I really need help tomorrow pleaseaaa message on the fate of the Russian emigration. The fate of the Russian emigration of the twentieth century
1. The first wave. 2.Second wave. 3. The third wave. 4. The fate of Shmelev. The poet has no biography, he has only destiny. And his fate is the fate of his homeland. AA Blok Literature of the Russian diaspora is the literature of Russian emigrants who, by the will of fate, did not have the opportunity to create in their homeland. As a phenomenon, the literature of the Russian diaspora arose after the October Revolution. Three periods - waves of Russian emigration - were stages of expulsion or flight of writers abroad. Chronologically, they are dated to important historical events in Russia. The first wave of emigration lasted from 1918 to 1938, from World War I and civil war to the outbreak of World War II. It was of a massive nature and was forced - about four million people left the USSR. These were not only people who went abroad after the revolution: Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, anarchists emigrated after the events of 1905. After the defeat of the volunteer army in 1920, the White Guards tried to escape in exile. Went abroad V. V. Nabokov, I. S. Shmelev, I. A. Bunin, M. I. Tsvetaeva, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, V. F. Khodasevich, B. K. Zaitsev and many others. Some still hoped that in Bolshevik Russia it was possible to be creative, as before, but reality showed that this was impossible. Russian literature existed abroad, just as Russia continued to live in the hearts of those who left it and in their works. At the end of World War II, a second wave of emigration began, also forced. In less than ten years, from 1939 to 1947, ten million people left Russia, among them writers such as I. P. Elagin, D. I. Klenovsky, G. P. Klimov, N. V. Narokov, B. N. Shiryaev. The third wave is the time of Khrushchev's "thaw". This emigration was voluntary. From 1948 to 1990 a little over a million people have left their homeland. If earlier the reasons that prompted to emigrate were political, then the third emigration was guided mainly by economic reasons. Mostly representatives of the creative intelligentsia left - A. I. Solzhenitsyn, I. A. Brodsky, S. D. Dovlatov, G. N. Vladimov, S. A. Sokolov, Yu. V. Mamleev, E. V. Limonov, Yu Aleshkovsky, I. M. Guberman, A. A. Galich, N. M. Korzhavin, Yu. M. Kublanovskii, V. P. Nekrasov, A. D. Sinyavskii, and D. I. Rubina. Many, for example A. I. Solzhenitsyn, V. P. Aksenov, V. E. Maksimov, V. N. Voinovich, were deprived of Soviet citizenship. They leave for the USA, France, Germany. It should be noted that the representatives of the third wave were not filled with such poignant nostalgia as those who emigrated earlier. Their homeland sent them out, calling them parasites, criminals and slanderers. They had a different mentality - they were considered victims of the regime and accepted, providing citizenship, patronage and material support. The literary work of the representatives of the first wave of emigration is of great cultural value.
The first wave of Russian emigration is a phenomenon resulting from the Civil War, which began in 1917 and lasted for almost six years. Nobles, soldiers, manufacturers, intellectuals, clergy and civil servants left their homeland. More than two million people left Russia in the period 1917-1922.
Causes of the first wave of Russian emigration
People leave their homeland for economic, political, social reasons. Migration is a process that has occurred to varying degrees at all times. But it is characteristic primarily for the era of wars and revolutions.
The first wave of Russian emigration is a phenomenon that has no analogue in world history. The ships were full. People were ready to endure intolerable conditions, if only to leave the country in which the Bolsheviks won.
After the revolution, members of noble families were repressed. Those who did not have time to escape abroad died. There were, of course, exceptions, for example, Alexei Tolstoy, who managed to adapt to the new regime. The nobles, who did not have time or did not want to leave Russia, changed their surnames and hid. Some managed to live under a false name for many years. Others, being exposed, ended up in Stalin's camps.
Beginning in 1917, writers, entrepreneurs, and artists left Russia. There is an opinion that European art of the 20th century is unthinkable without Russian emigrants. The fate of people cut off from native land were tragic. Among the representatives of the first wave of Russian emigration there are many world-famous writers, poets, scientists. But recognition doesn't always bring happiness.
What is the reason for the first wave of Russian emigration? The new government, which showed sympathy for the proletariat and hated the intelligentsia.
Among the representatives of the first wave of Russian emigration, there are not only creative people, but also entrepreneurs who managed to make fortunes through their own work. Among the manufacturers were those who at first rejoiced at the revolution. But not for long. Soon they realized that they had no place in the new state. Factories, enterprises, plants were nationalized in Soviet Russia.
In the era of the first wave of Russian emigration, fate ordinary people few were interested. The new government did not care about the so-called brain drain either. The people who were at the helm believed that in order to create a new one, everything old should be destroyed. The Soviet state did not need talented writers, poets, artists, musicians. New masters of the word appeared, ready to convey new ideals to the people.
Let us consider in more detail the causes and features of the first wave of Russian emigration. The short biographies below will create complete picture phenomena that had dire consequences both for the fate of individual people as well as for the entire country.
Famous emigrants
Russian writers of the first wave of emigration - Vladimir Nabokov, Ivan Bunin, Ivan Shmelev, Leonid Andreev, Arkady Averchenko, Alexander Kuprin, Sasha Cherny, Teffi, Nina Berberova, Vladislav Khodasevich. Nostalgia permeated the works of many of them.
After the Revolution, such outstanding artists as Fyodor Chaliapin, Sergei Rachmaninov, Wassily Kandinsky, Igor Stravinsky, Marc Chagall left their homeland. Representatives of the first wave of Russian emigration are also aircraft designer engineer Vladimir Zworykin, chemist Vladimir Ipatiev, hydraulic scientist Nikolai Fedorov.
Ivan Bunin
When it comes to Russian writers of the first wave of emigration, his name is remembered in the first place. Ivan Bunin met the October events in Moscow. Until 1920, he kept a diary, which he later published under the title Cursed Days. The writer did not accept Soviet power. Towards revolutionary events Bunin is often opposed to Blok. In his autobiographical work, the last Russian classic, as the author of "Cursed Days" is called, argued with the creator of the poem "The Twelve". Critic Igor Sukhikh said: "If Blok heard the music of the revolution in the events of 1917, then Bunin heard the cacophony of rebellion."
Before emigrating, the writer lived for some time with his wife in Odessa. In January 1920, they boarded the Sparta steamer, which was leaving for Constantinople. In March, Bunin was already in Paris - in the city in which many representatives of the first wave of Russian emigration spent their last years.
The fate of the writer can not be called tragic. In Paris, he worked a lot, and it was here that he wrote the work for which he received the Nobel Prize. But the most famous Bunin cycle is " Dark alleys"- riddled with longing for Russia. Nevertheless, he did not accept the offer to return to their homeland, which many Russian emigrants received after the Second World War. The last Russian classic died in 1953.
Ivan Shmelev
Not all members of the intelligentsia heard the "cacophony of revolt" in the days of the October events. Many perceived the revolution as a victory for justice and goodness. October events at first he rejoiced and, however, very quickly became disillusioned with those who were in power. And in 1920 an event occurred, after which the writer could no longer believe in the ideals of the revolution. Shmelev's only son is an officer tsarist army- was shot by the Bolsheviks.
In 1922, the writer and his wife left Russia. By that time, Bunin was already in Paris and in his correspondence promised more than once to help him. Shmelev spent several months in Berlin, then went to France, where he spent the rest of his life.
One of the greatest Russian writers spent his last years in poverty. He died at the age of 77. Buried, like Bunin, at Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois. Famous writers and poets - Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Zinaida Gippius, Teffi - found their last resting place in this Parisian cemetery.
Leonid Andreev
This writer at first accepted the revolution, but later changed his views. Latest works Andreev are imbued with hatred for the Bolsheviks. He ended up in exile after the separation of Finland from Russia. But he did not live long abroad. In 1919, Leonid Andreev died of a heart attack.
The grave of the writer is located in St. Petersburg, at the Volkovskoye cemetery. Andreev's ashes were reburied thirty years after his death.
Vladimir Nabokov
The writer came from a wealthy aristocratic family. In 1919, shortly before the Bolsheviks took over the Crimea, the Nabokovs left Russia for good. They managed to withdraw part of what saved them from poverty and hunger, to which many Russian emigrants were doomed.
