List the types of material and spiritual culture. Material and spiritual culture

An important role in conducting pedagogical research is played by the correct choice of methods. The method of scientific and pedagogical research, according to S.S. Palchevsky, is a way of penetrating into the essence of complex psychological and pedagogical processes of personality formation in order to establish certain objective patterns of education and training for the purpose of their practical use.

The method of pedagogical research is a set of methods and techniques for cognition of the objective laws of the processes of education, upbringing and development. There is no single classification of methods, but there are various approaches to it. Usually, the following groups of methods are distinguished:

2. Formalized - they are characterized by a greater degree of abstraction and such methods of cognition, which are based on abstraction from the content and generalization of the form of various pedagogical phenomena and processes. These include quantitative modeling of pedagogical phenomena and processes. Currently, computer modeling of pedagogical phenomena and processes is being used more and more often.

3. Theoretical - they include: theoretical consideration of the tasks and subject of research, determination of the logic of research, consideration of the necessary research methods and expected results, theoretical analysis and synthesis of research results.

There are also groups of methods according to other criteria:

According to the purpose of the study, these are methods of theoretical search, methods of identifying ways to improve practice.

Sources of information include:

methods of studying theoretical sources;

· methods of analysis of real pedagogical processes, which in turn are divided into methods of studying in natural conditions, and methods of studying in specially organized conditions in accordance with the purpose and hypothesis of the study.

Methods of studying in natural conditions include:

observation - direct, direct, indirect, indirect, short-term, long-term, systematic, selective, included, complex;

conversation - a method of collecting facts about pedagogical phenomena in the process of personal communication according to a specially drawn up program, but along the way you can change questions in accordance with the answers received;

survey - obtaining information by setting a standardized system of questions, is carried out in two main types: questioning and interviewing;

Questionnaire - a survey on a questionnaire to receive answers to a pre-compiled system of questions, it can be open (free answers of the respondent), closed (selection of an answer from a number of proposed ones) and mixed;

Interviewing - a way to obtain information through oral questioning; it can be free (not regulated by the topic and form) and standardized (on predetermined issues), allows you to accumulate individual facts and therefore plays an auxiliary role - indicative or clarifying,

testing - a standardized research method designed for accurate quantitative and certain qualitative characteristics, assessment of individual psychological and pedagogical characteristics and human behavior by comparing these assessments with some pre-set standards - test norms;

analysis of documentation and products of activity - personal files, medical records, characteristics, class journals, lesson plans, diaries, reader forms, curricula, orders, instructions, reports and balances, articles in school wall printing;

The method of expert assessment is used in cases where the reliability of the information necessary for decision-making is relatively low, so it is preferable to participate in such an assessment not just one, but a group of experts.

The methods of studying in specially organized conditions include: a pedagogical experiment in natural and laboratory conditions, experimental verification in a mass school.

According to the logic of research, methods are distinguished: studying the state of the problem, experimental search for new solutions to the problem, processing the results of the experiment, etc.

According to the methods of processing and analyzing data, research methods are distinguished: qualitative analysis, quantitative processing of results (statistical and non-statistical).

In addition, according to the form of causality, deterministic and probabilistic methods are distinguished.

The theoretical methods include:

Analysis is the decomposition of the whole under study into its constituent elements, the selection of individual features and qualities of the phenomenon. For example, the actions of a teacher in a lesson can be divided into separate components (communication techniques, motivations, explanations) and analyzed separately. The analysis is carried out at different levels: socio-pedagogical, organizational-didactic, personal, activity, etc. (in the philosophical, psychological, pedagogical, didactic, methodological aspects). Types of analysis: classification, structural (relations and interrelations are revealed), functional (functional dependencies are determined), causal (causation of phenomena is revealed).

Synthesis is the reunification of elements into a coherent structure. So, observing the lesson, the researcher finds out what changes in the actions of students occur when the actions of the teacher change. Analysis and synthesis are closely interrelated, so the researcher must have equally developed skills in mastering them.

Comparison consists in determining the similarities or differences between phenomena. When comparing, the researcher must first of all determine its basis - the criterion.

Ranking is a method by which everything secondary, which does not significantly affect the phenomenon under study, is excluded. Ranking makes it possible to identify the main and separate the secondary facts.

· Generalization. When investigating a phenomenon, it is necessary not only to single out its main features, but also to generalize them. The greater the number of essential features of phenomena has been compared, the more conclusive the generalization.

· Abstraction. This operation allows you to select a certain side of the phenomenon in a "pure form", i.e. in one in which it does not actually occur. For example, when studying the motivation for teaching schoolchildren, the researcher is interested in their motives, needs, interests, but other qualities (body parameters, hair and eye color) are not taken into account.

· Concretization is the finding of a particular one that meets a general criterion, subsuming it under a concept. Concretization allows you to better understand the general.

· Systematization. This operation is necessary to systematize and classify phenomena, i.e. distribute them into semantic groups according to certain (specified by the researcher) grounds.

