Classification(from Latin classis - category, classification), in logic - a system of subordinate concepts (classes of objects) of any field of knowledge or human activity, used as a means of establishing connections between these concepts or classes of objects. Scientific classification expresses a system of laws inherent in the area of ​​reality reflected in it.

There are natural classifications, the basis of which are the essential characteristics of objects (for example, the periodic table of chemical elements), and artificial classifications, in which non-essential characteristics are used; Artificial classifications include the so-called. auxiliary classifications (alphabetical subject indexes, name catalogs in libraries).

There was a time when natural classification was declared the highest goal of studying nature and the crown of its scientific knowledge. In the 20th century the idea of ​​the role of classification in the process of cognition has changed markedly. The opposition between natural and artificial classification has largely lost its sharpness. It is not always possible to clearly separate the essential from the non-essential, especially in society and wildlife; Moreover, what is essential in one respect may be much less important in another. Therefore, the role of classification, including natural classification, should not be overestimated, especially its importance in the field of complex and dynamic social objects and phenomena should not be exaggerated. As became obvious in the last century, absolutely sharp dividing lines are incompatible with the theory of development.

Classification- multi-stage, branched division of the logical volume of a concept. The result of classification is a system of subordinate concepts: the divisible concept is a genus, new concepts are species, types of species (subspecies), etc. The most complex and perfect classifications are given by science, which systematizes in them the results of the previous development of a class. branches of knowledge and at the same time outlining the prospects for further research.

A brilliant example of scientific classification is the periodic system of elements by D.I. Mendeleev, which records the regular relationships between chemical elements and determines the place of each of them in a single table. This system made it possible to make predictions about still unknown elements that were soon confirmed. The classification of animals and plants by C. Linnaeus played a major role in the development of biology. The classification of elementary particles given by modern physics is well known.

Definition of concepts

Word "definition" comes from the Latin word definition. In the process of communication, work, or simply everyday life, a person often has problems understanding information and transmitting this information to other people. This is due to the absence or ignorance of the definition of the subject that is mentioned in the transmitted information. Simply put, a person often does not understand the meaning of a particular concept. It is not necessary for the person who is faced with the problem to explain a complex concept, to reveal its essence, but this can be done by a person whose profession the problem under consideration relates to. To carry out the interpretation of a concept, there is precisely a logical operation of defining a concept.

Definition of the concept is a logical operation aimed at identifying the correct meaning of a term or the content of a concept.

Define concept- means fully revealing its content and distinguishing the scope of a given concept from the scope of other concepts (i.e., identifying the objects included in the concept and separating them from other objects).

A concept that reveals the content of the concept being defined is called defining (definition ), or Dfn.

Types of definition

1. Real And nominal . Division definitions on real And nominal depends on what is being defined - content of the concept or meaning of the term.

Real definition (explication) – this is a definition through which the content of a concept is revealed, i.e., the defined object is distinguished from a class of similar objects according to its distinctive features. The result of a definition of this type is a judgment - a characteristic of the objects designated by this term.

Nominal definition – this is a definition through which the meaning of the introduced term or expression is revealed.

A nominal definition is a condition or agreement regarding the use of a given sign form. The definition in this case is the answer to the question of what is called or will be called by this term, what is meant or will be meant by this expression.

2. Definitions are distinguished by structureexplicit and implicit, depending on whether the defined expression (Dfd) and the defining expression (Dfn) are distinguished as independent (non-overlapping) parts.

Explicit definition - this is a definition in which the essential features of the defined object are expressed and which has the form of equality or equivalence - Dfd = Dfn. This type of definition is the simplest and most commonly used form of definition.

Explicit definitions contain a defined and defining concept, with their equal volumes. In this form, the closest genus and species (species difference), containing the characteristic features of the concept being defined, are used for definition.

Types of explicit definitions includedefinition through genus and species difference and its variety– genetic determination. The genetic definition does not reveal the characteristics or properties of objects, but indicates the method of occurrence or use of this object.

Implicit definition – definition through genus and species difference is a very convenient and effective tool for revealing the content of concepts.

Implicit definitions differ from explicit ones in that they cannot distinguish the defined (Dfd) and defining expressions (Dfn) as independent parts and, therefore, cannot represent them in the form of equality or equivalence.

Several types of implicit definitions can be distinguished: contextual, inductive, ostensive, through axioms.