Vladimir Nabokov graduated Cambridge university. In 1922 he moved to Berlin, where he earned his living by teaching English. Sometimes he published his stories in local newspapers. Among the heroes of Nabokov there are many Russian emigrants ("Protection of Luzhin", "Mashenka").
In 1925, Nabokov married a girl from a Jewish-Russian family. She worked as an editor. In 1936, she was fired - an anti-Semitic campaign began. The Nabokovs left for France, settled in the capital, and often visited Menton and Cannes. In 1940, they managed to escape from Paris, which, just a few weeks after their departure, was occupied by German troops. On the Champlain liner, Russian emigrants reached the shores of the New World.
In the United States, Nabokov lectured. He wrote both in Russian and in English. In 1960 he returned to Europe and settled in Switzerland. The Russian writer died in 1977. The grave of Vladimir Nabokov is located in the cemetery in Clarens, located in Montreux.
Alexander Kuprin
After the end of the Great Patriotic War, a wave of re-emigration began. Those who left Russia in the early twenties were promised Soviet passports, jobs, housing, and other benefits. However, many emigrants who returned to their homeland became victims Stalinist repressions. Kuprin returned before the war. He, fortunately, did not suffer the fate of most of the emigrants of the first wave.
Alexander Kuprin left immediately after the October Revolution. In France, at first he was mainly engaged in translations. He returned to Russia in 1937. Kuprin was famous in Europe, the Soviet authorities could not do with him as they did with most of them. However, the writer, being by that time a sick and old man, became a tool in the hands of propagandists. They made the image of a repentant writer who returned to sing a happy Soviet life out of him.
Alexander Kuprin died in 1938 from cancer. He was buried at the Volkovsky cemetery.
Arkady Averchenko
Before the revolution, the life of the writer was wonderful. He was the editor-in-chief of a humorous magazine, which was very popular. But in 1918 everything changed dramatically. The publishing house was closed. Averchenko took a negative position in relation to the new government. With difficulty, he managed to get to Sevastopol - the city in which he was born and spent his early years. The writer sailed to Constantinople on one of the last steamships a few days before the Crimea was taken by the Reds.
First Averchenko lived in Sofia, then in Belgorod. In 1922 he left for Prague. It was difficult for him to live away from Russia. Most of the works written in emigration are permeated with the longing of a person who is forced to live far from his homeland and only occasionally hear his native speech. However, in the Czech Republic, he quickly gained popularity.
In 1925, Arkady Averchenko fell ill. He spent several weeks in the Prague City Hospital. Died March 12, 1925.
taffy
The Russian writer of the first wave of emigration left her homeland in 1919. In Novorossiysk, she boarded a steamer that was going to Turkey. From there I went to Paris. For three years, Nadezhda Lokhvitskaya (this is the real name of the writer and poetess) lived in Germany. She published abroad, and already in 1920 she organized a literary salon. Teffi died in 1952 in Paris.
Nina Berberova
In 1922, together with her husband, poet Vladislav Khodasevich, the writer left Soviet Russia for Germany. Here they spent three months. They lived in Czechoslovakia, in Italy, and since 1925 - in Paris. Berberova was published in the emigrant edition "Russian Thought". In 1932, the writer divorced Khodasevich. After 18 years, she moved to the USA. She lived in New York, where she published the almanac Commonwealth. Since 1958, Berberova has taught at Yale University. She died in 1993.
Sasha Black
The real name of the poet, one of the representatives of the Silver Age, is Alexander Glikberg. He emigrated in 1920. Lived in Lithuania, Rome, Berlin. In 1924 Sasha Cherny left for France, where he spent last years. In the town of La Favière, he had a house where Russian artists, writers, and musicians often gathered. Sasha Cherny died of a heart attack in 1932.
Fyodor Chaliapin
The famous opera singer left Russia, one might say, not of his own free will. In 1922, he was on tour, which, as it seemed to the authorities, dragged on. Long performances in Europe and the United States aroused suspicion. Vladimir Mayakovsky immediately reacted, writing an angry poem in which there were such words: "I'll be the first to shout - roll back!"
In 1927, the singer donated the proceeds from one of the concerts in favor of the children of Russian emigrants. In Soviet Russia, this was perceived as support for the White Guards. In August 1927, Chaliapin was deprived of Soviet citizenship.
In exile, he performed a lot, even starred in a film. But in 1937 he was diagnosed with leukemia. On April 12 of the same year, the famous Russian opera singer died. He was buried in the Batignolles cemetery in Paris.
Introduction
1. Emigration and the First Wave Revolution
2. Emigration and the Great Patriotic War ("Second Wave")
3. Emigration and cold war(“third wave”)
4. Emigration and perestroika (“The Fourth Wave”)
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
Before the Catastrophe of 1917, legal name Russia was the "All-Russian Empire". In its constitution (Basic Laws) the name "Russian State" was also used. It was a multinational state, with many religions, with flexible constitutional forms that allowed for a variety of confederal relations.
This multinational character was also reflected in the imperial passports, which not only accredited the imperial citizenship common to all inhabitants of Russia, but also the nationality and religion of each citizen, in accordance with his will. Between citizens Russian Empire there were subjects of non-Russian and even non-Slavic nationalities, who were listed as Russians in their passports, at their own request. As a result, in this certificate the name "Russian" is used in the broadest sense of the word: Russians are called all Russian citizens who called themselves that way, even if they had a different ethnic background. Russian culture and Russian state did not recognize national and racial discrimination, because in their spirit they were imperial.
The Russian emigration that arose as a result of the five-year civil war (1917-1922), numbering three million people, has always used just such a criterion. In addition, this emigration consisted not only of members of the above three groups of Eastern Slavs, but also of persons belonging to various minorities of the Russian Empire, which was not an obstacle to their own self-determination as "Russian emigrants".
The subject of this control work not only of a narrowly specialized interest. Knowledge of the Russian emigration helps to understand the Russian history of the twentieth century, the past, in the words of N.V. Ustryalova, "under the sign of revolution".
The purpose of the work is to show the history of the formation, political activity of the Russian emigration of the post-revolutionary period in the context of world and Russian history, to determine its features, place and role in the life of Russia and international society.
The main tasks are:
1). Identify the main “waves and centers of Russian emigration;
2). Show attempts at self-organization in the emigration environment;
3). To study the features of the Russian emigration of the twentieth century;
4). To establish the causes of the ideological collapse, degeneration and failures of the “white” emigration.
The subject of the research is the Russian emigration of the 20th century.
1. Emigration and the First Wave Revolution
Geographically, this emigration from Russia was primarily directed to the countries Western Europe. The main centers of Russian emigration of the first wave were Paris, Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, Sofia. A significant part of the emigrants also settled in Harbin, and at first in Constantinople. The first Russian labor and religious emigrants in Australia appeared in the 19th century, but this was not a mass phenomenon. After 1905, the first political emigrants began to appear in Australia. After 1917-1921 in Australia there were new emigrants who fled from Soviet Russia, but there were very few of them. The main centers of the new emigration were Brisbane, Melbourne, Sydney.
The emigrants of the first wave considered their expulsion a forced and short-term episode, hoping for a speedy return to Russia, after what seemed to them a quick collapse of the Soviet state. In many ways, these reasons are due to their desire to separate themselves from active participation in the life of host countries, opposition to assimilation and unwillingness to adapt to a new life. They sought to confine their lives to the confines of an emigrant colony.
The first emigration consisted of the most cultured sections of Russian pre-revolutionary society, with a disproportionately large share of the military. According to the League of Nations, 1,160,000 refugees left Russia after the revolution. About a quarter of them belonged to the White armies, who went into exile at different times from different fronts.
Before the revolution, the number of the Russian colony in Manchuria was at least 200-220 thousand people, and by November 1920 - at least 288 thousand people. With the abolition on September 23, 1920 of the status of extraterritoriality for Russian citizens in China, the entire Russian population in it, including refugees, moved to the unenviable position of stateless emigrants in a foreign state, that is, to the position of a de facto diaspora.
