested can help improve the effectiveness of teaching and education, or at least will not cause undesirable consequences. This experiment is called a natural experiment. If an experiment is carried out in order to test a particular issue or if, in order to obtain the necessary data, it is necessary to ensure particularly careful observation of individual students (sometimes using special equipment), it is allowed to artificially isolate one or more students and place them in special conditions specially created by the researcher . In this case, a laboratory experiment is used, which is used quite rarely in pedagogical research.
A scientifically based assumption about the possible effectiveness of a particular experimentally tested innovation is called a scientific hypothesis.
An essential part of the experiment is observation, carried out according to a specially developed program, as well as the collection of certain data, for which tests, questionnaires, and interviews are used. Recently, technical means have increasingly begun to be used for these purposes: sound recording, filming, photographing at certain moments, surveillance using a hidden television camera. It is promising to use video recorders that make it possible to record observed phenomena and then play them back for analysis.
The most important stage in working with these methods is the analysis and scientific interpretation of the collected data, the researcher’s ability to move from specific facts to theoretical generalizations.
During theoretical analysis, the researcher thinks about the cause-and-effect relationship between the applied methods or techniques of influence and the results obtained, and also looks for reasons that explain the appearance of some unexpected unforeseen results, determines the conditions under which this or that phenomenon occurred, strives to separate the accidental from the necessary, deduces certain psychological and pedagogical patterns.
Theoretical methods can also be used when analyzing data collected from various scientific and pedagogical sources, when comprehending the best practices studied.
Mathematical methods are also used in pedagogical research, helping not only to identify qualitative changes, but also to establish quantitative dependencies between pedagogical phenomena.
The most common mathematical methods used in pedagogy are the following.
Registration- a method of identifying the presence of a certain quality in each group member and a general count of the number of those who have or do not have this quality (for example, the number of successful and unsuccessful students who attended classes without missing and allowed absences, etc.).
Ranging- (or the method of ranking assessment) involves arranging the collected data in a certain sequence, usually in descending or increasing order of some indicators and, accordingly, determining the place in this series of each of the studied (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of students admitted to the test work errors, number of missed classes, etc.).
Scaling as quantitative method research makes it possible to introduce digital indicators into the assessment of individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, subjects are asked questions, answering which they must indicate the degree or form of assessment selected from among the given assessments, numbered in a certain order (for example, a question about playing sports with a choice of answers: a) I am interested in, b) I do regularly, c) I don’t exercise regularly, d) I don’t do any sports).
Correlating the results obtained with the norm (for given indicators) involves identifying deviations from the norm and correlating these deviations with acceptable intervals (for example, with programmed training, 85-90% of correct answers is often considered the norm; if there are fewer correct answers, this means that the program is too difficult , if more, it means it is too light).
The determination of the average values of the obtained indicators is also used - the arithmetic mean (for example, the average number of errors for a test work identified in two classes), the median, defined as the indicator of the middle of the series (for example, if there are fifteen students in a group, this will be an assessment of the results of the eighth student in the list , in which all students are distributed according to the rank of their grades).
When analyzing and mathematically processing mass material, statistical methods are used, which include the calculation of average values, as well as the calculation of the degrees of dispersion around these values - dispersion, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc.
Let's consider the characteristics of empirical studies.
To methods of empirical research should include: study of literature, documents and results of activities, observation, survey, assessment (method of experts or competent judges), testing. To more general methods This level includes generalization of teaching experience, experimental pedagogical work, and experiment. They essentially represent complex techniques, including particular methods correlated in a certain way.
Literature Study, documents and results of activities. The study of literature serves as a method of becoming familiar with the facts, history and current state of problems, a way of creating initial ideas, the initial concept of the subject, identifying “blank spots” and ambiguities in the development of the issue.
The study of literature and documentary materials continues throughout the study. The accumulated facts encourage us to rethink and evaluate the content of the studied sources and stimulate interest in issues that have not previously received sufficient attention.
A thorough documentary basis for research is an important condition for its objectivity and depth.
Observation. A very widely used method, used both independently and as part of a more complex methods Observation consists of the direct perception of phenomena using the senses or their indirect perception through descriptions by other directly observing people.