Contextual(from Latin contextus - “connection”, “connection”) the definition is characterized by the fact that it allows us to find out the essence, the meaning of a word, the meaning of which we do not know, through context, i.e. through a relatively complete piece of information that accompanies this word , refers to it and contains its characteristics.

Contextual definition allows you to find out the content of an unfamiliar word expressing a concept through context, without resorting to a translation dictionary (if the text is in a foreign language) or an explanatory dictionary (if the text is in your native language). Thus, the context helps to clarify that “to put one in a belt” means “to surpass someone”: “When the children turned ten years old, their mother sent them to science: they soon learned to read and write both boyar and merchant children tucked into the belt- no one can read, write, or give an answer better than them” (A. Afanasyev); “You’re getting old, Chip. - Am I getting old? - he was surprised and said boastfully: - I’m still young I’ll put it in my belt!”(G. Markov).

The concept of the “golden mean” - a way of behavior in which extremes and risky decisions are avoided - is reflected in the following contexts: “Everything b - to wander the mind in extremes, but in the middleto gold everything didn’t come to him!” (A. Blok); “The carriages have parted ways. The mother even cried: “You always manage to bring passions to critical extremes.” Ah, Fike, how good it is to know the golden mean...” (V. Pikul).

Inductive definitions reveal the meaning of a term using the term itself, through the concepts that contain its meaning. An example of this is the definition of natural numbers. So, if 1 is a natural number and n is a natural number, then 1 + n is also a natural number.

Inductive definitions are those in which the term being defined is used in the expression of the concept that is attributed to it as its meaning. An example of an inductive definition is the definition of the concept “natural number” using the term “natural number” itself:

1. 1 is a natural number.

If n is a natural number, then n + 1 is a natural number.

There are no natural numbers other than those indicated in paragraphs 1 and 2.

Using this inductive definition, a natural series of numbers is obtained: 1, 2, 3, 4... This is the algorithm for constructing a series of natural numbers.

Ostensive definition - defining an object by pointing to it, or demonstrating the object itself. Such definitions are used to reveal the essence of objects of the sensory world, in other words, objects that are accessible to direct perception.

Axiomatic definition- is fundamental, constructed from judgments (logical expressions) as a (conjunctive) set of statements containing the defined and defining concepts in these statements. An axiom is a position that is accepted without logical proof due to immediate persuasiveness. The definition through axioms is based on this quality. Characterization through axioms is widely used in mathematics.

In modern mathematics and mathematical logic the so-called axiomatic method is widely used. Let's give an example. Let a system of some elements (denoted x, y, z...), and a relationship is established between them, expressed by the term “precedes”. Without defining either the objects themselves or the “precedes” relation, we make the following statements (axioms) for them:

No object precedes itself.

If X precedes y,ay precedes z, That X precedes z.

Thus, with the help of two axioms, systems of objects of the form are defined "X precedes y". For example, let the objects c, y,z are people, and the relationship between X And at represents " X older y". Then statements 1 and 2 are true. If objects x, y,z - real numbers, and the ratio " X precedes y" represents "X less y", then statements 1 and 2 are also true. Statements (i.e. axioms) 1 and 2 definelie systems of objects with one relation.

Truth of definition depends not only on the correct presentation of its content, but also on how harmoniously and consistently its form will be built. If the truth of a definition depends on whether its content accurately reflects all the necessary features of the concept being defined, there is only one rational way to obtain such a definition - when formulating it, strictly follow the requirements of the logical rules for the formation of definitions.

relevant - information that is valuable at a given time;

reliable - information received without distortion;

understandable - information expressed in a language understandable to those to whom it is intended;

complete - information sufficient to make the right decision or understanding;

useful - the usefulness of information is determined by the subject who received the information depending on the scope of possibilities for its use.

Classification by truth:

true;

As we see, there are many classifications.

Let's define the functions of information or its purpose:

With the help of information, you can create, receive, combine, store, transmit, copy, process, search, perceive, formalize, divide into parts, measure, use, distribute, simplify, destroy, remember, transform, collect, etc.

Information properties:

) Reliability - information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs. Inaccurate information can lead to misunderstandings or poor decisions. Reliable information may become unreliable over time, since it tends to become outdated, that is, it ceases to reflect the true state of affairs.