The first serious flow of Russian refugees to Far East date back to the early 1920s. The second - in October-November 1920, when the army of the so-called "Russian Eastern Outskirts" under the command of Ataman G.M. Semenov. The third - at the end of 1922, when Soviet power was finally established in the region (only a few thousand people left by sea, the main flow of refugees was sent from Primorye to Manchuria and Korea, they were not allowed to go to China, with some exceptions, some were even sent to Soviet Russia.
At the same time, in China, namely in Xinjiang in the north-west of the country, there was another significant (more than 5.5 thousand people) Russian colony, which consisted of the Cossacks of General Bakich and former officials of the White Army, who retreated here after the defeats in the Urals and in Semirechye, they settled in the countryside and were engaged in agricultural labor.
The total population of the Russian colonies in Manchuria and China in 1923, when the war had already ended, was estimated at approximately 400 thousand people. Of this number, at least 100 thousand received Soviet passports in 1922-1923, many of them - at least 100 thousand people - were repatriated to the RSFSR (the amnesty announced on November 3, 1921 for ordinary members of the White Guard formations also played a role here). Significant (sometimes up to tens of thousands of people a year) were during the 1920s the re-emigration of Russians to other countries, especially young people aspiring to universities (in particular, to the USA, Australia and South America, as well as Europe).
The first flow of refugees in the South of Russia also took place at the beginning of 1920. Back in May 1920, General Wrangel established the so-called "Emigration Council", a year later renamed the Council for the Settlement of Russian Refugees. Civilian and military refugees were settled in camps near Constantinople, on the Princes' Islands and in Bulgaria; military camps at Gallipoli, Chataldzha and Lemnos (Kuban camp) were under British or French administration. The last operations to evacuate the Wrangel army took place from November 11 to 14, 1920: 15 thousand Cossacks, 12 thousand officers and 4-5 thousand soldiers of regular units, 10 thousand cadets, 7 thousand wounded officers, more than 30 thousand officers and officials were loaded onto the ships rear and up to 60 thousand civilians, mainly members of the families of officers and officials. It was this, Crimean, wave of evacuees who found emigration especially hard.
At the end of 1920, the card file of the Main Information (or Registration) Bureau already had 190,000 names with addresses. At the same time, the number of military men was estimated at 50-60 thousand people, and civilian refugees - at 130-150 thousand people.
By the end of the winter of 1921, only the poorest and poorest, as well as the military, remained in Constantinople. Spontaneous re-evacuation began, especially of peasants and captured Red Army soldiers who did not fear reprisals. By February 1921, the number of such re-emigrants reached 5 thousand people. In March, another 6.5 thousand Cossacks were added to them. Over time, it took on organized forms.
In the spring of 1921, General Wrangel turned to the Bulgarian and Yugoslav governments with a request for the possibility of resettling the Russian army on their territory. In August, consent was received: Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) accepted the Barbovich Cavalry Division, Kuban and part of the Don Cossacks (with weapons; their duties included border service and public works), and Bulgaria - the entire 1st Corps, military schools and part of the Don Cossacks (without weapons). At the same time, about 20% of the army personnel left the army and moved to the position of refugees.
About 35 thousand Russian emigrants (mostly military) were settled in various, mainly Balkan countries: 22 thousand ended up in Serbia, 5 thousand in Tunisia (port of Bizerte), 4 thousand in Bulgaria and 2 thousand each in Romania and Greece.
The League of Nations achieved some success in helping Russian emigrants. F. Nansen, the famous Norwegian polar explorer, appointed in February 1921 as Commissioner for Russian Refugees, introduced special identity cards for them (the so-called “Nansen passports”), eventually recognized in 31 countries of the world. With the help of the organization created by Nansen (Refugees Settlement Commission), about 25 thousand refugees were employed (mainly in the USA, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Hungary and Czechoslovakia).
The total number of emigrants from Russia, on November 1, 1920, according to the estimates of the American Red Cross, was 1,194 thousand people; later this estimate was increased to 2092 thousand people. The most authoritative estimate of the number of "white emigration", given by A. and E. Kulischer, also speaks of 1.5-2.0 million people. It was based, among other things, on selective data from the League of Nations, which recorded, as of August 1921, more than 1.4 million refugees from Russia. This number also included 100,000 German colonists, 65,000 Latvians, 55,000 Greeks and 12,000 Karelians. According to the countries of arrival, emigrants were distributed in the following way (thousand people): Poland - 650; Germany - 300; France - 250; Romania - 100; Yugoslavia - 50; Greece - 31; Bulgaria - 30; Finland - 19; Turkey - 11 and Egypt - 3.
Separating emigration from option is a very difficult, but still important task: in 1918-1922, the total number of emigrants and repatriates was (for a number of countries, selectively): to Poland - 4.1 million people, to Latvia - 130 thousand people, to Lithuania - 215 thousand people. Many, especially in Poland, were in fact emigrants in transit and did not stay there for long.
In 1922, according to N.A. Struve, the total number of Russian emigration was 863 thousand people, in 1930 it decreased to 630 thousand and in 1937 to 450 thousand people.
According to incomplete data from the Refugee Service of the League of Nations, in 1926, 755.3 thousand Russian and 205.7 thousand Armenian refugees were officially registered. More than half of the Russians - about 400 thousand people - were then accepted by France; in China there were 76 thousand of them, in Yugoslavia, Latvia, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria approximately 30-40 thousand people each (in 1926 there were about 220 thousand immigrants from Russia in Bulgaria). Most of the Armenians found refuge in Syria, Greece and Bulgaria (respectively, about 124, 42 and 20 thousand people).
Acting as the main transshipment base for emigration, Constantinople eventually lost its significance. The recognized centers of the “first emigration” (it is also called White) were, at its next stage, Berlin and Harbin (before its occupation by the Japanese in 1936), as well as Belgrade and Sofia. The Russian population of Berlin in 1921 numbered about 200 thousand people, it suffered especially during the years economic crisis, and by 1925 there were only 30 thousand people left. Later, Prague and Paris came to the fore. The coming to power of the Nazis even more pushed the Russian emigrants away from Germany. Prague and, in particular, Paris moved to the first places in emigration. Even on the eve of the Second World War, but especially during the hostilities and soon after the war, there was a tendency for some of the first emigration to move to the United States.
2. Emigration and the Great Patriotic War ("Second Wave")
As for Soviet citizens proper, never before had so many of them found themselves abroad at the same time as during the years of the Great Patriotic War. True, this happened in most cases not only against the will of the state, but also against their own will.
We can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the Soviet Union before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was about 8.7 million people.
Let us consider separate contingents of citizens of the USSR who found themselves during the war years in Germany and on the territory of its allies or countries occupied by it. First, these are Soviet prisoners of war. Secondly, and thirdly, civilians forcibly taken to the Reich: these are Ostovtsy, or Ostarbeiters, in the German sense of this term, which corresponds to the Soviet term Ostarbeiters - “Easterners” (that is, workers taken out of the old Soviet regions), and Ostarbeiters - "Westerners" who lived in areas annexed by the USSR in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Fourthly, these are Volksdeutsche and Volksfinns, that is, Germans and Finns - Soviet citizens, whom the NKVD simply did not have time to deport after the majority of their fellow tribesmen, who became "special settlers" for many years. Fifth and sixth, these are the so-called "refugees and evacuees", that is, Soviet civilians who were taken out or independently rushed to Germany after (or rather, in front of) the retreating Wehrmacht. The refugees were mainly people who in one way or another collaborated with the German administration and for this reason had no particular illusions about their future after the restoration of Soviet power; the evacuees, on the contrary, were taken away by force no less than the classic “Ostarbeiters”, thus clearing the territory left to the enemy from the population, which, otherwise, could be used against the Germans. Nevertheless, in the scanty statistics that we have about them, both categories are usually combined. The seventh, and if chronologically, then the first, category was made up of civilian internees - that is, diplomats, employees of trade and other missions and delegations of the USSR, sailors, railway workers, etc., caught up in the outbreak of war in Germany and interned (as a rule, directly June 22, 1941) on its territory. Quantitatively, this category is negligible.
Some of these people did not live to see the victory (especially many of these among prisoners of war), most of them repatriated to their homeland, but many evaded repatriation and remained in the West, becoming the core of the so-called "Second wave" of emigration from the USSR. The maximum quantitative estimate of this wave is approximately 500-700 thousand people, most of them come from Western Ukraine and the Baltic states (participation in this emigration of Jews, for obvious reasons, was a vanishingly small value).
