Soil organic matter. Soil

What is soil made of? It would seem a simple question. We all know what it is. Every day we walk along it, planting plants in it that give us a harvest. We fertilize the soil, dig it up. Sometimes you can hear that the land is infertile. But what do we really know about soil? In most cases, only that this is the topmost layer of the earth's surface. And this is not so much. Let's figure out what components the earth consists of, what it can be and how it is formed.

Soil composition

So, the soil is the top fertile soil. It consists of various components. In addition to solid particles, it includes water and air, and even living organisms. Actually, the latter play a crucial role in its formation. The degree of its fertility also depends on microorganisms. In general, soil consists of phases: solid, liquid, gaseous and “living”. Let's look at what components form them.

Solid particles include various minerals and chemical elements. B includes almost the entire periodic table, but in different concentrations. The degree of soil fertility depends on the component of solid particles. The liquid components are also called soil solution. This is water in which chemical elements dissolve. There is liquid even in desert soils, but there are tiny amounts of it.

So, what is soil made of, besides these basic components? The space between solid particles is filled with gaseous components. Soil air consists of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and thanks to it, various processes occur in the soil, such as respiration of plant roots and rotting. Living organisms - fungi, bacteria, invertebrates and algae - actively participate in the process of soil formation and significantly change its composition by introducing chemical elements.

Mechanical structure of soil

What the soil consists of is now clear. But is its structure homogeneous? It's no secret that soil varies. It can be sandy and clayey or rocky. So, soil consists of particles of different sizes. Its structure may include huge boulders and tiny grains of sand. Typically, particles in the soil are divided into several groups: clay, silt, sand, gravel. This is important for agriculture. It is the structure of the soil that determines the degree of effort that must be applied to cultivate it. It also determines how well the soil will absorb moisture. Good soil contains equal percentages of sand and clay. Such soil is called loamy. If there is a little more sand, then the soil is crumbly and easy to work with. But at the same time, such soil retains water and minerals less well. Clay soil is damp and sticky. It drains poorly. But at the same time, it contains the most nutrients.

The role of microorganisms in soil formation

Its properties depend on what components the soil consists of. But this is not the only thing that determines its qualities. Organic substances enter the soil from the dead remains of animals and plants. This happens thanks to microorganisms - saprophytes. They play a vital role in decomposition processes. Thanks to their active activity, so-called humus accumulates in the soil. This is a dark brown substance. Humus contains fatty acid esters, phenolic compounds and carboxylic acids. In the soil, particles of this substance stick together with clay. It turns out to be a single complex. Humus improves the quality of the soil. Its ability to retain moisture and minerals increases. In swampy areas, the formation of humus mass occurs very slowly. Organic residues are gradually compressed into peat.

Soil formation process

The soil forms very slowly. In order for a complete renewal of its mineral part to occur to a depth of approximately 1 meter, it takes at least 10 thousand years. What the soil consists of are the products of the constant work of wind and water. So where does soil come from?

First of all, these are particles of rocks. They serve as the basis of the soil. Under the influence of climatic factors, they are destroyed and crushed, settling on the ground. Gradually, this mineral part of the soil is populated by microorganisms, which, by processing organic remains, form humus in it. Invertebrates, constantly digging passages in it, loosen it, promoting good aeration.

Over time, the structure of the soil changes and it becomes more fertile. Plants also influence this process. As they grow, they change its microclimate. Human activity also influences soil formation. He cultivates and cultivates the land. And if the soil consists of infertile components, then a person fertilizes it by introducing both mineral and organic fertilizers.

by composition

In general, there is currently no generally accepted classification of soils. But it is still customary to divide them according to their mechanical composition into several groups. This division is especially relevant in agriculture. So, the classification is based on how much clay the soil consists of:

Loose sandy (less than 5%);

Cohesive sandy (5-10%);

Sandy loam (11-20%);

Light loamy (21-30%);

Medium loamy (31-45%);

Heavy loamy (46-60%);

Clayey (more than 60%).

What does the term “fertile” soil mean?