) Completeness - information is complete if it is sufficient for understanding and making decisions. Both incomplete and redundant information hinder decision making or may lead to errors.

) The accuracy of information is determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of an object, process, phenomenon, etc.

) The value of information depends on how important it is for solving a problem, as well as on how much further it will be used in any type of human activity.

) Timeliness - only timely information received can bring the expected benefit. Both premature presentation of information (when it cannot yet be assimilated) and its delay are equally undesirable.

) Understandability - If valuable and timely information is expressed in an unclear way, it may become useless. Information becomes understandable if it is expressed in the language spoken by those for whom this information is intended.

) Accessibility - information must be presented in an accessible (according to the level of perception) form. Therefore, the same questions are presented differently in school textbooks and scientific publications.

) Brevity - information on the same issue can be presented briefly (concisely, without unimportant details) or at length (detailed, verbose). Conciseness of information is necessary in reference books, encyclopedias, and all kinds of instructions.

In everyday life, information is any data or information that interests someone, for example, a message about any events or someone’s activities. “Inform” in this sense means “to communicate something previously unknown.” The same information can be presented, as mentioned earlier, in various forms, both in symbolic form - written, consisting of various signs (symbols) in the form of text, numbers, special characters, graphs, tables, and in the form of gestures or signals, and of course in linguistic form.

Language is a specific sign system for presenting information. There are two types of languages:

Natural languages ​​are spoken languages ​​in spoken and written form. In some cases, spoken language can be replaced by the language of facial expressions and gestures, the language of special signs (for example, road signs);

Formal languages ​​are special languages ​​for various areas of human activity, which are characterized by a strictly fixed alphabet and more strict rules of grammar and syntax. This is the language of music (notes), the language of mathematics (numbers, mathematical symbols), number systems, programming languages, etc.

There is one peculiarity of information transfer. For example, the same information message (newspaper article, advertisement, letter, telegram, certificate, story, drawing, radio broadcast, etc.) may contain different amounts of information for different people depending on their accumulated knowledge and level of understanding this message and interest in it. Thus, a message written in English does not convey any new information to a person who does not know this language, but can be highly informative for a person who speaks English. A message presented in a familiar language does not contain any new information if its content is not clear or is already known.

Information is a characteristic not of a message, but of the relationship between the message and its consumer. Without the presence of a consumer, at least a potential one, talking about information is pointless. How fast it depends on the information carrier (medium or physical body for transmitting, storing and reproducing information), on its quality (electrical, light, thermal, sound, radio signals, magnetic and laser disks, printed publications, photographs, etc.) and the information will be received qualitatively.