Initially concentrated entirely in Europe as part of a larger mass, many members of the second wave left during 1945-1951. old light and moved to Australia, South America, Canada, but especially the USA. The proportion of those who ultimately remained in Europe can only be estimated, but in any case it is by no means more than a third or a quarter. Thus, in the second wave, in comparison with the first, the level of "Europeanness" is significantly lower.
In this regard, we can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the Soviet Union before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was about 8.7 million people.
According to one of the official estimates made by the Office for Repatriation on the basis of incomplete data by January 1, 1952, 451,561 Soviet citizens still remained abroad.
If in 1946 more than 80% of the defectors were inside the western occupation zones in Germany and Austria, now they accounted for only about 23% of their number. So, in all six western zones of Germany and Austria there were 103.7 thousand people, while in England alone - 100.0; Australia - 50.3; Canada - 38.4; USA - 35.3; Sweden - 27.6; France - 19.7 and Belgium - 14.7 thousand “temporarily not repatriated. In this regard, the ethnic structure of defectors is very expressive. Most of them were Ukrainians - 144,934 people (or 32.1%), followed by three Baltic peoples - Latvians (109214 people, or 24.2%), Lithuanians (63401, or 14.0%) and Estonians (58924 , or 13.0%). All of them, together with 9,856 Belarusians (2.2%), accounted for 85.5% of the registered defectors. Actually, this is, with some rounding and overestimation, the quota of "Westerners" (in Zemskov's terminology) in the structure of this contingent. According to V.N. Zemskov, "Westerners" accounted for 3/4, and "Easterners" - only 1/4 of the number of defectors. But most likely the proportion of “Westerners” is even higher, especially if we assume that a sufficient number of Poles have crept into the “other” category (33,528 people, or 7.4%). Russians among the defectors - only 31,704, or 7.0%.
In light of this, the scale of Western estimates of the number of defectors becomes understandable, an order of magnitude lower than the Soviet ones and, as it were, oriented towards the number of Russians by nationality in this environment. So, according to M. Proudfoot, about 35 thousand former Soviet citizens are officially registered as "remaining in the West".
But be that as it may, Stalin's fears were justified and tens and hundreds of thousands of former Soviet or sub-Soviet citizens, one way or another, by hook or by crook, but avoided repatriation and nevertheless made up the so-called "second emigration."
3. Emigration and the Cold War (“Third Wave”)
The third wave (1948-1986) is, in fact, the entire emigration of the Cold War period, so to speak, between the late Stalin and the early Gorbachev. Quantitatively, it fits into approximately half a million people, that is, it is close to the results of the “second wave”.
Qualitatively, it consists of two very different terms: the first is made up of not quite standard emigrants - forcibly deported ("expelled") and defectors, the second - "normal" emigrants, although "normality" for that time was a thing so specific and exhausting (with requisitions on education, with accusatory meetings of labor and even school groups and other types of harassment), which did not fit well with real democratic norms.
Special and very specific immigrants were all sorts of defectors and defectors. "Wanted list of the KGB" for 470 people, 201 of them - to Germany (including the American zone - 120, the English - 66, the French - 5), 59 to Austria. Most of them got jobs in the USA - 107, in Germany - 88, in Canada - 42, in Sweden - 28, in England - 25, etc. Since 1965, "trials in absentia" of defectors have been replaced by "orders of arrest."
Until the 1980s, Jews constituted the majority, and more often the decisive majority of emigrants from the USSR. At the first sub-stage, which gave only 9% of the "third emigration", the Jewish emigration, although it was in the lead, did not dominate (only a 2-fold advantage over the Armenian and quite insignificant - over the German emigration). But in fact massive second sub-stage (which gave 86% of Jewish emigration over the entire period), even with a friendly, almost 3-fold increase in German and Armenian emigration, Jewish emigration firmly dominated (with a share of 72%), and only in the third sub-stage did it for the first time give way to the leadership of German emigration .
In some years (for example, in 1980), the number of Armenian emigrants almost did not yield to German emigrants, and they were characterized by unofficial emigration (the channel of which, most likely, was non-return after a visit to relatives).
At the first sub-stage, almost all Jews rushed to the "promised land" - Israel, of which about 14 thousand people did not directly, but through Poland. On the second, the picture changed: only 62.8% of Jewish emigrants went to Israel, the rest preferred the United States (33.5%) or other countries (primarily Canada and European countries). At the same time, the number of those who traveled directly with an American visa was relatively small (during 1972-1979 it never exceeded 1,000 people). The majority left with an Israeli visa, but with the actual right to choose between Israel and the United States during a transit stop in Vienna: here the bill was no longer hundreds, but thousands of human souls. It was then that many Soviet Jews they also settled in major European capitals, primarily in Vienna and Rome, which served as a kind of transit base for Jewish emigration in the 1970s and 1980s; later, the flow was also directed through Budapest, Bucharest and other cities (but there were also many who, having arrived in Israel, moved from there to the USA).
It is interesting that at this stage Jews were distinguished by a very high emigration activity - immigrants from Georgia and from the Baltic states, Western Ukraine and Northern Bukovina(mostly from cities - primarily Riga, Lvov, Chernivtsi, etc.), where - with the exception of Georgia - anti-Semitism was especially "in honor". As a rule, these were deeply religious Jews, often with uninterrupted family ties in the West.
Since the late 1970s, purely Jewish emigration has split in two and almost evenly, even with a slight margin in favor of the United States, especially when you consider those who moved there from Israel. The US championship lasted from 1978 to 1989, that is, in those years when the flow of Jewish emigrants in itself was small or negligible. But the huge "backlog" of those on the waiting list and refuseniks, accumulated over previous years, it was predetermined that, since 1990, when Israel accounted for 85% of Jewish emigration, it again and firmly leads.
At the same time, in general, the third wave can be considered the most ethnicized (there were simply no other mechanisms to leave, except for Jewish, German or Armenian lines) and at the same time the least European of all the above: its leaders were alternately Israel and the United States. And only in the 1980s, when the Jewish ethnic migration was overtaken by the German one, did its course turn towards "Europeanization" - a trend that manifested itself to an even greater extent in the "fourth wave" (specific also to the new - German - direction of the Jewish emigration).
4. Emigration and perestroika (“The Fourth Wave”)
The beginning of this period should be counted from the era of M.S. Gorbachev, but, by the way, not from his very first steps, but rather from the “second”, among which the most important were the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the liberalization of the press and the rules for entering and leaving the country. The actual beginning (more precisely, the resumption) of Jewish emigration under Gorbachev dates back to April 1987, but statistically this affected with some delay. Let us repeat that this period, in fact, continues now, so its quantitative estimates need to be updated annually.
In any case, they turned out to be much more modest than those apocalyptic forecasts about the “ninth wave” of emigration from the former USSR allegedly rolling over Europe with a capacity different estimates, from 3 to 20 million people - an influx that the West, even purely economically, would not be able to withstand. In fact, nothing “terrible” happened in the West. Legal emigration from the USSR turned out to be well protected by the laws of all Western countries and continues to be limited to representatives of only a few nationalities for whom - again, only in a few host countries - a certain legal and social infrastructure has been created.
This is primarily about ethnic Germans and Jews (to a lesser extent - about the Greeks and Armenians, to an even lesser extent, and most recently - about the Poles and Koreans). In particular, Israel created legal guarantees for the immigration (repatriation) of Jews, and Germany - for the immigration of Germans and Jews living in the territory of the b. THE USSR.
So, according to the German Constitution and the Law on the Exiles (Bundes vertriebenen gesetz), the FRG undertook to accept for settlement and citizenship all persons of German nationality who were subjected to in the 40s. exile from their native lands and those living outside of Germany. They came and come either in the status of “expelled” (Vertriebenen), or in the status of “settlers” or the so-called “late settlers” (Aussiedler or Spätaussiedler) and almost immediately, upon the first application, receive German citizenship.