What parts the soil consists of affects the degree of its fertility. But what makes the earth such? The composition of the soil directly depends on many factors. This includes the climate, the abundance of plants, and the presence of living organisms that live in it. All this affects the chemical The degree of its fertility depends on which components are contained in the soil. Mineral components such as calcium, nitrogen, copper, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus are considered very useful for high yields. These substances enter the ground during the decomposition of organic matter. If the soil is rich in mineral compounds, then it is fertile. Plants will bloom wildly on it. This soil is ideal for growing vegetable and fruit crops.

Soil is a complex system consisting of mineral and organic components. It serves as a substrate for plant development. For successful farming, it is necessary to know the characteristics and ways of soil formation - this helps to increase its fertility, i.e. it is of great economic importance.

Soil composition includes four main components:
1) mineral substance;
2) organic matter;
3) air;
4) water, which is more correctly called a soil solution, since certain substances are always dissolved in it.

Soil mineral matter

By chva consists of mineral components of different sizes: stones, crushed stone and “fine earth”. The latter is usually subdivided in order of particle enlargement into clay, silt and sand. The mechanical composition of the soil is determined by the relative content of sand, silt and clay in it.

Mechanical composition of the soil greatly influences drainage, nutrient content and soil temperature, in other words, soil structure from an agronomic point of view. Medium- and fine-textured soils, such as clays, loams and silts, are usually more suitable for plant growth, as they contain enough nutrients and are better able to retain water and dissolved salts. Sandy soils drain faster and lose nutrients through leaching, but are beneficial for early harvests; in the spring they dry out and warm up faster than clay ones. The presence of stones, i.e. particles with a diameter greater than 2 mm, is important from the point of view of wear on agricultural implements and the effect on drainage. Typically, as the rock content of soil increases, its ability to hold water decreases.

Soil organic matter

organic matter, as a rule, makes up only a small volume fraction of the soil, but it is very important because it determines many of its properties. This is the main source of plant nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur; it promotes the formation of soil aggregates, i.e., a fine-lumpy structure, especially important for heavy soils, since as a result water permeability and aeration increase; it serves as food for microorganisms. Soil organic matter is divided into detritus, or dead organic matter (MOB), and biota.

Humus(humus) is the organic material formed when MOB is incompletely decomposed. A significant part of it does not exist in free form, but is associated with inorganic molecules, primarily with clay particles of soil. Together with them, humus makes up the so-called absorption complex of the soil, which is extremely important for almost all physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in it, in particular for the retention of water and nutrients.

Among soil organisms Earthworms occupy a special place. These detritivores, together with MOB, ingest large quantities of mineral particles. Moving between different layers of soil, worms constantly mix it. In addition, they leave passages that facilitate its aeration and drainage, thereby improving its structure and associated properties. Earthworms feel best in a neutral to slightly acidic environment, rarely occurring at a pH below 4.5.

Soil organic matter- this is a complex system of all organic substances present in the profile in a free state or in the form of organomineral compounds, excluding those that are part of living organisms.

The main source of soil organic matter is the remains of plants and animals at various stages of decomposition. The largest volume of biomass comes from fallen plant debris; the contribution of invertebrate and vertebrate animals and microorganisms is much smaller, but they play an important role in enriching organic matter with nitrogen-containing components.

According to its origin, character and functions, soil organic matter is divided into two groups: organic residues and humus. The term “humus” is sometimes used as a synonym for the term “humus.”

Organic residues are represented mainly by ground and root litter of higher plants, which have not lost their anatomical structure. The chemical composition of plant residues in different cenoses varies widely. What they have in common is the predominance of carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin substances), lignin, proteins and lipids. This entire complex complex of substances, after the death of living organisms, enters the soil and is transformed into mineral and humic substances, and is partially carried out of the soil with groundwater, possibly to oil-bearing horizons.

The decomposition of organic soil residues includes mechanical and physical destruction, biological and biochemical transformation and chemical processes. In the decomposition of organic residues, a large role is played by enzymes, soil invertebrate animals, bacteria and fungi. Enzymes are structured proteins that have many functional groups. The main source of enzymes are; plants. Acting as catalysts in the soil, enzymes accelerate the processes of decomposition and synthesis of organic substances millions of times.

Humus is the totality of all organic compounds found in the soil, except for those that are part of living organisms and organic residues that have retained their anatomical structure.

The composition of humus includes nonspecific organic compounds and specific ones - humic substances.