1. Classification - I Classification (from Latin classis - rank, class and facio - I do, I lay out) a system of subordinate concepts (classes of objects) of any field of knowledge or human activity... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
2. classification - orf. classification, -and Lopatin's spelling dictionary
3. classification - -i, g. 1. Action according to value. verb classify. Classify minerals. 2. Distribution system homogeneous objects or concepts by class, department, etc., according to certain general characteristics. Classification of goods. Small academic dictionary
4. classification - CLASSIFICATION [asi], classifications, female. (book). 1. Action under Ch. classify. 2. A system for distributing subjects or concepts of any area into classes, departments, categories, etc. Classification of plants. Classification of minerals. Classification of sciences. Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
5. CLASSIFICATION - CLASSIFICATION (from Latin classis - rank, group and facere - to do) - English. classification; German Classification. 1. A system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects, phenomena) in one or another branch of knowledge or human activity... Sociological Dictionary
6. classification - In biology, the distribution of the diversity of living organisms in a certain order according to a system. Classification is based on a set of characteristics that make it possible to compare organisms with each other and determine the degree of their relationship... Biology. Modern encyclopedia
7. classification - noun, number of synonyms... Dictionary of Russian synonyms
8. CLASSIFICATION - (from Latin classis - category and facere - to do) distribution, division of objects, concepts, names into classes, groups, categories, in which objects that have a common characteristic fall into one group. Economic dictionary of terms
9. classification - CLASSIFICATION, and, g. 1. see classify. 2. A system based on something. classified. K. Sciences. Library room | adj. classification, oh, oh. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
10. CLASSIFICATION - CLASSIFICATION (from the Latin Classis - rank, class and facio - I do, I arrange) is a general scientific and general methodological concept that means a form of systematization of knowledge when the entire area of ​​objects being studied is presented in the form of a system of classes... New Philosophical Encyclopedia
11. classification - A breakdown of many organisms based on their characteristics into a certain system of hierarchically subordinate groups - taxa (classes, families, genera, species, etc.). There are natural and artificial classifications. Microbiology. Glossary of terms
12. Classification - (from Latin classis - rank, group, class and facio - doing * a. classifying, sizing; n. Klassieren, Klassierung; f. classification, classement, triage;... Mountain encyclopedia
13. classification - classification I f. A logical system of internally subordinate concepts in any area, distributed into groups, classes, categories, etc. based on taking into account common features and natural connections between them. II 1. The process of action according to Ch. Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
14. CLASSIFICATION - CLASSIFICATION - in mining - the separation of particles of crushed minerals into homogeneous in size, density, etc. products (classes). Classification is done in classifiers. CLASSIFICATION (from Latin classis - rank, class and... Large encyclopedic dictionary
15. classification - Classification, classifications, classifications, classifications, classifications, classifications, classification, classifications, classification, classification, classifications, classifications, classifications Zaliznyak's Grammar Dictionary
16. CLASSIFICATION - CLASSIFICATION, the placement of organisms into categories based on their appearance, structure, origin, or evolution. The order of categories in decreasing breadth of coverage is as follows: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. There are also subspecies. Scientific and technical dictionary
17. classification - CLASSIFICATION -i; and. [from lat. classis - rank and facio - do] 1. to Classify. Classify minerals. 2. Distribution system homogeneous objects or concepts by class, department, etc. according to certain general characteristics. Kuznetsov's Explanatory Dictionary
18. classification - CLASSIFICATION (from the Latin classis - rank and facere - to do) is a system of knowledge, the concepts of which mean ordered groups into which objects of a certain subject area are distributed based on their similarity in certain properties. Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
19. classification - CLASSIFICATION in chemical technology (from Latin classis - category, group and facio - I do) division of solids into fractions according to the size (size) of particles (grains, pieces). Chemical encyclopedia
20. classification - CLASSIFICATION and, g. classification f. 1. Action according to value. Ch. classify. Classify materials collected during the expedition. BAS-1. Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian language
21. classification - 1. a system of subordinate concepts in any branch of knowledge; 2. distribution of certain objects into classes (divisions, categories) depending on their general characteristics. Great Accounting Dictionary
22. classification - In biology (from Latin classis - rank, class and facio - I do), the distribution of the entire set of living organisms by definition. a system of hierarchically subordinate groups - taxa (classes, families, genera, species, etc.). In the history of biol. K. was several. periods. Biological encyclopedic dictionary

Proper accounting at an enterprise requires strict differentiation of fixed assets among themselves.

Their division, which is based on belonging to different classification categories (groups), has become widespread.

Basic information about the classification elements used for accounting purposes is contained in the regulatory documentation and decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation.

Despite the established detailed structure, difficulties often arise in determining the ownership of fixed assets.

Let's consider options for distributing funds in practice to minimize possible difficulties.

Methods for classifying fixed assets

Depending on the composition and nature of use, fixed assets are divided as follows:

• by type – natural-material classification;
• by age or period of use;
• by sector of the economy, economy and industry - sectoral affiliation;
• according to functional purpose;
• by property;
• by influence on the subject of work;
• by degree of use.

Each classification group has its own structure, the elements of which distinguish individual subgroups. The criteria for classifying objects are different and include characteristics based on content and features of use.

1. Classification by species - established sequence

In total, the following types of fixed assets are distinguished:

• buildings– industrial and utility buildings in which the enterprise’s activities are organized;
• structures– engineering structures that perform special functions (mines, swimming pools, furnaces, wastewater treatment plants, etc.);
• transfer devices. These include objects whose functional purpose is the transmission of electricity, as well as the transportation of liquids, gases, solid raw materials and suspensions (pipelines, heating and electrical networks, conveyors);
• machines and equipment– include the equipment of the enterprise, including production, measuring and computing capacities (machine tools, computer equipment, engineering machines, cranes, etc.);
• vehicles– cover the enterprise’s transport fleet;
• tools– material objects, the use of which has a direct impact on the subject of production;
• inventory and supplies, performing a function related to production (providing the required working conditions);
• other– not included in the previous subgroups.

