Basic phonetic units. Units of phonetics
THE SUBJECT OF PHONETICS.
BASIC PHONETIC UNITS
PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of the language. Phonetics is certain system included in common system language. This is the sublevel of the general language system, inextricably linked with the entire system, since the basic units of the language are words, morphemes, phrases, sentences representing more high levels, - are signs. After all, in addition to the semantic side - denoted (values), they all have and material side accessible to the sense organs denoting(sounds and their combinations). There is a conditional (not natural, not natural) connection between the signifier and the signifier. Yes, the word dream has a material expression - this is a combination of five sounds that serves to express the meaning "something created by the imagination, mentally represented." The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of the language.
The task of phonetics - the study of the methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream. You can study phonetics with different purposes and different methods. Depending on this, there are general phonetics, descriptive phonetics, comparative phonetics, historical phonetics, experimental phonetics.
General phonetics on material various languages considers theoretical questions of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of a syllable, the relationship sound system language to its grammatical system.
Descriptive phonetics explores the sound system specific language in synchronous plan, i.e. on the present stage language development.
Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.
Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over a more or less long period of time, studies changes phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.
Experimental phonetics is a part general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language by instrumental methods.
Thus, phonetics of the modern Russian language- this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage in the development of the language, in this moment time.
All phonetic units language - phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.
Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase is not always the same as a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, then the same phenomenon is still considered with different points vision. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.
Intonation – set of means of the organization sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (speech intensity), intra-phrase pauses, the general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagmas.
Syntagma – a combination of two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I in the evening. See you I tomorrow night. In these sentences, syntagmas are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term "syntagma" is understood by scientists in different ways. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, delimits the syntagma from speech tact as an intonation-shaped semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence
speech beat – part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / bow to the fatherland / in Russian / at the feet. (D. Kedrin).
phonetic word - part of a speech measure (if the phrase is divided into measures) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical sense of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. most often significant words stand out in separate measures. Since some words do not carry stress, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, service parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be in an unstressed position: . Words that do not have an accent and are adjacent to other words are called clitics . Depending on what place they occupy in relation to the stressed word, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. proclitics they call unstressed words that are in front of the stressed one to which they adjoin:, enclitics - unstressed words after the stressed one to which they adjoin:,. Functional words usually act as proclitics and enclitics, however, a significant word can also turn out to be an enclitic when a preposition or particle takes on stress: on ´ water[according to].
Syllable - part of a measure or a phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a combination of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see the section "Symbol division. Types of syllables").
Sound - the smallest unit of speech delivered in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit that is distinguished by the successive division of speech.
Phonetic units are divided into segmental (or linear) and supersegmental (or non-linear).
Segment units
Our speech is a stream of sounds, a chain of successively pronounced segments. But the stream of sounds is not continuous, like, for example, a car signal. In speech, there are pauses of different duration, which divide the sound stream into segments linearly following one after another. Different segments of the speech stream, located in a linear sequence, are called segment units (a segment is a segment of speech that is isolated from a linear sequence (speech stream)). Segmental units include phrase, speech tact (or phonetic syntagma), phonetic word, syllable, sound. Sound is the smallest segmental unit. A phrase is the largest segmental unit. Each larger segment unit consists of smaller segment units: a phrase from syntagmas, a syntagma from phonetic words, a phonetic word from syllables, a syllable from sounds. Segmental units can be separated from larger units and pronounced separately.
A phrase is the largest segment of speech, which is a statement that is complete in meaning, united by the intonation of completeness (albeit of a different nature: the intonation of a question, narration, etc.) and separated by pauses from other similar segments of speech. For example, the segment of speech Tomorrow evening we will go to the theater is a phrase, because the thought expressed is understandable and intonationally framed (completed): by the middle of the phrase, the voice rises, and by the end it falls. Where con-
The pause divided the phrase into speech measures (phonetic syntagms).
Phrases in volume can be different: from one word to large speech segments. India. // Delhi. // We were in the city for one day. // (V. Peskov).
A phrase often consists of one sentence. But it cannot be identified with the proposal, since their boundaries may not coincide. For example, difficult sentence The door to the garden was open, // puddles of night rain dried up on the floor of the terrace blackened with phlegm (L. N. Tolstoy) consists of two phrases. Phrase and sentence are units different levels: the phrase is phonetic and the sentence is syntactic.
Phrases can be divided into speech measures (phonetic syntagms).