Nonspecific is a group of organic substances of known nature and individual structure. They enter the soil from decomposing plant and animal residues and with root secretions. Nonspecific compounds are represented by almost all components that make up animal and plant tissues and intravital secretions of macro- and microorganisms. These include lignin, cellulose, proteins, amino acids, monosaccharides, waxes and fatty acids.

In general, the share of nonspecific organic compounds does not exceed 20% of the total amount of soil humus. Nonspecific organic compounds are products of varying degrees of decomposition and humification of plant, animal and microbial material entering the soil. These compounds determine the dynamics of rapidly changing soil properties: redox potential, content of mobile forms of nutrients, the number and activity of soil microorganisms, and the composition of soil solutions. Humic substances, on the contrary, determine the stability over time of other soil properties: exchange capacity, water-physical properties, air regime and color.

Specific organic part of soil - humic substances- represent a heterogeneous (heterogeneous) polydisperse system of high molecular weight nitrogen-containing aromatic compounds of an acidic nature. Humic substances are formed as a result of a complex biophysical and chemical process of transformation (humification) of decomposition products of organic residues entering the soil.

Depending on the chemical composition of plant residues and the factors of their decomposition (temperature, humidity, composition of microorganisms), two main types of humification are distinguished: fulvate and humate. Each of them corresponds to a certain fractional-group composition of humus. The group composition of humus refers to the set and content of various substances that are related in structure and properties of compounds. The most important groups are humic acids (HA) and fulvic acids (FA).

Humic acids contain 46 - 62% carbon (C), 3 - 6% nitrogen (N), 3-5% hydrogen (H) and 32-38% oxygen (O). Fulvic acids contain more carbon - 45-50%, nitrogen - 3.0-4.5% and hydrogen - 3-5%. Humic and fulvic acids almost always contain sulfur (up to 1.2%), phosphorus (tens and hundreds of fractions of a percent) and cations of various metals.

Fractions are distinguished within the groups HA and FC. The fractional composition of humus characterizes the set and content of various substances included in the HA and FA groups, according to the forms of their compounds with the mineral components of the soil. The following fractions are of greatest importance for soil formation: brown humic acids (BHA) associated with sesquioxides; black humic acids (BHA) bound to calcium; fractions I and Ia of fulvic acids associated with mobile forms of sesquioxides; HA and FA, tightly bound to sesquioxides and clay minerals.

The group composition of humus is characterized by the quantitative ratio of humic acids and fulvic acids. A quantitative measure of the type of humus is the ratio of the carbon content of humic acids (CHA) to the carbon content of fulvic acids (CFA). Based on the value of this ratio (CHA /CFA), four types of humus can be distinguished:

— humate - more than 2;
— fulvate-humate - 1-2;
— humate-fulvate - 0.5-1.0;
— fulvate - less than 0.5.

The group and fractional composition of humus changes naturally and consistently in the zonal genetic series of soils. In podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils, humic acids are almost not formed and little of them accumulate. The ratio CHA/CFA is usually less than 1 and most often is 0.3-0.6. In gray soils and chernozems, the absolute content and proportion of humic acids is significantly higher. The CHA/CFA ratio in chernozems can reach 2.0-2.5. In soils located south of chernozems, the proportion of fulvic acids gradually increases again.

Excessive moisture, carbonate content of the rock, and salinity leave their mark on the group composition of humus. Additional moisture usually promotes the accumulation of humic acids. Increased humation is also characteristic of soils formed on carbonate rocks or under the influence of hard groundwater.

The group and fractional composition of humus also changes along the soil profile. The fractional composition of humus in different horizons depends on the mineralization of the soil solution and the pH value. Profile changes in the group composition of humus in most

soils are subject to one general pattern: with depth the proportion of humic acids decreases, the proportion of fulvic acids increases, the CHA / CFA ratio decreases to 0.1-0.3.

The depth of humification, or the degree of conversion of plant residues into humic substances, as well as the CHA / CFA ratio depend on the speed (kinetics) and duration of the humification process. The kinetics of humification is determined by soil-chemical and climatic characteristics that stimulate or inhibit the activity of microorganisms (nutrients, temperature, pH, humidity), and the susceptibility of plant residues to transformation depending on the molecular structure of the substance (monosaccharides, proteins are easier to transform, lignin, polysaccharides are more difficult) .