Formalization. True science is possible only on the basis of abstract thinking, consistent human reasoning, flowing in logical and linguistic forms in the form of concepts, judgments, and conclusions.

· Method of unity of historical and logical. In pedagogy, “rediscoveries” very often occur (ideas of developmental and problem-based learning, individual approach, etc.). New ideas are interpreted as if they arise independently of past experience, therefore one of the most serious and difficult methodological tasks of raising the theoretical level of works on pedagogy is to establish the optimal ratio of historical and logical principles in them. It is necessary to pay attention to the primacy of the first and the secondary of the second. The historical is an objectively existing reality. The logical derivative of the historical is the mental form of its reflection. Thus, historical is understood as the movement (development) of an object, and logical is a reflection of the movement of this object in human thinking.

· Simulation. The modeling method is such a general scientific method of research, in which not the object of knowledge itself is studied, but its image in the form of a so-called model, but the result of the study is transferred from the model to the object. This second object is called the model of the first. In science, there are model-replacement, model-representation, model-interpretation, model-research. Modeling is the process of building a model. Modeling is successfully used to optimize the structure of educational material, improve the planning of the educational process, manage cognitive activity and manage the educational process (diagnostics, forecasting, design).

Among the methods of pedagogical research, a sociometric survey is widely used. The term "sociometry" itself means "social dimension" in literal translation. This method of sociometry is, firstly, a convenient way to study and measure hidden interpersonal relationships in a team where students know each other well, and secondly, it makes it possible to identify the structure of relationships in the class depending on likes and dislikes, the presence of groupings, to determine the authority elected bodies, the presence of leaders, marginalized (rejected), isolated students. At the same time, it should be noted that on the basis of the picture of the life of the student team obtained with the help of sociometry, recommendations can be made on working with this team, on strengthening the cohesion and organization of the class, on ways of further development, studying within the collective relationships of students.

The method of independence of characteristics consists in the fact that it makes it possible, firstly, to obtain more complete and generalized information about a student or a class (group) from many persons (teachers, class teachers, head teacher, director, parents, comrades, friends, leaders public youth organizations, representatives of social institutions, etc.). Secondly, to characterize the student in different conditions of his life and activity, at various stages of development (for example, primary school age, adolescence, youth). Practice shows that the information collected from different persons gives a fairly objective description of the students. The use of the method of independent characteristics for the study and analysis of the development of difficult students is especially recommended.

The method of studying and generalizing advanced pedagogical experience is the practice of teaching, upbringing and education, i.e. an organized purposeful pedagogical process and its results, which are reflected in the quality of the student's personality. Mass pedagogical experience is a typical experience of the work of public education institutions, which characterizes the achieved level of teaching practice, education and implementation of the achievements of pedagogical science in it.

The concept of "advanced pedagogical experience" is used in a broad and narrow sense. In a broad sense, best practice is understood as the high skill of a teacher, i.e. a practice that gives a high stable pedagogical result. Professor M.N. Skatkin believes that "the experience of a teacher may not contain anything new, original, but, based on the successful application of the principles and methods established by science, it will be a good model for those teachers who have not yet mastered pedagogical skills" .

In a narrow sense, advanced pedagogical experience is understood only as a practice that contains elements of creative search, novelty, originality, what is otherwise called innovation. The innovators of pedagogical work include Sh.A. Amonashvili, O.S. Gazman, N.P. Guzika, E.N. Ilyina, V.A. Karakovsky, V.F. Shatalova and others.

Scientific study and generalization of pedagogical experience is aimed at solving various research goals:

Identification of the existing level of solving educational and upbringing tasks;

Identification of bottlenecks, "white" spots and contradictions that arise in practice;

Identification of leading trends, original ideas, elements of innovative, progressive, born in the daily creative search for the best teachers, as well as characteristic shortcomings and mistakes;

The study of the availability and effectiveness of scientific recommendations that become the property of science and practice.

When choosing a method, one should not so much formally go through their entire set, but it is necessary to determine their optimal complex for each stage of the study. In this case, it is necessary to be guided by the following requirements for the choice of research methods:

apply a combination of methods that allows you to obtain versatile information about the object;

methods should reflect the dynamics of the development of the phenomenon and process under study, the conditions for their functioning and the results over a certain period of time;

apply methods that allow obtaining information from as many different sources as possible (for example, obtaining information about the student from the most competent persons who are in constant communication and joint activities with him: from students, teachers, friends, neighbors, parents, grandparents).

Everyone who studies the theory of pedagogy has questions about how certain theoretical conclusions were obtained, how correctly they reflect reality, and whether they can be trusted. Ways, methods of cognition of objective reality are usually called research methods. With the help of methods, each science obtains information about the subject under study, analyzes and processes the data obtained, and is included in the system of known knowledge. The ultimate goal of any pedagogical research is to reveal the order, regularity in the process being studied, i.e. establishing a pattern.