A speech beat is a segment of a sounding speech, pronounced as a continuous stream of sounds, having a semantic incompleteness and intonation incompleteness. Speech measures are pronounced on one exhalation and are limited to pauses less long than phrases.
The boundaries between speech measures pass only between phonetic words. These boundaries are conditional and depend on the speaker's desire to highlight one or another part of the statement, so there are options for dividing the phrase into speech beats. A pause does not always correspond to any punctuation mark, and a different allocation of speech measures in the same phrase depends on the meaning that the speaker puts into the statement. For example, the phrase How her brother's actions made her happy can be pronounced in different ways:
In the first case, she rejoices at the actions of her brother, and in the second, the brother rejoices at her actions.
Depends on the options for division into speech beats different meaning phrases. This is perfectly reflected in the dialogue of the loser Vitya Perestukin with the talking cat Kuzey (L. Geraskina. In the country unlearned lessons), which in the sentence of punctuation marks Execute cannot be pardoned, it was necessary to put a comma.
Execute cannot be pardoned... If I put a comma after "execute", it will be like this: "Execute, you cannot pardon." So, it will work out - you can’t pardon? ..
Execute? - asked Kuzya. - It doesn't suit us.
And if you put a comma after the words "execution is impossible"? Then it will turn out: "It is impossible to execute, pardon." This is what I need! It's decided. I bet.
The phrase Execute cannot be pardoned is divided into speech measures in different ways.
Speech measures are divided into phonetic words. phonetic word
This is a piece of sounding speech, united by one word stress m. There are as many phonetic words in a speech tact as there are verbal stresses in it. In speech, service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) usually do not have stress, except when the stress passes from independent words to service words, for example: and "out of the forest, up the mountain, believe in" the word. If the service words do not have a separate stress, they are combined with significant words with one verbal stress and represent one phonetic word, for example: on the bank. Unstressed word may be adjacent to the shock in front or behind. An unstressed word adjacent to the stressed one in front is called a proclitic, and adjacent to the back is called an enclitic.
Proclitics are usually prepositions, conjunctions, prepositive particles, and enclitics are most often postpositive particles. For example: podpsne "hom. The preposition under is a proclitic. Apvy" is not known "is it? Union a and
the prepositive particle is not a proclitic. The tale "lpby. The postpositive particle would be the enclitic.
If the stress moves from a significant word to a service word, then the significant word becomes enclitic: along "dpgor". The word mountain is enclitic.
In the phrase A in the grove with the "nunnery and empty" th / Trembling "t from the cold of the axis" us. //
(Z. Alexandrova) two speech measures, ten words combined into six phonetic words, since there are only six verbal stresses in the phrase. There are six words in the first speech measure Apvpro "sche with" nn ipempty "th, but there are only three phonetic words: the first phonetic word is apvpro" sche, where the union a and the preposition in do not have self-stress and adjacent to the front significant word grove, which has verbal stress, therefore, the union a and the preposition in are proclitics; the second phonetic word is son, it has verbal stress, is a significant word; the third phonetic word is empty / y, the union and does not have an independent stress and adjoins in front the significant word empty "th, which has verbal stress, therefore, the union and is a proclitic.
Phonetic words are divided into syllables. There are different interpretations of the syllable, based on the predominant attention to its articulatory or acoustic performance. From the point of view of articulation, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory push. From an acoustic point of view, a syllable is a wave of rising and falling sonority. (On the syllable, see the relevant section below). With both approaches, a syllable (vowel) sound must be in the syllable, non-syllabic sounds may be absent. There are as many syllables in a word as there are syllabic sounds. For example, in the word to learn two syllables - [u-ch'i "t'], since the two syllable-forming sounds are [u] and [i"]. The first syllable consists of one syllable-forming sound [y], the second syllable consists of a syllable-forming sound [and "] and two non-syllabic sounds - [h '] and [t ']. Total sounds in a word does not affect the number of syllables, for example, in the word splash - seven sounds, but only one syllabic sound [e "], therefore, only one syllable.
Syllables are divided into sounds. A sound is a minimal, further indivisible unit of the sound stream of speech, which is a part of a syllable (or a syllable, if it consists of one sound), pronounced in one articulation. Within a syllable or word, only those sounds that are not prohibited can be combined. phonetic laws modern Russian language. So, the combination of sounds [s't'] is natural for the modern Russian language (cf.: ra[s't']i, pu[s't']i, gre[s't'], etc. ), but there is not a single word in modern Russian where there would be combinations of sounds similar to it [з'т'], [с'д'], [зт'], [сд'].