In humus horizons of temperate climate soils, the type of humus and the depth of humification, expressed by the ratio CHA/CFA, correlate with the duration of the period of biological activity.

The period of biological activity is a period of time during which favorable conditions are created for normal plant vegetation and active microbiological activity. The duration of the period of biological activity is determined by the duration of the period during which the air temperature consistently exceeds 10 ° C, and the supply of productive moisture is at least 1-2%. In the zonal series of soils, the value of CHA/CFA, which characterizes the depth of humification, corresponds to the duration of the period of biological activity.

Simultaneous consideration of two factors - the period of biological activity and soil saturation with bases - makes it possible to determine the areas of formation of different types of humus. Humate humus is formed only during a long period of biological activity and a high degree of soil saturation with bases. This combination of conditions is typical for chernozems. Strongly acidic soils (podzols, soddy-podzolic soils), regardless of the period of biological activity, have fulvic humus.

Humic substances in soil are highly reactive and actively interact with the mineral matrix. Under the influence of organic substances, unstable minerals of the parent rock are destroyed and chemical elements become more accessible to plants. In the process of organomineral interactions, soil aggregates are formed, which improves the structural condition of the soil.

Fulvic acids most actively destroy soil minerals. Interacting with sesquioxides (Fe 2 O 3 and Al 2 O 3), FAs form mobile aluminum and iron-humus complexes (iron and aluminum fulvates). These complexes are associated with the formation of illuvial-humus soil horizons in which they are deposited. Fulvates of alkaline and alkaline earth bases are highly soluble in water and easily migrate down the profile. An important feature of FCs is their inability to fix calcium. Therefore, liming of acidic soils must be carried out regularly, every 3-4 years.

Humic acids, in contrast to FA, form poorly soluble organomineral compounds (calcium humates) with calcium. Due to this, humus-accumulative horizons are formed in the soils. Soil humic substances bind ions of many potentially toxic metals - Al, Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, which reduces the dangerous effects of chemical soil pollution.

The processes of humus formation in forest soils have their own characteristics. The overwhelming majority of plant litter in the forest reaches the soil surface, where special conditions for the decomposition of organic residues are created. On the one hand, this is the free access of oxygen and the outflow of moisture, on the other hand, a humid and cool climate, a high content of difficult-to-decompose compounds in the litter, a rapid loss due to the leaching of bases released during the mineralization of the litter. Such conditions affect the vital activity of soil animals and microflora, which play an important role in the processes of transformation of organic residues: grinding, mixing with the mineral part of the soil, biochemical processing of organic compounds.

As a result of various combinations of all factors of decomposition of organic residues, three types (forms) of organic matter in forest soils are formed: mull, moder, and mor. The form of organic matter in forest soils refers to the entire set of organic substances contained both in the forest litter and in the humus horizon.

During the transition from mora to moder and mull, the properties of soil organic matter change: acidity decreases, ash content, the degree of saturation with bases, nitrogen content, and the intensity of decomposition of forest litter increase. In soil with the mull type, the litter contains no more than 10% of the total reserve of organic matter, and in the mora type, the litter accounts for up to 40% of its total reserve.

When organic matter of the mora type is formed, a thick three-layer litter is formed, which is well separated from the underlying mineral horizon (usually horizons E, EI, AY). Mainly fungal microflora takes part in the decomposition of litter. There are no earthworms, the reaction is strongly acidic. The forest litter has the following structure:

O L - the top layer about 1 cm thick, consisting of litter that has preserved the anatomical structure;

O F - middle layer of varying thickness, consisting of semi-decomposed light brown litter, intertwined with hyphae of fungi and plant roots;

Oh - the lower layer of highly decomposed litter, dark brown, almost black, smeared, with a noticeable admixture of mineral particles.

In the moder type, the forest floor usually consists of two layers. Under the layer of weakly decomposed litter, a well-decomposed humus layer with a thickness of about 1 cm stands out, gradually turning into a clearly defined humus horizon with a thickness of 7-10 cm. Insects earthworms play an important role in the decomposition of litter. In the microflora, fungi predominate over bacteria. The organic matter of the humus layer is partially mixed with the mineral part of the soil. The reaction of the litter is slightly acidic. In forest soils with excessive moisture, the processes of decomposition of plant litter are inhibited and peat horizons are formed in them. The accumulation and rate of decomposition of organic matter in forest soils is influenced by the composition of the original plant residues. The more lignin, resins, tannins in plant residues and the less nitrogen, the slower the decomposition process and the more organic residues accumulate in the litter.