Based on the list of types of fixed assets and the Classification approved by the Government, the useful life and depreciation rates are determined.

There are ten depreciation groups in total.

For the first group, the monthly depreciation rate is 14.3%, and the useful life is from 1 to 2 years. For the tenth group, the depreciation rate is set at 0.7%, and the useful life is more than 30 years.

2. Classification according to actual service life

There are five age groups of fixed assets: up to 5 years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years, 15-20 years and more than 20 years (not to be confused with the useful life).

The first two groups include mainly the machines and mechanisms of the enterprise, the last two include buildings and structures.

Medium-term use is characterized by special structures, as well as machinery and equipment designed for long-term use.

3. Classification by economic sectors

Fixed assets belong to the same industry as the products produced using them. This means that the classification of fixed assets should be made at a specific enterprise.

An example of fixed assets related to various industries is road transport. Its use is widespread in all sectors of the economic, industrial and social sphere - agriculture, heavy and light industry, public utilities and the service sector.

4. Classification by functional purpose

In this section there are two groups of fixed assets:

• production - participate in production or provide appropriate conditions for its implementation. Inputs are divided into agricultural and non-agricultural;
• non-productive – exist to provide for the socio-cultural sphere (kindergartens, hospitals, educational institutions).

5. Classification by property

There are two types of property – owned and leased. The requirement for a separate classification of leased fixed assets is due to the peculiarities of their accounting and operation. When repairing your own funds, there are usually no difficulties associated with completing the repair and modernization procedure.

For leased funds, accounting is kept more strictly, which is caused by the need to take into account the interests of the lessor.

6. Classification by influence on the subject of work

This group includes active and passive fixed assets. Active agents are understood as those that have a direct impact on manufactured products and shape production volume, quality and range. Passive means create the conditions for production, but do not directly participate in it. Thus, for the metalworking industry, machine tools are active fixed assets, and transport performs a passive function.

Depending on the specific industry, active funds may become passive and vice versa. In the mining industry, vehicles are classified as active assets. Mechanical tools will turn from an active asset in mechanical engineering into a passive asset in the food industry.

7. Classification by degree of use

The participation of fixed assets in production requires timely deductions related to depreciation. To display the degree of participation of funds in production, they are divided into active and inactive.

Operating fixed assets are involved in the production process, while inactive ones are taken out of service for various reasons and may be located:

• for downtime (being under repair, modernization or reconstruction);
• at the completion stage - often found for large structures (technological wells, furnaces, distillation columns);
• in stock (reserve) – typical for equipping a continuous cycle of work. If the main device wears out or breaks down, it is quickly replaced with a backup device;
• for conservation (long-term storage of functional equipment);
• ready for launch - having passed acceptance tests and awaiting completion of preparatory work;
• decommissioned and intended for sale.

The planned legislative changes do not affect existing classification principles.

from lat. classis - rank, class and facio - doing, laying out) is a term used in various senses. In the ontological aspect, it means a set of subordinate objects; in the cognitive aspect, it means a logical operation of dividing the concepts, phenomena, and processes under study. For example, the classification of sciences according to their area of ​​study of natural or social reality. The scientific value of classification largely depends on the basis on which it is carried out.