In 1950, about 51,000 Germans lived in the FRG, who were born in the territory that until 1939 was part of the USSR. This turned out to be important for the start of German immigration from the Soviet Union, since at its first stage the Soviet side met halfway, mainly in cases of family reunification. Actually, German emigration from the USSR to the FRG began in 1951, when 1,721 ethnic Germans left for their homeland. On February 22, 1955, the Bundestag decided to recognize the German citizenship acquired during the war, which extended the "Law on the Expelled" to all Germans living in Eastern Europe. By May 1956, about 80 thousand applications had accumulated at the German embassy in Moscow. Soviet Germans to travel to Germany. In 1958-1959, the number of German emigrants amounted to 4-5.5 thousand people. For a long time, the record was the result of 1976 (9704 immigrants). In 1987, the 10,000th milestone (14,488 people) “fell”, after which the bar rose to a new height (persons) almost every year: 1988 - 47,572; 1989 - 98,134; 1990 - 147,950; 1991 - 147,320; 1992 - 195,950; 1993 - 207,347 and 1994 - 213,214 people. In 1995, the bar resisted (209,409 people), and in 1996 it moved down (172,181 people), which is explained not so much by the policy of recreating favorable conditions for the Germans to live in Kazakhstan, Russia, etc., but by the tightening of the resettlement regulations, in particular, measures to attach settlers to the lands assigned to them (including the eastern ones, where about 20% now live), but in particular the obligation to take an exam for knowledge of the German language (Sprachtest) on the spot (at the exam, as a rule, at least 1/3 of those admitted to it “fail”.
Nevertheless, the 1990s became, in essence, the time of the most landslide Russian Germans from the republics of the former USSR. In total, 1,549,490 Germans and members of their families moved from there to Germany in 1951-1996. According to some estimates, the Germans “by passport” (that is, those who arrived on the basis of § 4 of the “Law on the Expelled”) make up about 4/5 among them: another 1/5 is their spouses, descendants and relatives (mainly Russians and Ukrainians ). By the beginning of 1997, according to the same estimates, less than 1/3 of the Germans who had previously lived there remained in Kazakhstan, 1/6 in Kyrgyzstan, and in Tajikistan the German contingent was practically exhausted.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it should be said that, despite the fact that the Russian Emigration has already made (and continues to make) a huge contribution to world culture and in the fight against world evil - communism, but due to its position in free world and, especially, because this world does not understand the goal pursued by emigration, it does not have the opportunity to properly and adequately fight against the enslavers of our Motherland-Russia.
Through the efforts of Russian emigrants abroad, an outstanding branch of our national culture was created, covering many areas of human activity (literature, art, science, philosophy, education) and enriching European and all world civilization. Nationally unique values, ideas and discoveries have taken a worthy place in Western culture in general, in specific European and other countries, where the talent of Russian emigrants has been applied.
The contribution of Russian emigrant scientists to world culture is also evidenced by the following fact: three of them were awarded Nobel Prizes: I.R.Prigozhin in 1977 in chemistry; S.S. Kuznets in 1971 and V.V. Leontiev in 1973. on economics.
The main attention of Russian thinkers in early years in emigration, it was turned to understanding the phenomenon of the Russian revolution and its influence on the historical fate of Russia. Most of them recognized the historical inevitability of a revolutionary explosion of the people. But they could not break themselves, or rather their social class commitment, and therefore were categorically against the theoretical and moral justification of the revolution as a way to solve problems. social problems.
And we must also emphasize: the main thing for this part of scientists and for the entire white emigration was the political opposition to Soviet power. It was for the deployment of anti-Soviet activities that many received financial support from foreigners. It is no coincidence that V.V. Mayakovsky, after visiting Paris, came to the conclusion that here "the most malicious ideological emigration."
Thus, for all the scale and great merits of the emigrant culture, it did not determine the subsequent development and future of Russia, its people in the difficult years of the twentieth century. An objective, unbiased view of this complex, multidimensional process cannot but lead in the end to the most important conclusion: in addition to the “split off”, “split off” emigrant culture, Russia retained the “main” branch, the cultural core itself, the bearer of which was the main historical subject - the Russian people and its constituent part - the intelligentsia, most of which remained in their homeland.
Bibliography
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2. Kabuzan V. M. Russians in the world: Population dynamics and settlement (1719-1989): Formation of ethnic and political borders of the Russian people. - St. Petersburg. Publishing house "Rus. Balt. inform. Center "Blits", 1996. - 350 p.
3. Popov A.V. Russian Diaspora and Archives. Documents of the Russian emigration in the archives of Moscow. Publishing House "M.: Historical and Archival Institute of the Russian State Humanitarian University", 1998, 392 p.
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Application
war communism- Name domestic policy Soviet state, held in 1918-1921 during the Civil War. The main goal was to provide the cities and the Red Army with weapons, food and other necessary resources in conditions where all normal economic mechanisms and relations were destroyed by the war. The decision to end war communism was made on March 21, 1921 at the 10th Congress of the RCP(b) and the NEP was introduced.
cold war- a global geopolitical, economic and ideological confrontation between the Soviet Union and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States and its allies, on the other, which lasted from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s.
Dictatorship of the proletariat- the conquest by the proletariat of such political power which will enable him to crush any resistance of the exploiters. The term "dictatorship of the proletariat" appeared in mid-nineteenth century to designate a political regime designed to express the interests of the working class. The first known use of the term is in Karl Marx's The Class Struggle in France from 1848 to 1850. (written in January - March 1850.
Cult of personality- exaltation of an individual (usually statesman) means of propaganda, in works of culture, state documents, laws.
Term "stagnation" originates from the political report of the Central Committee of the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, read by M. S. Gorbachev, in which it was stated that “stagnation began to appear in the life of society” both in economic and in social spheres. Most often, this term refers to the period from L. I. Brezhnev's coming to power (mid-1960s) to the beginning of perestroika (mid-1980s), marked by the absence of any serious upheavals in the political life of the country, as well as social stability and relatively high level life (as opposed to the era of the 1920s-1950s).
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
IN AND. Lenin (Ulyanov) was born on April 22, 1870 on the banks of the Volga in the city of Simbirsk, now Ulyanovsk. In 1887, Lenin graduated from the Siberian gymnasium with a gold medal and then entered the law faculty of Kazan University. In December, Vladimir Ilyich was expelled from this educational institution for Active participation in student unrest. After Lenin's arrest, he was deported to the village of Kukushkino in the Kazan province. A year later, Vladimir Ilyich received permission to return to the city, but access to the university was closed to the young revolutionary.
In the winter of 1888-89 in Kazan, Lenin joined an illegal revolutionary circle and began to study Karl Marx's Capital. Soon Vladimir Ilyich moved to Samara. Here Lenin lived for four and a half years, continuing to study the works of Marx and Engels, and also getting acquainted with the works of Plekhanov and Kautsky. Vladimir Ilyich carefully studied the experience of the workers' movement in the West, the conditions of Russia's economic development and the position of the Russian proletariat and peasantry.
Having received, after long petitions, permission to surrender state exams external student at St. Petersburg University, Lenin brilliantly withstood them in 1891 and the following spring received the title of assistant barrister in Samara. He almost did not practice law, only occasionally speaking in the Samara court by appointment. By this time, Lenin had already fully taken shape as a Marxist-revolutionary, defined the tasks of his whole life. In Samara, he organized the first Marxist circle, established contact with the Marxists of other cities, and gave lectures, where he covered the economic development of Russia from the point of view of Marxism, criticizing the petty-bourgeois theories of the Narodniks. These abstracts constituted the first scientific works of Lenin. Already in those years, he amazed everyone around him with the depth and versatility of knowledge, revolutionary intransigence and consistency of convictions.
In September 1893, he moved to St. Petersburg to conduct revolutionary work. Here Lenin entered the Marxist group of Krasin, Krzhizhanovsky, Radchenko, who carried out propaganda in workers' circles. Almost immediately, Lenin headed this organization. From the very beginning of his activity in the capital, Vladimir Ilyich aimed the Russian Marxists at the formation of a revolutionary working-class movement and a Marxist proletarian party.
In the summer of 1894, Lenin completed his brilliant work "What are the friends of the people and how do they fight against the Social Democrats?". In this book, the author subjected the entire system of views of the Narodniks to an annihilating criticism and predetermined the historical path of the Russian working class with amazing clarity.
Already in the nineties of the nineteenth century, Lenin emerged as the only successor to the end and successor to the cause of Marx and Engels, independently developing and developing their teaching.