Based on the determination of the composition of plants from whose litter the litter was formed, a classification of forest litter was proposed. According to N.N. Stepanov (1929), the following types of litter can be distinguished: coniferous, small-leaved, broad-leaved, lichen, green moss, moss-grass, grass, long-moss, sphagnum, wet-grass, grass-marsh and broad-grass.

Humus status of soils- this is a set of general reserves and properties of organic substances, created by the processes of their accumulation, transformation and migration in the soil profile and reflected in a set of external characteristics. The system of indicators of humus status includes the content and reserves of humus, its profile distribution, nitrogen enrichment, degree of humification and types of humic acids.

The levels of humus accumulation are in good agreement with the duration of the period of biological activity.

In the composition of organic carbon, a natural increase in the reserves of humic acids can be traced from north to south.

The soils of the Arctic zone are characterized by low content and small reserves of organic matter. The process of humification takes place under extremely unfavorable conditions with low biochemical activity of soils. The soils of the northern taiga are characterized by a short period (about 60 days) and a low level of biological activity, as well as a poor species composition of microflora. The processes of humification are slow. In zonal soils of the northern taiga, a coarse humus type of profile is formed. The humus-accumulative horizon in these soils is practically absent, the humus content under the litter is up to 1-2%.

In the subzone of soddy-podzolic soils of the southern taiga, the amount of solar radiation, moisture regime, vegetation cover, rich species composition of soil microflora and its higher biochemical activity over a fairly long period contribute to a deeper transformation of plant residues. One of the main features of the soils of the southern taiga subzone is the development of the sod process. The thickness of the accumulative horizon is small and is determined by the depth of penetration of the bulk of the roots of herbaceous vegetation. The average humus content in the AY horizon in forest soddy-podzolic soils ranges from 2.9 to 4.8%. The reserves of humus in these soils are small and, depending on the soil subtype and granulometric composition, range from 17 to 80 t/ha in a layer of 0-20 cm.

In the forest-steppe zone, humus reserves in the 0-20 cm layer range from 70 t/ha in gray soils to 129 t/ha in dark gray soils. Humus reserves in the chernozems of the forest-steppe zone in the 0-20 cm layer are up to 178 t/ha, and in the 0-100 cm layer - up to 488 t/ha. The humus content in horizon A of chernozems reaches 7.2%, gradually decreasing with depth.

In the northern regions of the European part of Russia, a significant amount of organic matter is concentrated in peat soils. Swamp landscapes are located mainly in the forest zone and tundra, where precipitation significantly exceeds evaporation. Peat contamination is especially high in the north of the taiga and in the forest-tundra. The oldest peat deposits, as a rule, occupy lake basins with sapropel deposits up to 12 thousand years old. The initial deposition of peat in such bogs occurred approximately 9-10 thousand years ago. Peat began to be deposited most actively around 8-9 thousand years ago. Sometimes there are peat deposits about 11 thousand years old. The HA content in peat ranges from 5 to 52%, increasing during the transition from high-moor to low-lying peat.

The humus content is associated with a variety of ecological functions of the soil. The humus layer forms a special energy shell of the planet, called humosphere. The energy accumulated in the humosphere is the basis for the existence and evolution of life on Earth. The humosphere performs the following important functions: accumulative, transport, regulatory, protective, physiological.

Accumulative function characteristic of humic acids (HA). Its essence lies in the accumulation of the most important nutritional elements of living organisms in the composition of humic substances. In the form of amine substances, up to 90-99% of all nitrogen accumulates in soils, more than half of phosphorus and sulfur. In this form, potassium, calcium, magnesium, jelly - 30 and almost all microelements necessary for plants and microorganisms are accumulated and stored for a long time.

Transport function This is due to the fact that humic substances can form complex organomineral compounds with metal cations, but they are soluble and capable of geochemical migration. Most microelements and a significant portion of phosphorus and sulfur compounds actively migrate in this form.