The study of speech sounds is the main part of phonetics.
Segmental units are combined into larger units - supersegmental (or prosodic - concerning stress), which, as it were, are superimposed on segmental ones. Supersegmental units include syllable / non-syllable, stress, intonation. Supersegmental units cannot be pronounced separately, since they cannot exist on their own, without being combined with linear (segmental) units. Supersegment units cover two or more segments. For example, if in the word pa" mouth the first syllable is stressed (one segment), then the second syllable (second segment) will necessarily be unstressed, since the second segment inevitably accompanies a certain first. The same applies to the first. Only together do two segments form an integral unit: stressed + unstressed or unstressed + stressed If in a syllable consisting of two sounds the first sound is non-syllable, then the second is syllabic: yes. If a syllable consists of three sounds, then one of them is syllabic, and the rest are non-syllabic: yes "m. Therefore, inside a syllable, a syllabic sound and a non-syllabic sound form an integral supersegment unit. Vowels, as the most sonorous sounds, are syllabic. Syllabic sounds form the top of a syllable The property of sound to act as the top of a syllable is called syllabicity.
The syllable is both a segmental unit (since it is a linear sequence of sounds) and a supersegmental unit (since it is a unity of syllabic and non-syllabic sounds). Syllables are combined into phonetic words due to word stress. Phonetic words are combined into syntagmas due to syntagmatic (bar) stress and intonation. intonation and phrasal stress serve to combine syntagmas in a phrase.
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UNITS OF PHONETICS
relevant scientific sources:
- Answers to the exam in the phonetics of the Russian language
| Answers for the test / exam| 2017 | Russia | docx | 0.08 MB
1. The concept of the sound system language 2. articulatory apparatus person. 3. Supersegment units. Syllable. Theories of the syllable. 4. Supersegment units. stress. 5. Supersegment units. intonation 6.
- Modern Russian language and its history
Unknown8798 | | Answers to the state exam| 2015 | Russia | docx | 0.21 MB
- Answers to the state exam in Modern Russian
| Answers for the test / exam| 2016 | Russia | docx | 0.21 MB
I. Modern Russian Language The section on phonetics is written on the basis of the textbook by Pozharitskaya-Knyazev 1. Articulatory characteristics of the sounds of the Russian language and features of its articulatory base.
- Answers to the exam in modern Russian
| Answers to the state exam| 2017 | Russia | docx | 0.18 MB
The phonetics section studies the sound side of the Russian language. Phonetics, which studies the sound shell of words and sentences, has not only theoretical, but also practical value. Sounds, which are air vibrations, belong to the area physical phenomena and studied in acoustics. To convey a particular thought, people must pronounce a series of sounds that make up the sound shell of certain words. Without such voice playback cannot be carried out verbal communication. Phonetics is associated with graphics, g.u. a system of alphabetic characters adopted to designate individual sounds of the Russian language in writing. Spelling interacts with graphics, which determines general principles and private rules for the use of alphabetic characters in the written transmission of speech.
When studying the sound structure of a language, it is important to establish what by phonetic means and under what conditions it has for the transfer and differentiation of significant units of speech. Phoneme- the shortest sound unit capable of distinguishing sound shells (sound side) different words and morphemes (significant parts of a word).
There are the following phonetic means:
Sound - articulate element of spoken speech. It is formed with the help of the organs of speech. In many cases, words differ not by several, but by just one sound. For example, the word "wash" is delimited from words that have the same number of sounds, wash - dig - be(difference in nerve sound); wash - mother - dregs(difference in the second sound); wash - washed - cape(difference in the third sound).
All sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
Vowels: [a], [o], [e], [i], [yJ, [y].
Iotated vowels: e, e [jo], yutsu], i [j a].
Consonants
Paired by deafness - sonority:
[b], [i], [g |, [d], [g], [h] - voiced;
[and], [f], [k], [t], [w], , [c], [h], [u] - only deaf;
[йJ, [р], [l], [m], [and] - sonorants (voiced only).
Paired hardness - softness:
[b], [c], [g], [d], [h], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], [p], [s], [t ], [f], [x] - solid;
, [c'], [g'], [d'], [h'], [k'], [l'], K], [n'], [n'], Ip ], 1s'] , [t '], [f ], [x '] soft;
[g], [w], [c] - only solid;
[h], [j], Ish] - only soft.