Observation is based on perception as a mental process, but this does not exhaust observation as a research method. Observation can be aimed at studying delayed learning results, at studying changes in an object over a certain time. In this case, the results of the perception of phenomena at different times are compared, analyzed, compared, and only after that the results of the observation are determined. When organizing observation, its objects must be identified in advance, goals must be set, and an observation plan must be drawn up. The object of observation is most often the process of activity of the teacher and student, the progress and results of which are judged by words, actions, deeds, and results of completing tasks. The purpose of observation determines the primary focus of attention on certain aspects of activity, on certain connections and relationships (the level and dynamics of interest in the subject, methods of mutual assistance of students in collective work, the ratio of informative and developmental functions of teaching, etc.). Planning helps to highlight the sequence of observation, the order and method of recording its results. Types of observations can be distinguished according to various criteria. On the basis of temporal organization, observation is distinguished between continuous and discrete, and in terms of volume - broad and highly specialized, aimed at identifying individual aspects of a phenomenon or individual objects (monographic observation of individual students).
Survey. This method is used in two main forms: in the form of an oral survey (interview) and in the form of a written survey (questionnaire). Each of these forms has its own strengths and weaknesses.
The survey reflects subjective opinions and assessments. Often, respondents guess what is required of them, and voluntarily or unwittingly tune in to the required answer. The survey method should be considered as a means of collecting primary material, subject to cross-checking using other methods. A survey is always based on expectations based on a certain understanding of the nature and structure of the phenomena being studied, as well as ideas about the attitudes and assessments of the respondents. The task arises, first of all, to identify the objective content in subjective and often discrepant answers, to identify the leading objective tendencies in them, the reasons for discrepancies in assessments. Then the problem of comparing what was expected and what was received arises and is solved, which can serve as the basis for adjusting or changing the initial ideas about the subject.
Assessment(method of competent judges). Essentially, this is a combination of indirect observation and questioning, associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the phenomena being studied, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, make it possible to objectively assess what is being studied. This method is very economical. Its use requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know the area being assessed, the object being studied well, and are capable of an objective and unbiased assessment.
Study and generalization of teaching experience. The scientific study and generalization of pedagogical experience serves various research purposes; identifying the existing level of functioning of the pedagogical process, bottlenecks and conflicts that arise in practice, studying the effectiveness and accessibility of scientific recommendations, identifying elements of the new, rational, born in the everyday creative search of advanced teachers. Thus, the object of study can be mass experience (to identify leading trends), negative experience (to identify characteristic shortcomings and errors), but the study of advanced experience is of particular importance, in the process of which valuable grains of new things are identified, generalized, and become the property of science and practice. , found in mass practice: original techniques and their combinations, interesting methodological systems (techniques).
Naturally, the choice of methods is largely determined by the level at which the work is carried out (empirical or theoretical), the nature of the research (methodological, applied theoretical) and the content of its final and intermediate tasks.
You can point out a number of characteristic errors when choosing methods:
a template approach to choosing a method, its conventional use without taking into account specific tasks and research conditions; universalization of individual methods or techniques, for example, questionnaires and sociometry;
ignoring or insufficient use of theoretical methods, especially idealization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
inability from individual methods create a holistic methodology that optimally provides solutions to scientific research problems.
Any method in itself represents a semi-finished product, a blank that needs to be modified and specified in relation to the tasks, the subject, and specifically the conditions of the search work.
Finally, you need to think about such a combination of research methods so that they successfully complement each other, revealing the subject of research more fully and deeply, so that it is possible to double-check the results obtained by one method using another. For example, it is useful to clarify, deepen, and check the results of preliminary observations and conversations with students by analyzing the results tests or the behavior of students in specially created situations.
The above allows us to formulate some criteria for the correct choice of research method:
1. Adequacy to the object, subject, general objectives of the study, as well as. accumulated material.
2. Compliance with modern principles of scientific research.
H. Scientific prospects, i.e. a reasonable assumption that the chosen method will give new and reliable results.
4. Compliance with the logical structure (stage) of the study.
5. A more complete focus on the development of the personality of students is possible, because the research method in many cases becomes a method of education and upbringing, i.e., a “tool for touching the personality.”
6. Interrelation and interdependence with other methods in a single methodological system.
All components of the methodology and the methodology as a whole must be checked for compliance with the objectives of the study, sufficient evidence, and full compliance with the principles of pedagogical research.
WAYS AND METHODS OF KNOWING OBJECTIVE REALITY ARE USED TO BE CALLED RESEARCH METHODS.
METHODS OF PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH ARE CALLED WAYS OF STUDYING PEDAGOGICAL PHENOMENA.
The whole variety of methods of pedagogical research can be divided into three groups: METHODS FOR STUDYING PEDAGOGICAL EXPERIENCE, METHODS OF THEORETICAL RESEARCH AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS.