Regulatory function is due to the fact that humic substances take part in the regulation of almost all the most important soil properties. They form the color of humus horizons and, on this basis, their thermal regime. Humic soils are always much warmer than soils containing few humic substances. Humic substances play an important role in the formation of soil structure. They participate in the regulation of mineral nutrition of plants. Soil organic matter is used by its inhabitants as the main source of food. Plants take about 50% of their nitrogen from soil reserves.

Humic substances can dissolve many soil minerals, which leads to the mobilization of some mineral nutrition elements that are difficult for plants to access. The cation exchange capacity, ion-salt and acid-base buffer capacity of soils, and the redox regime depend on the amount of properties of humic substances in soils. The physical, water-physical and physical-mechanical properties of soils are closely related to the humus content and its group composition. Well-humused soils are better structured, have a more diverse species composition of microflora, and a greater number of invertebrate animals. Such soils are more permeable, easier to mechanically treat, better retain elements of plant nutrition, have a high absorption capacity and buffer capacity, and have a higher efficiency of mineral fertilizers.

Protective function is due to the fact that humic substances in the soil protect or preserve soil biota and plant cover in the event of various kinds of unfavorable extreme situations. Humus-rich soils are better able to withstand drought or waterlogging, they are less susceptible to erosion by deflation, and retain satisfactory properties longer when irrigated with increased doses or mineralized water.

Soils rich in humic substances can withstand higher technogenic loads. Under equal conditions of soil contamination with heavy metals, their toxic effect on plants on chernozems is less pronounced than on soddy podzolic soils. Humic substances quite firmly bind many radionuclides and pesticides, thereby preventing their entry into plants or other negative effects.

Physiological function is that humic acids and their salts can stimulate seed germination, activate plant respiration, and increase the productivity of cattle and poultry.

If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.

Soil is a complex complex of components that are in combination with each other. The composition of the soil includes:

mineral elements.
organic compounds.
soil solutions.
soil air.
organo-mineral substances.
soil microorganisms (biotic and abiotic).

To analyze the composition of the soil and determine its parameters, you need to have the values of the natural composition - depending on this, an assessment is made based on the content of certain impurities.

Most of the inorganic (mineral) part of the soil is crystalline silica (quartz). It can account for 60 to 80 percent of the total mineral elements.

A fairly large number of inorganic components are occupied by aluminosilicates such as mica and feldspars. This also includes clay minerals of a secondary nature, for example, montmorillonites.

Montmorillonites are of great importance for the hygienic qualities of soil due to their ability to absorb cations (including heavy metals) and thereby disinfect the soil chemically.

Also, the mineral part of soil components includes such chemical elements (mainly in the form of oxides) as:

aluminum
iron
silicon
potassium
sodium
magnesium
calcium
phosphorus

In addition, there are other components. Often they can be in the form of sulfur, phosphorus, carbon and hydrogen chloride salts.

Organic soil components

Mostly organic components are contained in humus. These are, to one degree or another, complex organic compounds containing such elements as:

carbon
oxygen
hydrogen
phosphorus

A significant portion of organic soil components is found dissolved in soil moisture.

As for the gas composition of the soil, it is air, with approximately the following percentage:

1) nitrogen - 60-78%

2) oxygen - 11-21%

3) carbon dioxide - 0.3-8%

Air and water determine the porosity of the soil and can range from 27 to 90% of the total volume.

Determination of soil granulometric composition

The granulometric (mechanical) composition of soil is the ratio of soil particles of various sizes, without taking into account their origin (chemical or mineralogical). These groups of particles are combined into fractions.

The particle size distribution of the soil is of decisive importance in assessing the level of fertility and other key soil indicators.

Depending on their dispersion, soil particles are divided into two main categories:

1) particles with a diameter of more than 0.001 mm.

2) particles with a diameter of less than 0.001 mm.

The first group of particles originates from all kinds of mineral formations and rock fragments. The second category occurs when clay minerals and organic components are weathered.

Factors influencing soil formation

When determining the composition of the soil, you should pay attention to soil-forming factors - they have a significant impact on the structure and composition of the soil.

It is customary to identify the following main soil-forming factors:

origin of parent soil rock.
soil age.
surface soil relief.
climatic conditions of soil formation.
composition of soil microorganisms.
human activity that affects the soil.