Great definition

Incomplete definition ↓

CLASSIFICATION

1) In materialistic. dialectics - the disclosure of the internal necessary connection between groups (classes, genera, etc.), into which classified objects are distributed. K., based on formal principles, is based on such methods of distributing objects into groups, which are based on the similarity of objects within each group, determined by the presence of certain common properties; in this case, similarity is opposed to dissimilarity, identity – to difference. From view In formal K., the most important thing is to achieve the clearest and sharpest possible separation of the members of one group from the members of all other groups; in formal logic this corresponds to the rule of division, which requires that the division terms be mutually exclusive. As a result of formal control, a certain order can be established in the arrangement of the groups themselves; however, as a rule, this order is external, often artificial and arbitrary. Contain. K. (for example, in natural science) are based not on formal, but on dialectical. principles and are truly scientific. character. As a necessary prerequisite, they, as a rule, have certain groupings of objects in accordance with the principles of formal classification; in this one is revealed to be cognizant. the function of formal K., their propaedeutic, preliminary character. But meaningful classifications shift the focus to revealing internal, natural connections between groups of classified objects. At the same time, such relationships are discovered between objects (for example, transitions, common features), which disappeared from view during the initial formal approach. The basis for establishing such relationships is always a certain objective law covering a given range of objects or phenomena. Such coverage of individual (classified objects) by a general (certain general law) is precisely what is carried out in the contain. TO.; therefore, such a K. is in fact only an expression and consequence of the law underlying it; it reflects precisely those connections and relationships between classified objects that are determined by this law. The most important task of calculus, based on dialectical logic, is to overcome the limitations of formal calculus. This is expressed in the following: 1) Contain. K. takes into account not only the similarities between the objects that make up each department. group, but any relationship between all objects subjected to a given K. and included in different groups - therefore, those that are dissimilar to each other and even have mutually exclusive characteristics. That. , if the basis of formal K. is a one-sided consideration of similarity (or identity), opposed to dissimilarity (or difference) and isolated from it, then they contain. K. reflects both moments in their unity - similarity and dissimilarity, identity and difference. 2) Contain. K. expresses the moment of development, change of classified objects. The most famous complexes of this kind are those that reflect the sequential order of complexity of objects from lower to higher, determined by the process of their development. These are the K. of living beings, basic. on the theory of organic development. nature, K. types of substance, basic. on theories of their complication and transformation, etc. The moment of development is incompatible with the principles of formal principles, which are forced to be distracted from it. 3) The principle of development leads to the recognition of the presence of transitions between classified objects. B contain. K. The main thing is not to draw the clearest possible boundaries. lines between different groups, and the disclosure of transitions between them, the discovery of connecting areas, in which objects are found by more than one type. distinguishes a sign inherent in a certain group, but at least two characteristics inherent in two or more different groups. Thus, the discovery of physico-chemical. processes were made impossible by the previous sharp division of all phenomena into physical and chemical, because they turned out to have signs of both types of phenomena. 4) Due to the fact that they contain. K. are logical. expression of objective connections and relationships between classified objects, they have maximum objective flexibility and exclude artificiality, arbitrariness, and subjectivism. They contain an example. The periodic system of elements created by D.I. Mendeleev, based on the periodic system discovered by him, serves as the basis. law Mendeleev emphasized that his K. is based on taking into account not only the similarities of chemicals. elements among themselves (for example, alkali metals, separated from halogens, etc.), on which the previous formal classification of elements was built, breaking them down into so-called. “natural groups”, but, most importantly, taking into account their dissimilarity, i.e. relationships between dissimilar groups. Mendeleev showed that there were no sharp boundaries between groups or classes (metals and non-metals) of elements drawn earlier: metallic. properties gradually become non-metallic; both of them are found in the same element under different conditions (non-metals can have the physical appearance of metals, etc.). Currently time it has been established that the Mendeleev system reflects the sequence. development of chemical elements from the simplest (hydrogen) to the most complex ones currently known. A similar example can be the theory of science created by Engels. The distinction is formal and contain. To a certain extent, K. corresponds to the difference between the arts. and natural K. The first are built on the basis of the arbitrary selection of one or more properties or characteristics of the objects being classified, the second - taking into account the entire set of their characteristics, taken in their mutual connection and the conditionality of some of them (derivatives) by others (basic, defining); the difference between one and the other K. is that some are one-sided (artificial), others are comprehensive (natural). B. Kedrov. Moscow. 