The classification of pedagogical research methods is presented in Table 2.
table 2
CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH Methods for studying teaching experience Methods of theoretical research Mathematical methods Observation Conversation
Questionnaire Study of students' work Study of school documentation
Pedagogical experiment Theoretical analysis Inductive analysis Deductive analysis Registration
Ranging
Scaling 1. METHODS FOR STUDYING PEDAGOGICAL EXPERIENCE - these are ways of studying the actual experience of organizing educational
process.
OBSERVATION is a purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. At the same time, observation records (protocols) are kept.
Observation stages:
Determination of goals and objectives (why, for what purpose is the observation being carried out);
Selection of object, subject and situation (what to observe);
Choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and provides the most data collection necessary information(how to observe);
Selecting methods for recording observation results (how to keep records);
Processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).
A distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is being conducted, and non-involved observation - observation “from the outside”; open and hidden (incognito); continuous and selective.
Observation is a very accessible method, but it has its drawbacks due to the fact that the results of observation are influenced by personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) researcher.
CONVERSATION is an independent or additional research method used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during observation.
The conversation takes place according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting questions that require clarification, and is conducted in free form without recording the interlocutor’s answers.
INTERVIEWING is a type of conversation in which the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, responses are recorded openly.
QUESTIONNAIRE - a method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed provide written answers to the questions. Conversations and interviews are called face-to-face surveys, questionnaires are called correspondence surveys.
The effectiveness of conversations, interviews and questionnaires largely depends on the content and structure of the questions asked.
STUDYING STUDENTS' WORK. Valuable material can be provided by studying the products of students' activities: written, graphic, creative and test works, drawings, blueprints, details, notebooks in individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide information about the student's personality, his attitude towards work and the level of skills achieved in a particular area.
STUDYING SCHOOL DOCUMENTATION (personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.
PEDAGOGICAL EXPERIMENT - research activity with the aim of studying cause-and-effect relationships in pedagogical phenomena.
Research activities include:
Experimental modeling of a pedagogical phenomenon and the conditions for its occurrence;
Active influence of the researcher on the pedagogical phenomenon;
Measuring response, results of pedagogical influence and interaction;
Repeated reproducibility of pedagogical phenomena and processes.
There are 4 stages of the experiment:
Theoretical - statement of the problem, definition of the goal, object and subject of research, its tasks and hypotheses;
Methodological - development of research methodology and its plan, program, methods for processing the results obtained;
The experiment itself is conducting a series of experiments (creating experimental situations, observing, managing the experience and measuring the reactions of the subjects);
Analytical - quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained facts, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.
According to the conditions of the organization, a distinction is made between a natural experiment (under the conditions of a normal educational process) and a laboratory experiment (creation of artificial conditions).
According to the final goals, the experiment is divided into ascertaining, which establishes only the real state of affairs in the process, and transforming (developing), when its purposeful organization is carried out to determine the conditions (content of methods, forms) for the development of the personality of a schoolchild or children's group.
A transformative experiment requires control groups for comparison.
2. METHODS OF THEORETICAL RESEARCH.
In the course of THEORETICAL ANALYSIS, individual aspects, signs, features or properties of pedagogical phenomena are usually identified and considered. By analyzing individual facts, grouping and systematizing them, researchers identify what is common and special in them, and establish general principles or rules.
In theoretical research, INDUCTIVE and DEDUCTIVE methods are used. These are logical methods for summarizing empirically obtained data. The inductive method involves the movement of thought from particular judgments to a general conclusion, the deductive method - on the contrary, from a general judgment to a particular conclusion.
Theoretical methods are necessary to define problems, formulate hypotheses, and evaluate the collected facts. They are associated with the study of literature: the works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents; periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teachers; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.
3. MATHEMATICAL METHODS are used to process data obtained by survey and experimental methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena being studied.
Mathematical methods help evaluate experimental results, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.
ny. The most common mathematical methods used in pedagogy are REGISTRATION, RANKING, and SCALING.
REGISTRATION - identifying the presence of a certain quality in each group member and a general count of those who have this quality present or absent (for example, the number of students actively working in class and often passive).
RANGING - arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence (in descending or increasing order of any indicators) and, accordingly, determining the place in this series of each person being studied.
SCALING - the introduction of digital indicators in the assessment of individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, subjects are asked questions, answering which they must choose one of the specified assessments.
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