Clarks as a unit of measurement of soil chemical composition

Clark is a conventional unit that determines the normal amount of a certain chemical element in ideal (unpolluted) soil. For example, one kilogram of naturally clean soil should contain about 3.25% calcium - this is 1 clarke. A level of a chemical element of 3-4 clarke or more indicates that the soil is quite heavily contaminated with this element.

Soil organic matter is a factor in soil fertility, a source of energy for the development and formation of soil, and finally, it is what distinguishes fertile soil from the parent rock.

Soil organic matter is a complex of organic compounds that make up the soil. These substances are divided into two groups:

1) the predominant group of humic substances;
2) a group of plant and animal residues of varying degrees of decomposition and intermediate decomposition products (non-humified organic substances).

Soil organic matter is represented by 85-90% humic substances (fulvic acids, humic acids and humin). By their nature, they are resistant to decomposition, preserved organic substances, consisting of 50-60% carbon, 30-45% oxygen and only 2.5-5% nitrogen. They also contain sulfur, phosphorus, etc. Humic acids and fulvic acids, as well as carbon dioxide formed in the soil during the decomposition of organic matter, have a dissolving effect on the mineral compounds of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, as a result of which these elements turn into form accessible to plants. Mobile nutrient elements of humus participate to a lesser extent in plant nutrition than non-humified substances, since they slowly mineralize, but create a favorable environment for the decomposition of organic residues. However, with long-term cultivation of agricultural crops without applying fertilizers, gradual decomposition and use of humic substances can occur, which leads to a significant decrease in the total amount of organic matter in the soil and a decrease in its fertility. The systematic use of organic and mineral fertilizers, ensuring an increase in the yield of agricultural crops, contributes to the preservation and accumulation of humus and nitrogen reserves in the soil, since with increasing yield the amount of root and crop residues entering the soil increases and the processes of humus formation intensify.

Soil consists of four main components:

1) mineral substance;
2) organic matter;
3) air;
4) water, which is more correctly called a soil solution, since certain substances are always dissolved in it. Soil mineral matter Soil consists of mineral components of different sizes: stones, crushed stone and “fine earth”. The latter is usually subdivided in order of particle enlargement into clay, silt and sand. The mechanical composition of the soil is determined by the relative content of sand, silt and clay in it. The mechanical composition of the soil greatly influences the drainage, nutrient content and temperature regime of the soil, in other words, the structure of the soil from an agronomic point of view. Medium- and fine-textured soils, such as clays, loams and silts, are usually more suitable for plant growth, as they contain enough nutrients and are better able to retain water and dissolved salts. Sandy soils drain faster and lose nutrients through leaching, but are beneficial for early harvests; in the spring they dry out and warm up faster than clay ones. The presence of stones, i.e. particles with a diameter greater than 2 mm, is important from the point of view of wear on agricultural implements and the effect on drainage. Typically, as the rock content of soil increases, its ability to hold water decreases. Soil Organic Matter Organic matter typically makes up only a small fraction of the soil by volume, but it is very important because it determines many of its properties. This is the main source of plant nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur; it promotes the formation of soil aggregates, i.e., a fine-lumpy structure, especially important for heavy soils, since as a result water permeability and aeration increase; it serves as food for microorganisms. Soil organic matter is divided into detritus, or dead organic matter (MOB), and biota. Humus (humus) is an organic material formed by the incomplete decomposition of MOB. A significant part of it does not exist in free form, but is associated with inorganic molecules, primarily with clay particles of soil. Together with them, humus makes up the so-called absorption complex of the soil, which is extremely important for almost all physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in it, in particular for the retention of water and nutrients. Among soil organisms, earthworms occupy a special place. These detritivores, together with MOB, ingest large quantities of mineral particles. Moving between different layers of soil, worms constantly mix it. In addition, they leave passages that facilitate its aeration and drainage, thereby improving its structure and associated properties. Earthworms feel best in a neutral to slightly acidic environment, rarely occurring at a pH below 4.5.