2) In formal logic, a system (scheme) of subordinate concepts (class names), each of which occupies a strictly defined place in it. K. are of great importance in science and practice. activities of people and are designed for long-term use. use without creatures. changes in the scheme. Basic K.’s task is to systematize a given area of ​​knowledge or activity to facilitate orientation in it. K. is directly related to two logical. operations: with division of the scope of the concept and with classification, i.e. ordering objects into classes, and can be built deductively and inductively. In deductive construction, the operation of dividing the volume of the most general concept is used; with a deductive approach, they operate with concepts and, based on the similarity or difference of their characteristics, establish genus-specific relationships between them; logical The unity and stability of the K. scheme is ensured by the very method of constructing the K., the starting point of which is slow-moving general concepts. An example would be biology. taxonomy of plants and animals based on evolution. theories. When constructing a classification inductively. schemes are analyzed separately. objects combined into classes based on similarities or differences in characteristics. The inductive construction is based on certain specific features. rules: 1) of the various possible groupings of similar objects, preference should be given to the one based on the largest number of similar features (the “golden rule” of Ben’s English logic); 2) from among similar characteristics one should single out one that would explain all the others or serve as their indicator; 3) to highlight specific. a sign of a class (differentia), you need to compare its two extreme representatives and take a characteristic (features) that the two extreme representatives of classes subordinate to this one do not have. Dedicated so. the characteristics define the class and are fixed by its name in the scheme of the class. With the inductive method, the unity and fixity of the class is less ensured, because when constructing it, it is not always possible to cover all the objects of the area being studied, and often there is a need to redistribute the lower classes, which to one degree or another affects the structure of the entire system. Typically, classes are constructed using both deductive and inductive methods: higher classes, as a rule, are formed deductively, lower classes inductively. Deduction is preferred in the systematization of areas of knowledge, induction - when processing facts. material and its design in the form of diagrams and tables. If the classification scheme is a complex complex of subordinate concepts, formed, for example. , by sequential division, it can be represented in the form of a hierarchy. a tree, the root of which is the most general concept, the top is the most particular, and the nodes contain the remaining class names (such a tree is formed, for example, by headings in the library universal decimal code, in which the entire field of human knowledge is divided into 10 classes, each of them has 10 subclasses, etc.). The closest subclasses of the class form a horizontal row of classes, which is created by one stage of division. Rows that are equally spaced by the number of nodes from the root of the tree are on the same level (tier). The sequence of concepts related by genus-specific relationship is called a vertical series (tree branches). The horizontal row corresponds to a number of non-overlapping classes of objects, and the vertical row corresponds to a sequence of classes that are related to each other in relation to the inclusion of the correct part of the set in the set. The rules of education are based on the rules of division, which in practice, however, are somewhat modified: 1) Division at one level must be carried out on a single basis. This, however, does not exclude the possibility of repeated division (on several grounds) of the same class into subclasses and the formation of different series each time. If such series can be ordered among themselves, the K system only benefits from this: more properties and relationships of objects are recorded in it. An example of such ordering of series is the periodic table, in which the division of elements by atomic weight (series) and by valency (groups) forms a kind of lattice. 2) It is necessary to distinguish between the basis of division and the principle of ordering the members of the horizontal series. If the basis of division is a certain, sometimes specific, sign of the concept being divided, then the principle of ordering the members of a series can only be such a sign of objects or concepts, which can be extended to the entire K. The members of a series can be ordered according to their logical. properties (similarity of content, degree of abstraction, for example, from concrete to abstract), according to general physical, genetic, spatial (from close to distant), chronological. properties, based on class names (alphabetical order). 3) When constructing a classification system, it is advisable to choose a feature that could be used as a basis for division at all levels, i.e. a sign that could serve as a principle of ordering a horizontal row. However, in a complex with a large number of levels this is practically unattainable. Therefore, they strive to ensure that the bases of division at each stage are as close as possible in content and are combined into at least general categories (object, process, attribute, etc.). ), as is done in library codes. The uniform nature of the division bases not only ensures the systematic nature of the code, but also facilitates the classification operation, since it acts as a point of view in identifying the characteristics of objects and comparing them with the characteristics of concepts. 4) The division must be proportionate. This rule has relative force. It is applied at the time of compilation of the Code: all subclasses known at that time must be taken into account. However, to protect the concept from breaking, it is necessary to provide for ways to include new concepts in it. For this, techniques such as leaving empty nodes in the classification are used. tree, special numbering of classes, etc. 5) Division members of one row must exclude each other. Consistent The implementation of this rule is possible only in circuits with a small number of levels. The more branches there are in the classification. tree, the more difficult it is to observe this rule. Cases where the same object falls into several classes are recorded by duplication or cross-referencing. In some classifications (for example, Ranganathan's library classification), such cases are considered the norm. In this regard, the system is built from different classifications based on the basis of division. tables, which makes it possible to record the belonging of an object to various classes. 