Syllable - it is a phonetic unit, a unit of sounding speech. In Russian, the vowel sound is the most sonorous sound. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. Syllables can be open or closed. Syllables ending in a vowel are called open syllables. Syllables with a consonant at the end are called closed. Words can consist of one, two, three or more syllables. The syllable that is stressed is called stressed syllable the rest of the syllables are unstressed. The syllable division (syllable boundary) runs between the vowels of the previous and consonants of the following syllable: qvar-ti-ra, ras-pi-sa-ni-e. When combining two sonorants (except for "th") or two noisy consonants, the syllable division is the same: com-pa-ta,
peasant.
If a sonorant consonant is sequentially found in a word, followed by a noisy consonant, then the syllable boundary will pass between them: half-ka, may-ka.
When combining the sound [йJ with a sonorant syllable, the division passes between them: secret, howl-pa.
The syllable section and the rules for transferring a word from one line to another may not coincide: one should not confuse the division of words into syllables with the division of words for transfer. Transfer rules are built on several principles, and word transfer but syllables is only one of the principles.
In the sound stream, it is customary to distinguish between linear (segmental) (from the Latin segmentum - segment) and supra-linear (super-segmental) phonetic units. Linear phonetic units include the sounds of a language or their combinations, located sequentially one after another and forming a hierarchical system, and supra-linear phonetic units include stress and intonation, which cannot exist separately from speech sounds, but only together with them.
Linear phonetic units are sound, syllable, phonetic word, speech tact, phonetic phrase.
A phonetic phrase is the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.
A speech tact, or syntagma, is a part of a phonetic phrase, a group of words united by one intonation and meaning.
A phonetic word is a part of a speech tact, united by one verbal stress, an independent word along with unstressed functional words and particles adjacent to it.
A syllable is part of a phonetic word.
Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.
The selection of these phonetic units is the result of phonetic articulation of speech.
Phonetic division of speech is the division of a phrase into syntagmas, depending on the communicative intention of the speaker.
6. Speech apparatus, its structure and functions of its individual parts.
The speech apparatus is a set of work of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It includes:
- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhale;
- passive speech organs - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx;
- active speech organs - these are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilages of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;
- the brain, which coordinates the work of the organs of speech and subordinates the technique of pronunciation to the creative will of the speaker.
Functions of individual organs of speech.
1. The vocal cords are relaxed, open. The glottis is wide open. Air passes through it unhindered. No sound is produced. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing deaf sounds.
2. The vocal cords are close and tense. The glottis almost closes. There is an obstruction in the way of the air stream. Under the pressure of the air jet, the vocal cords move apart and come together again, because. they are tense. Thus, oscillations occur. This creates a tone, a voice. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants
The oral cavity and nasal cavity Act as resonators
1. Palatine curtain. When the palatine curtain is lowered, nasal sounds are pronounced, when raised (folded back) - oral (pure) sounds.
2. The middle part of the back of the tongue. If the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, soft consonants are formed. This additional movement of the tongue, superimposed on the main articulation, is called palatalization. When pronouncing solid consonants, there is no palatalization. For the sound [j], palatalization is not an additional, but the main articulation, therefore it is commonly called a palatal sound.
The subject of phonetics
The subject of phonetics is the sound means of language: sounds, stress, intonation.
The task of phonetics- study and description of the sound system of the language in this stage its development.
Basic phonetic units and means
All units of phonetics are divided into segmental and supersegment.
· Segment units- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beat), phonetic phrases (syntagms).
o phonetic phrase- a segment of speech, which is an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.
o Phonetic word (rhythmic structure)- part of a phrase, united by one verbal stress.
o Syllable- the smallest unit of the speech chain.
o Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.
· Supersegment units(intonational means) - units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).
o stress- selection in speech of a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.
o Tone- rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.
o Pace- speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segment units uttered per unit of time.
o Duration- the time of the speech segment.
The sound side of speech is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The sound of speech is produced directly in speech apparatus human, which consists of five main parts:
· Breathe-helping machine,
larynx,
extension tube, which includes the mouth and nose,
organs of pronunciation
The brain is the nervous system.
The respiratory apparatus is the thorax, thoracic cavity, lungs and windpipe. Each of constituent parts the respiratory apparatus performs its characteristic functions.