Soil organic matter: the complex of organic compounds that make up the soil. Their presence is one of the main features that distinguishes the soil from the parent rock. They are formed during the decomposition of plant and animal materials and represent the most important link in the metabolism of living and inanimate nature. Number of O. in. items and their nature largely determine the direction of the soil formation process, the biological, physical, chemical properties of the soil and its fertility. In O. v. p. include plant and animal residues in varying degrees of decomposition in varying quantities with the obligatory predominance of humic substances

Mineral Soil Components

Most mineral components enter the soil as a result of weathering and destruction of the parent rock. Sometimes the content of the mineral base can increase due to particles brought by wind or water currents. Mineral components, which usually make up about 50% of the soil volume, are particles of sand, silt and clay (pelite) sizes. The structure and composition of the soil depend mainly on the quantitative ratios of these fractions.

Sandy soils are loose, light, highly permeable, and easily leached. Clay soils are heavy, viscous when wet and quite hard when dry, poorly permeable, and leach slowly. The third type of soil, for which the term “silt” is adopted, is developed mostly on alluvial plains. In these soils, sand, silt, silt and clay are present in approximately equal quantities; they are light, fertile and easy to process. The structure of soils on cultivated lands changes after plowing, resulting in increased porosity in the soils. The addition of humus and fertilizers also changes the structure of the soil

The main function of animals in the biosphere and in soil formation is the consumption and destruction of organic matter from green plants. The biomass of soil animals is, according to various estimates, from 0.5% to 5% of phytomass and can reach 10-15 t/ha of dry matter in temperate latitudes.

In the food chains of organisms, there is a flow of constantly decreasing energy from plants to herbivores, from herbivores to predators, necrophages, and microorganisms.

Plant and animal remains are destroyed by various groups of soil animals:

- phytophages (nematodes, rodents, etc.), feeding on the tissues of living plants;
- predators (protozoa, scorpions, ticks) feed on live animals;
- necrophages (beetles, fly larvae, etc.) eat animal corpses;
- saprophages (termites, ants, millipedes, etc.) feed on the tissues of dead plants;
- caprophages, a type of saprophages (beetles, flies and their larvae, protozoa, bacteria, etc.) feed on the excrement of other animals;
- detritivores use detritus as food. Based on the size of individuals, four groups are distinguished:
- microfauna - organisms whose size is less than 0.2 mm (protozoa, nematodes);
- mesofauna - organisms ranging in size from 0.2 to 4 mm (microarthropods, insects, some types of worms, etc.);
- macrofauna - animals ranging in size from 4 to 80 mm (earthworms, mollusks, ants, termites, etc.);
- megafauna - animals larger than 80 mm in size (large insects, scorpions, moles, rodents, foxes, badgers, etc.) (

Microorganisms contribute to the decomposition of organic residues in the soil.

In relation to air, microorganisms are distinguished between aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic are organisms that consume oxygen in the process of life; anaerobes - live and develop in an oxygen-free environment. They obtain the energy necessary for life activity as a result of coupled redox reactions. The decomposition and synthesis reactions occurring in the soil are influenced by various enzymes produced by microorganisms. Depending on the type of soil and the degree of their cultivation, the total number of microorganisms in 1 g of soddy-podzolic soils can reach 0.6-2.0 billion, chernozems - 2-3 billion.

Bacteria are the most common type of soil microorganisms. According to the method of nutrition, they are divided into autotrophic, which absorbs carbon from carbon dioxide, and heterotrophic, which uses carbon from organic compounds.

Aerobic bacteria oxidize various organic substances in the soil, including carrying out the process of ammonification - decomposition of nitrogenous organic substances to ammonia, oxidation of fiber, lignin, etc.

The decomposition of organic residues by heterotrophic anaerobic bacteria is called the fermentation process (fermentation of carbohydrates, pectin substances, etc.). Along with fermentation under anaerobic conditions, denitrification occurs - the reduction of nitrates to molecular nitrogen, which can lead to significant losses of nitrogen in soils with poor aeration.

Fungi and actinomycetes (radiant fungi). The number of mushrooms in 1 g of soil can reach 200-500 thousand. Fungi are classified as saprophytes - organisms that use carbon from organic residues. Fungi are aerobic organisms; they develop well in an acidic environment, decompose carbohydrates, lignin, fiber, fats, proteins and other compounds.

Animals. The soil is a favorable habitat for many species of animals, including worms, insects, and vertebrates. Most animals, using organic residues for nutrition, crush them, move them and mix them with the mineral part of the soil.