6) The formation of a vertical row of the diagram must be continuous, without jumps. The correct construction of a code makes it easier to use, i.e. application in classification operations. However, this does not mean that classification is carried out only after the scheme has been created. This operation has a dual application: in the process of classification formation. schema, where it consists of ordering objects into classes based on similarities or differences in their characteristics, and in the process of using a schema, in which it acts as an operation of determining whether an object belongs to a class by comparing its characteristics with the characteristics of concepts in the schema. Formal-logical. classification rules are poorly developed. However, in various K. there are departments. techniques for this operation. So, in biology taxonomy uses the so-called type method. For each species, genus, and other higher categories, a type specimen, a type species, a type genus, and, in general, a type specimen of the nearest lower category are established. When establishing the place of an individual in the taxonomy, its characteristics are compared with the characteristics of type specimens of various species and a conclusion is drawn about its belonging to one or another species. Similarly, when a new species is included in a genus, its characters are compared with the type species of several genera. Classification is carried out in order to: 1) systematize objects of a certain area and record their properties and relationships, 2) search for ordered objects; it can solve both problems simultaneously or one of them. If the first goal is in mind, then when constructing a diagram, the most creatures are taken as the basis for the division. signs from which the maximum of derivatives follows. The basis of the division must lead to important differences between the members of the division. Such a concept serves as a source of knowledge about objects: by the place of a concept in a diagram one can judge its content and, consequently, the properties of objects included in its scope. Thus, by the place of an element in the periodic table, one can judge its atomic weight, the charge of the atomic nucleus, valency, and chemical properties. A formula built on essential features is called natural. If K. (meaning a rather complex scheme of K.) is used to search for objects, then the order of arrangement of the members of the vertical and horizontal rows must be formalized, i.e. the principle of constructing series should be such that, having certain data of a formal nature about the desired object (for example, knowledge of the initial letter of the name), one could easily find in the diagram the desired concept and the corresponding class of objects. An example of such a catalog could be personalized catalogs in libraries. K., used to search for objects and built only on formal features, is called. auxiliary (or artificial). Often complex complexes combine the properties of natural compounds. and arts. constructions. In such cases, the series are ordered both meaningfully and formally: each concept acquires a serial number, thanks to which it is translated into art. an index language that has its own alphabet (numeric or alphabetic), rules of formation, and sometimes elements of syntax. Depending on the breadth of the area to which the classified objects belong, classifications can be encyclopedic (universal), special (industrial), and classifications of a narrow range of homogeneous phenomena (tables). Encyclopedia. K. cover the entire human area. knowledge. These include, for example, K. sciences and universal library K. In each branch of science and technology, special K. are created: biological. K. plants and animals, chemical. K. elements and their compounds, K. stars, minerals, etc., technical, military and other equipment. Often in science there is a need to organize a certain range of objects that are important to it. Most often this is done either for the purpose of detecting something. creatures relationships between objects that are close in nature, or to demonstrate an already discovered law. Examples include the classification of subatomic particles, fields, atomic nuclei in physics, the classification of sentences, affixes, phonemes in linguistics, etc. In connection with the emerging opportunities to automate many intellectual processes, in particular the processing and search of scientific data. information, there was a need for mathematical processing, as well as in the study of logic. structure of the system. Traditional culture, built on a hierarchy, cannot be acceptable for the complete ordering of the system. object areas. If in manual classification it is possible to allow conditional and arbitrary inclusion of an object in one class or another, then for machine classification each inclusion must be formalized and subject to a definition. rules. In this regard, changes were made to the logic of K. Currently time there are strict and weak hierarchies. In the first, each node is classified. The tree is immediately preceded by one and only one node. In the second case, tree nodes can be immediately preceded by several nodes at the same time, as a result of which a network is formed (a strictly hierarchical tree is also a special case of a network). Both strict and weak hierarchies are considered as partially ordered systems, the formal properties of which are described logically and mathematically. theory of structures. Lit.: Gorsky D.P., Logika, M., 1958; Shamurin E.I.., Essays on the history of library and bibliographic classification, vol. 1–2, M., 1955–59; Bukanovsky V.M., Principles and main features of the classification of modern natural science, Perm, 1960; Minto V., Deductive and inductive logic, 6th ed., M., 1909; Mayr, E., Linsley, E., and Usinger, R., Methods and Principles of Zoological Taxonomy, trans. from English, M., 1956; Gregg T. R., The language of taxonomy, N. Y., 1954; Sayers W., An introduction to library classification, 9 ed., 1954; Ranganathan S. R., Colon classification, 5 ed., v. 1, Madras–L., 1957; Vickery B. C., Classification and indexing in science, L., 1958. B. Yakushin. Moscow.