In the spring of 1895, Lenin went abroad to establish contact with the Emancipation of Labor group, to ensure the shipment of illegal Marxist literature to Russia. In Switzerland, Vladimir Ilyich met with the Russian Marxist Plekhanov. Differences soon emerged between them on questions about the role of the proletariat (working class) in the upcoming revolutions, as well as views on the liberal bourgeoisie.
In Paris, Lenin met the German Social Democrat Wilhelm Liebknecht. Soon Vladimir Ilyich returned to St. Petersburg, having previously visited Vilna, Moscow, Orekhovo-Zuevo to establish contact with the local Social Democrats. In the capital, under his leadership, the "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class" arose. This organization led many strikes of the workers of St. Petersburg. Lenin himself visited the workers' quarters almost daily, wrote leaflets-appeals to the workers. He published a pamphlet on fines, which is very popular among the proletarians. Prepared articles for the newspaper "Working business". But in December 1895, Lenin was arrested by the police. But even from prison, he continued to lead the Union of Struggle. He wrote leaflets for him, drew up and sent to freedom a draft program of the workers' party. He began to work on the preparation of a large study "the development of capitalism in Russia."
In 1897, Vladimir Ilyich was sent into exile in the Siberian village of Shushenskoye. Here Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya became the wife of Lenin and the first assistant in his revolutionary activity. During this period, Vladimir Ilyich was intensively engaged in the study of the history of Russia, the development of Marxism in its philosophical questions. In exile, Lenin completed his work The Development of Capitalism in Russia. This book gave economic justification the leadership of the proletariat in the revolution and its alliance with the peasantry. There, in Shushenskoye, Lenin developed a plan to create a single militant party. To do this, according to Lenin, it was necessary to create "an all-Russian political newspaper, as a center for concentrating party forces, organize persistent party cadres in the field, as" regular parts "of the party, collect these cadres together through the newspaper and rally them into an all-Russian militant party with sharply defined boundaries. , with a clear program, firm tactics, a single will ”(I.V. Stalin).
In 1900, the term of exile ended, and Lenin went abroad to establish an all-Russian Marxist revolutionary proletarian newspaper. Soon Iskra began to be published first in Munich and then in London. On the pages of this newspaper, Lenin fought against "economism", bourgeois liberalism, populism and the petty-bourgeois party of the Socialist-Revolutionaries, which negatively influenced the revolutionary peasantry. Lenin simply and clearly explained to the peasants that only under the leadership of the proletarian workers, the working poor in the countryside could get out of poverty. Vladimir Ilyich waged a struggle against the opportunists Plekhanov, Axelrod and others.
While in England, Lenin managed to convene the second congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. It took place in the summer of 1903. During the discussion of the first paragraph of the statutes of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, a split occurred at the congress, which was consolidated in the struggle for the composition of the leading bodies. Having rallied around himself firm and consistent Marxist revolutionaries, Lenin achieved victory over the opportunists led by Martov, Axelrod, and Trotsky. The Second Congress of the RSDLP was marked by the formation of Bolshevism as an independent political trend.
While the first Russian revolution was gaining momentum, in April 1905, Lenin left Geneva for London to participate in work III Congress of the RSDLP. According to its results, Vladimir Ilyich developed the idea of the development of the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist one. After the victory of the October general strike, Lenin came to St. Petersburg. Here he lived semi-legally, devoting most of his time to working in the Bolshevik newspaper Novaya Zhizn, through which he openly spoke to the working masses. Lenin attended meetings of the St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies and, studying new form labor movement, defined the soviets as the organs of the uprising and the rudimentary structures of the new power.
Focusing on a new upsurge of the revolution, Vladimir Ilyich defended the tactics of boycotting the elections to the first State Duma, and exposed constitutional illusions. At the Fifth Congress of the RSDLP, the Bolsheviks again won an ideological victory over the opportunists, the Mensheviks. Lenin was elected to the Central Committee of the party.
The first Russian revolution was strangled by tsarism. For the Bolsheviks, the period from 1908 to 1911 was a difficult one. Many, cowardly, left the party. But Lenin did not give up. Pointing to the unresolved tasks set by the revolution of 1905-1907, Vladimir Ilyich defined common task parties in the midst of the ebb of the revolution: to learn the correct retreat, to accumulate and prepare forces for a new decisive onslaught. Lenin brought to the fore the struggle for the preservation and strengthening of the illegal organization of the party while simultaneously using all legal and semi-legal possibilities. During these difficult years, Stalin remained Lenin's most firm and unshakable comrade-in-arms and with all his determination spoke out against despondency and hesitation, against intelligent phrase-mongering and open betrayal of the ideals of the revolution.
In the summer of 1911, near Paris, Lenin founded a party school for workers, where he lectured on the main questions of the theory and politics of the party.
In January of the following year, an all-Russian party conference met. At this forum, the Bolsheviks finally took shape in an independent party. Their paths with the Mensheviks never crossed again.
After the conference in St. Petersburg, the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda began to appear. Stalin supervised its creation and then editing. Lenin wrote to Pravda almost every day. He gave instructions to the editors how to run the newspaper, watched how it was distributed, carefully counted the number of workers' correspondence and donations for this Bolshevik publication. Lenin directed the editorial board of Pravda from abroad, from Krakow. The newspaper helped win over many class-conscious workers to the side of Bolshevism.
During the First World War, Lenin worked out the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war. Vladimir Ilyich advocated the defeat of the tsarist monarchy. He called on the workers of all the warring countries to rally against the bourgeoisie. Lenin held high the banner of proletarian internationalism. Bukharin, Pyatakov, Kamenev, Zinoviev, Shlyapnikov, Radek opposed Lenin's policy on this issue.
In 1915, Vladimir Ilyich theoretically substantiated the possibility of the victory of socialism in one single country.
The February bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1917 found Lenin in Switzerland. On March 26, Vladimir Ilyich left for Stockholm, and from there through Finland to Petrograd. From the very first day of his arrival in Russia, Lenin led a campaign to explain the Bolshevik slogans and prepare the Great Proletarian Revolution, which, in his opinion, would be "100 times stronger than the February revolution." During this period, Vladimir Ilyich directed the work of the Central Committee, edited Pravda, directed the work of the Petrograd Committee and the entire mass movement of the capital's proletariat. In addition, he spoke at rallies, workers' meetings, in the soldiers' barracks. The number of supporters of Bolshevism grew rapidly. In Lenin the masses saw their true leader, a deliverer from war, famine and extinction. In July, Lenin fully approved the directive of the Central Committee to give the movement that had arisen spontaneously the most organized and peaceful character. These days the Provisional Government gave the order to arrest Lenin. He had to, as in tsarist times, go underground. Stalin organized Lenin's departure from Petrograd. Vladimir Ilyich continued to lead the party and the newspaper Pravda even during this period. Stalin was right hand Lenin and the direct conductor of his directives. In the underground, Lenin completed his book The State and Revolution. In this work, Vladimir Ilyich subjected bourgeois democracy to an annihilating criticism and elaborated in detail the task of the violent revolution of the proletariat, which consists in smashing, breaking down the state machine and creating in its place a proletarian Soviet state that will be a real democracy for the working people, an instrument for suppressing the bourgeoisie.
In the early autumn, Lenin set before the party the task of overthrowing the bourgeois system by means of an armed uprising. On October 10 (23), 1917, Vladimir Ilyich presided over a meeting of the Central Committee, at which he made a report on the armed uprising. Only the traitors Zinoviev and Kamenev opposed Lenin. On October 16, at the suggestion of Vladimir Ilyich, a military revolutionary center was organized, headed by Stalin, for the practical leadership of the uprising. On October 24, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party gave the signal for an uprising. Lenin in Smolny led the armed operations of the proletarian detachments against the troops of the provisional government. On the night of October 24-25, the Great October Socialist Revolution took place. Power was in the hands of the Russian proletariat, which was led by the Bolsheviks.
At the Second Congress of Soviets, a workers' and peasants' government was created - the Council of People's Commissars. Lenin was elected its chairman. During these days, Vladimir Ilyich gave a crushing rebuff to the traitors to the party - Kamenev, Zinoviev. Rykov, Shlyapnikov, who insisted on the rejection of the dictatorship of the proletariat and on the creation of a coalition government together with the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries.