The larynx is a tube of cartilage interconnected by short elastic muscular ligaments. The vocal cords are attached to the cartilages that form the larynx and, due to their mobility, change the degree of tension.
Pronunciation organs are located in the oral cavity, i.e. organs, from the work of which the final high-quality finish of each sound of speech is ensured. These organs are usually divided into active ones (lips, tongue, vocal cords, lower jaw) and passive (teeth, tongue, palate, upper jaw).
Vowel sounds can be in strong and weak positions.
· Strong position- a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, land, greatness.
· In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher.
All six vowels are distinguished under stress.
In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [h], other vowels are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a somewhat weakened sound [a] - [vad] a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound that is intermediate between [i] and [e], for example: [ m "iesta], [h" iesy], [n "iet" brka], [s * ielo].
The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowels in the same part of the word is called positional alternation sounds.
The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in relation to the stressed one.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowels change less, for example: st [o] l - st [a] la.
· In other unstressed syllables, vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example ^: transported - [n "riev" 6s], gardener - [sdavot], water carrier - [vodavbs] (here ъ to b denote an obscure sound, zero sound).
The alternation of vowels in strong and weak positions is not reflected in the letter, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in an unstressed position, the letter that denotes percussive sound in this root: to be surprised means "to meet with a diva (miracle)."
This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for the uniform spelling of significant parts of the word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position.
Morphological principle the designation of unstressed vowels, checked by stress, obeys.
1. Main classification languages of the world
Currently, there are from 3 to 5 thousand languages on earth. The difference is connected with the difference between dialects and languages, secondly, with the definition of the area and the scope of use, and thirdly, with the assessment of the "vitality" of the language.
The plurality of languages necessitates classification. In modern linguistics, 4 classifications have been developed:
1) Areal (geographical)
2) Functional
3) Typological (morphological)
4) Genealogical
The first is based on the study of the language map of the world. Describes the boundaries of the distribution.
The second is based on the study of the functions and areas of language use (cultural, diplomatic, language of education, etc.)
The most important are typological and genealogical classifications.
I. The Indo-European family of languages is the largest. 1 billion 600 million speakers.
II. Altai family. 76 million speakers.
III. Uralic languages.
IV. Caucasian family. (Georgian, Abkhazian, Chechen, Kabardian)
V. Sino-Tibetan family
VI. Afroasian family (Semito-Hamitic family)
Speech sounds are studied in the section of linguistics called phonetics.
All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.
There are 36 consonants in Russian.
The consonant sounds of the Russian language are such sounds, during the formation of which the air meets some kind of barrier in the oral cavity, they consist of a voice and noise, or only of noise.
In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - deaf.
Most often, voiced and deaf consonants form pairs of voiced-deafness: [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [g] - [ w], [h] - [s].
However, some consonants are only deaf: [x], [c], [h "], [w] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [p], [G].
There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b "], [c] - [c"], [g] - [g "], [d] - [d "], [h] - [h"] , [k] - [k "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m *], [n] - [n *], [n] - [n "], [r] - [p "], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"].
Solid consonants [g], [w], [c] and soft consonants, [h "], [t"] do not have paired sounds.
In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of a sound among other sounds in a word.
· A position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant, this is the position before a vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v *] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants.
At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced before the deaf becomes deaf: hem - [patshyt "]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz" ba]; voiced at the end of the word is stunned: oak - [dup]; the sound is not pronounced: holiday - [praz "n" ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas "t"].
The Indo-European family of languages is the largest. 1 billion 600 million speakers.
1) Indo-Iranian branch.
a) indian group(Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi)
b) Iranian group (Persian, Pashto, Forsi, Ossetian)
2) Romano-Germanic branch. The specialty of this branch are Greek and Arabic.
a) Romance (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Provençal, Romanian)
b) German group
North German subgroup (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic)
West German subgroup (German, English, Dutch)
c) Celtic group (Irish, Scottish, Welsh).
3) Balto-Slavic branch of languages
a) Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian)
b) Slavic group
West Slavic subgroup (Polish, Chechen, Slovak)
Southern subgroup (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian)
East Slavic subgroup (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian).
The place of the Russian language in genealogical classification: Russian belongs to Indo-European family languages, the Balto-Slavic branch, the East Slavic subgroup.
speech sound - sound produced by the human pronunciation apparatus for the purpose of language communication(the pronunciation apparatus includes: pharynx, oral cavity with tongue, lungs, nasal cavity, lips, teeth).
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