In January 1918, the first attempt was made on Lenin. The counter-revolutionaries fired on the car in which Vladimir Ilyich and his sister Maria Ilyinichna were traveling. Thanks to chance, Lenin remained unharmed.
In March 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, Brest Peace. Thanks to this, Russia emerged from the imperialist slaughter. The main support in the struggle for a way out of the war for Lenin was Stalin. Lenin did not take a single decision on questions of war and peace without consulting Stalin.
Vladimir Ilyich very often spoke at workers' rallies and meetings (sometimes four times a day). The counter-revolutionaries were on his heels. On August 30, 1918, at the Michelson plant, where Lenin spoke to the workers, the Socialist-Revolutionary Kaplan fired several shots at him. The leader's life was in danger. But the mighty organism of Lenin, which was not burdened by smoking or drinking alcohol, overcame the disease, and already on September 17, Vladimir Ilyich presided over a meeting of the Council of People's Commissars.
As it turned out later, Trotsky and Bukharin played an active role in the assassination attempt on Lenin.
In March 1919, Lenin presided over the meetings of the constituent congress of the Communist International, which was attended by communists from many countries in Europe, Asia and America.
At this time, a civil war was raging in the country. The Russian White Guard counter-revolutionaries, together with the Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries and other bourgeois parties, came out against Soviet power. In addition, these reactionary forces were assisted by American, British, French, and Japanese troops. Together with the White Guards, foreign armies waged war against the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army. Because of the criminally bad work of the Revolutionary Military Council, headed by Trotsky, Lenin was forced to deal with literally everything, down to the smallest detail, and at the same time correct the grossest unforgivable mistakes in the leadership of the army. Stalin helped Lenin very effectively in organizing the defense of the Soviet Republic. Lenin sent him as his representative to the most dangerous sectors of the front. And he didn't count. Stalin never let Lenin down in the leadership of the Red Army.
Lenin did not tolerate slovenliness, irresponsibility. He demanded precise and definite reports on all problems of socialist construction. With all his gigantic workload, Vladimir Ilyich always found time to take care of his comrades, he was unusually sensitive, attentive, responsive. He made a charming impression with his simplicity and genuinely comradely attitude towards party members, workers and peasants. Lenin was modest in everyday life, did not allow himself any excesses that could be provided to him, thanks to his leadership.
Hard work made itself felt at the end of 1921, when Vladimir Ilyich developed symptoms of a serious illness. We had to look for a successor.
After the 11th Congress of the RCP(b), Lenin proposed that Stalin be elected to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee, and the plenum of the Central Committee unanimously approved this candidacy. Forced to retire from work due to illness, Lenin nominated his best student and closest colleague to a leading position in the party.
On May 26, 1922, the first acute attack of Lenin's disease (vascular sclerosis) occurred. In early October, Lenin returned to work. IN recent months year, at the direction of Vladimir Ilyich, the party prepared the conditions for the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
On December 16, Lenin suffered a second stroke with paralysis of the right half of his body. January 21, 1924 Vladimir Ilyich died.
Khrushchev Nikita Sergeevich
Born in 1894 in the village of Kalinovka, Kursk province, he began his working life early. From the age of twelve he already worked at the factories and mines of Donbass. He often and, it seems, not without pleasure, recalled his working youth and locksmith's craft. In 1918, Khrushchev was accepted into the Bolshevik Party. He participates in the civil war, and after its end is in economic and party work. He was a delegate from Ukraine at the XIV and XV Congresses of the CPSU (b). In 1929 he entered the Industrial Academy in Moscow, where he was elected secretary of the party committee. From January 1931, he was secretary of the Bauman and then Krasnopresnensky district party committees, in 1932-1934 he worked first as second, and then first secretary of the Moscow City Committee and second secretary of the MK of the CPSU (b). At the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, in 1934, Khrushchev was elected a member of the Central Committee, and since 1935 he has headed the Moscow city and regional party organizations. In 1938, he became the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) of Ukraine and a candidate member of the Politburo, and a year later, a member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks.
During the Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the South-Western direction, the South-Western, Stalingrad, Southern, Voronezh and 1st Ukrainian fronts. Finished the war with the rank of lieutenant general. From 1944 to 1947 he worked as Chairman of the Council of Ministers (SNK) Ukrainian SSR, then re-elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) of Ukraine.
Since December 1949, he was again the first secretary of the Moscow Regional and the secretary of the Central Party Committees. In March 1953, after the death of Stalin, he concentrated entirely on work in the Central Committee, and in September 1953 he was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee. Since 1958 - Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. He held these posts until October 14, 1964. The October plenum (1964) dismissed Khrushchev from party and government posts "for health reasons." He was a personal pensioner of allied significance. Died September 11, 1971.
Gergul Oksana
The creative work is dedicated to the Russian emigration. In our time, this topic is available, because. changes in public life of our country allow a new approach to the study of the diversity of destinies and views of Russians who find themselves abroad. Today, when we are rethinking our past, painfully getting rid of the usual stereotypes and can already assess what happened, the Russian diaspora appears before us in all its diversity. This is our general drama and tragedy, not fully disclosed and realized. It is part of the Russian heart and mind, both evil and noble.
The relevance of the study is due to the problem of emigration in the modern conditions of our country, which has acquired particular political relevance due to the deep crisis of national identity that has hit Russian society. Overcoming this crisis is possible only on a sound basis of patriotism, on a clearly expressed national idea, the purpose of which is to unite Russians in their service to the Motherland, in their efforts to serve its true interests, to help unite it, overcome centrifugal tendencies, and protect sovereignty. Thus, the relevance of the research topic in modern conditions is determined by the search for a common national idea that can unite Russian society, which is in a social and political crisis.
The scientific novelty of the research topic lies in the analysis of the significance of patriotic ideas and ideological principles of the Russian emigration in the creation of the ideological structure of the Russian society, providing the right guidelines political development in modern conditions.
The degree of scientific elaboration of the problem posed can be characterized as follows . The study of emigration in the USSR, despite all the restrictions, began already in the 1920s. Memoirs of prominent foreign figures are often published in the domestic periodical press. You can name such magazines as "Proletarian Revolution", "Red Archive", "War and Revolution", "Chronicle of the Revolution", "Military Bulletin" and others. Changes take place in the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the topic of Russian emigration becomes taboo, and those rare references that do exist are exclusively negative. This is explained as a change in political situation inside the country, and the complication of the foreign policy situation, the brewing of a new world conflict, in which most of the Russian diaspora was preparing to take anti-Soviet positions.
Second half of the 50s and early 60s. brought some increased attention of society and science to the topic of emigration. A book appears by D. Meisner, an employee of the Russian Foreign historical archive. 70s became a period of closer study of the Russian diaspora. In Russian historiography, the topic of emigration was raised by a number of scientists, but, unfortunately, it became one of the priority topics. domestic science. Change political system The USSR in the era of "perestroika" was accompanied by the appearance of numerous publications of various works by emigre authors, a significant expansion of the source base of research and an increase in the number of researchers who gained access to previously closed archives and library funds.
Therefore, in the 21st century, a deep and thorough study of the problem of the Russian abroad is necessary, which is dictated by the gradual convergence of the “Russian dispersion” with the historical Motherland and, consequently, the development of a new stage in international relations. Russia's past is "highly politicized and 'torn apart' into ideological quotations (often understood different people exactly the opposite). To overcome this situation, “subtle cultural therapy is needed” so that the descendants of both the “red commissar” and “ white officer» felt like heirs common history Russia.
The analysis of the degree of development of the topic showed that at present there is a need for a qualitatively new study that allows a holistic study of the Russian emigration and the White Guard movement. Reveal the practical significance of the development of patriotic ideas and principles of emigration in the creation of the ideological structure of modern Russian society, which provides the right guidelines for political development in modern conditions.
The purpose of my research is to comprehend the theoretical and methodological significance of Russian emigration in the context of modern stage systemic modernization of Russia.
The objectives of the study can be formulated as follows:
─ to explore the features and trends in the development of patriotic ideas and principles in the Russian diaspora;
─ to analyze modern scientific assessments of the theoretical contribution of the Russian emigration to the formation of the foundations of Russian patriotism.
Object of study: people and their white émigré activities to preserve Russian identity abroad.
The subject of the research is the analysis of the significance of patriotic ideas and ideological principles of the Russian emigration in the ideology of modern Russian society.
The research methodology consisted in using a wide range of sources on the history of the White émigré movement. Materials were involved, both published and for the first time extracted from the funds of state and departmental archives of the Russian Federation. For execution scientific work I used magazine articles, literature and the Internet.
The study of this issue helps to increase my national self-awareness and helps to rethink the past of our country, allows you to get rid of the usual stereotypes of assessing the past
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State budgetary educational institution
Secondary School No. 514 St. Petersburg
195220 Saint-Petersburg, 12 Nepokorennyh Ave., bldg. 2.
Phone: 534-49-19 or 534-49-18.
All-Russian competition of high school students
“Ideas D.S. Likhachev and modernity»
The fate of the Russian emigration of the twentieth century
creative work
11th grade students
GBOU secondary school No. 514 of St. Petersburg
Gergul Oksana Stanislavovna
Teachers - mentors: teacher of history and social studies, secondary school No. 514 of St. Petersburg Kalugina Svetlana Alexandrovna, Chugurova Lyubov Vasilievna, teacher of Russian language and literature
10. Lekhovich D.V. Whites against Reds: The fate of General Anton Denikin. - M .: Sunday, 1992.
11. Meisner D. Mirages and reality. Notes of an emigrant. M., 1966
12. Selunskaya V.M. Problems of adaptation of emigrants from Russia in the European countries abroad in the 20-30s of the XX century: (Based on materials from emigrant memoirs) // History of the Russian abroad: Problems of adaptation of migrants in the 19th-20th centuries: Sat. Art. M., 1996.
13. Solovyov B.C. Russian idea. // Russian idea. M., 1992.
14. Struve P. Reflections on the Russian Revolution. Sofia, 1921.
15. Shkarenkov JI.K. The agony of white emigration // Vopr. history 1976 No. 5.
The fate of an emigrant who left home country under compulsion, it is not easy and carefree. Intrigues and wars, love and family ups and downs, ideological persecution and poverty - all these are faithful companions of the exiles of the Fatherland. The author of the site, Sergei Alumov, has collected the most interesting of the fates of five Russian emigrants.
heir to the first Russian emperor Alexei Petrovich was forced to go abroad due to frequent conflicts with his father. Peter I was always dissatisfied with the behavior of his son: either he would cope poorly with the preparation of recruits, then he would go to his mother imprisoned in a monastery, or even shoot his arm so that he would not pass the geometry exam in the presence of his father. The heir to the throne did not show any zeal for public service.
Alexei Petrovich paid with his life for fleeing abroad
When Peter I's second son, Peter, was born, Alexei renounced the throne and, in order to avoid monastic vows, went to Austria to his cousin Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, taking with him his peasant mistress Efrosinya. In Austria, the prince planned to wait for the death of his father, who was ill at that moment, and then take advantage of the support of the Austrians and take the Russian throne. However, the Emperor of Austria sent his relative to Italy, not daring to get involved in Russian affairs.
Soon, despite the intrigues of the head of the Admiralty and the Russian ambassador to the Vienna court, Russian intelligence still tracked down the fugitive prince in the castle of St. Elmo. The threats of the envoys of Peter I had an effect, Alexei Petrovich returned to Russia, where investigation and death awaited him.
Once Sergei Dovlatov fell ill and took a day off from work. Treatment itself appointed vodka. Because of what he was fired from his job for parasitism. This served as a catalyst for his problems with the KGB: the committee, which had been looking after the writer for a long time, decided that now they could easily arrest him. Thanks to the journalist who lived on the first floor of his house, this did not happen immediately.
Dovlatov managed to leave for the United States to live with his ex-wife, son and mother. In the States, he, along with other talented writers, took out a loan and founded the New American newspaper, which closed two and a half years later due to debts.
In the US, Dovlatov drank less, but was more often depressed
Dovlatov wrote about his life in America: “My drunkenness has subsided, but bouts of depression are becoming more frequent, namely depression, that is, causeless longing, impotence and disgust for life. I will not be treated, and I do not believe in psychiatry. It's just that all my life I've been waiting for something: a matriculation certificate, loss of virginity, marriage, a child, the first book, minimum money, and now everything has happened, there is nothing more to wait, there are no sources of joy. I suffer from my insecurities. I hate my readiness to be upset over trifles, I am exhausted from fear of life. And it's the only thing that gives me hope. The only thing I have to thank fate for. Because the result of all this is literature.”
Gaito Gazdanov is a reference representative of the Russian emigration of the first wave: a White Guard and a freemason, a worker and a taxi driver in Paris, a writer and journalist, a member of the Resistance.
The future writer of the Russian emigration went abroad as a result of the desire to "learn what war is." Together with the White Army in 1922 he sailed from the Crimea to Turkey. In 1923, like thousands of other Russian people, he settled in Paris. He worked as a loader, locksmith, teacher of Russian and French, sometimes spent the night on the street.
Experience as a taxi driver helped Gazdanov write a novel
For many years already being famous writer, worked as a night taxi driver, like many Russian men in Paris (they were considered the most intelligent and best cab drivers, as they were well educated and often were noblemen). Gazdanov was able to leave the cart only after the release of the novel The Ghost of Alexander Wolf (1947), thanks to which he gained fame and recognition.
Taxi drivers are familiar with all walks of life. This experience helped Gazdanov write Night Roads (1941). The first novel, An Evening at Claire's (1929), was highly acclaimed by Ivan Bunin and Maxim Gorky. Gazdanov wanted to return to his homeland, he asked Gorky, but he did not have time to help him - he died in 1936.
By 1974, the name of Alexander Solzhenitsyn had quite a lot of weight both in the Union and abroad, so the Soviet authorities could not get rid of him just like that. He was stripped of his citizenship and expelled from the country. However, unexpectedly for people both in the West and in Russia, he did not scold the USSR.
Returning from exile, Solzhenitsyn traveled by train across the country
Alexander Isaevich positioned himself as an Orthodox patriot, so he did not rush to mindlessly denounce the Soviet government and Russia, that is, to do what was expected of him. It is quite logical that relations with the press, Russian emigrants and the democratic public within the Union, who were sharply opposed to the USSR, did not develop very well for him. So, Andrei Sakharov, like many dissidents, regarded the Letter to the Leaders Soviet Union» Solzhenitsyn as anti-democratic and nationalist.
Solzhenitsyn was able to return to Russia only after perestroika, in 1994. Arriving with his family in Magadan, Solzhenitsyn then reached Vladivostok, and from there by train across Russia to Moscow.
N.P. Ogaryov and A.I. Herzen
After the death of his father, Alexander Herzen decides to leave Russia forever and settle in Europe. The story of his life is an example of how a Westerner, who glorified progressive Europe, collided with real Europe and lost his illusions.
The first impression of European life for him was joyful, he finally felt the long-awaited freedom. However, very soon Herzen began to denounce the way of life of the Europeans and took positions close to the Slavophiles, seeing the future in the Russian community. His views have undergone a transformation from liberal-republican to socialist. Letters from Europe at that time shocked his Western friends with their anti-bourgeois orientation. Herzen enthusiastically greeted French Revolution 1848. However, he soon changed his mind and rejected revolutionary method struggle.
Westerner Herzen became a Slavophile in Europe
Herzen's personal life in exile cannot be called happy either. Of the six children born in marriage to a cousin, Natalya Zakharyina, only two survived to adulthood. In Paris, Natalia fell in love with Herzen's friend Georg Gerweg, which she confessed to her husband. Two families (Herweg was married) formed a "commune", which soon fell apart - Natalia's affection for Herweg turned out to be not only platonic. Herzen was censured in the revolutionary community for forcing his wife to part with her lover.
Herzen's misfortunes did not end there. In 1851, Herzen's mother and his son Nikolai died in a shipwreck. The following year, after giving birth, the wife dies, the child also did not survive.
A few years later, Alexander Ivanovich begins to live with the wife of a childhood friend of Nikolai Ogaryov, Natalya. Three children, of whom two died due to diphtheria, were considered Ogaryov's children.
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