Traditional methods include observation, study of experience, primary sources, analysis of school documentation, study of student creativity, conversations - methods inherited by modern pedagogy from researchers who were at the origins of pedagogical science.

observation. This is a specially organized perception of the object, process or phenomenon under study in natural conditions.

Observation is the oldest method in pedagogy, it was first introduced by Jan Amos Comenius. The oldest, but still not fully developed. Observation requires a lot of both preparatory and organizational work. To increase the effectiveness of observation, it must be long-term, systematic, versatile, objective and massive. It is especially difficult to comply with the last requirement, since a person is by nature subjective. They even carried out such an experiment: several people observed one child at the same time, when comparing the results of observation, it turned out that only 10% of the information coincided.

For competently organized observation, an observation program is required, which consists of 3 parts.

a) the choice of the object of observation.

For example, a student whom teachers consider the “luminary of the school”, and all students do not like, you need to find out what this is connected with and help; or the student has no interests, and therefore he has no desire to learn; or complete self-doubt, detachment from everyone - he doesn’t need anyone, but he doesn’t need anyone, etc.

b) definition of goals and objectives of observation:

Identification of positive qualities

Identification of negative qualities.

c) development of an observation scheme, creation of conditions for observation: observations in the lessons of different teachers, observations in all extracurricular activities (sometimes you even have to plan them specially for this), at home, etc.

When observing, the results are necessarily recorded, the data obtained is processed.

Advantages:

We not only study the student, but we can sometimes immediately take some action, try to change the situation.

Flaws:

A large amount of time

A large amount of expended strength and energy,

There are no options for observation programs, the teacher each time, for each student, develops everything himself,

Does not reveal the inner sides of pedagogical phenomena,

It is impossible to ensure the complete objectivity of information,

People change their behavior under supervision.

Therefore, observation is most often used in the initial stages of the study.

Participant observation method : the observer himself is a member of the collective, participates in the affairs of the collective.

Positive:

There is no need to develop special monitoring programs.

People don't change their behavior.

Negative:

Can provoke an unhealthy atmosphere in the team, fiscal,

The subjectivity of the observer increases.

Conversation - one of the most ancient methods.

The preparatory stage of the conversation includes: choosing the object of the conversation, determining the purpose of the conversation, determining the time and place of the conversation. You need to plan the conversation.

The conversation can be planned, according to an emergency, a tragedy. The conversation should not be held in the teacher's room (the student's nervous state), in the corridor or in the classroom during recess (causes the students' curiosity, thereby making the student nervous again). It is best to leave the student after the lesson or ask him to take him home and bring the notebooks, or in the laboratory, ask him to help prepare for the next lesson, etc.

Conversation plan: the conversation should consist of three stages - introductory (who are the parents, interests, relationships, which circles he attends, who he is friends with, who is the authority, what ideals, who he is going to become, etc.); culminating - the main questions for which the conversation was conceived; the third - advice, wishes.

Organizational features of the conversation: questions are compiled only for themselves, in no case should the student see them, especially since they should not be read out, the answers to questions must also be remembered, the timbre of speech should be taken into account.

After the conversation, the most important points need to be fixed. You can record the conversation on a tape recorder, but only for yourself: in no case should the student see this and you should not let anyone listen to this recording, otherwise the confidence on the part of the students will be undermined and none of them will have a frank conversation with you in the future.

To increase the reliability of the results of the conversation and remove the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures are used:

Having a clear plan

Discussion of issues of interest to the researcher in various perspectives and connections,

Variation of questions, setting them in a form convenient for the interlocutor.

Advantages:

The teacher in the course of the conversation feels whether it was possible to establish contact with the student, he can try to influence the student, it is easier to build a program of education and self-education with this student in the future.

Flaws:

Quite a lot of time

Difficulty fixing the results of the conversation,

For good results, experience and the ability to conduct a conversation are required.

Experience learning - Another method of pedagogical research that has been used for a long time. In a broad sense, it means organized, cognitive activity aimed at establishing the historical connections of education, isolating the common, stable in educational and educational systems. In a modern, somewhat narrower sense, this method is understood as the study of the best practices of creatively working pedagogical teams, individual teachers.

In the process of scientific and pedagogical research studying school papers characterizing the educational process. It contains a lot of objective data that helps to establish cause-and-effect relationships, relationships between the phenomena studied. Studying the documentation provides, for example, valuable statistical data for establishing a connection between the state of health and academic performance, how the schedule is drawn up and the performance of students, etc. Studying school documentation must be combined with other methods.

The study of student creativity - homework and classwork in all academic subjects, essays, abstracts, reports, results of aesthetic and technical creativity will tell an experienced teacher a lot. The individual characteristics of students, inclinations and interests, attitude to work and their duties, the level of development of diligence, diligence and other qualities, motives for activity - this is just a small list of educational aspects where this method can be successfully applied.

All of these traditional methods complement each other and are used in combination.

One of the modern methods of pedagogical research is pedagogical experiment . The word "experiment" of Latin origin and in translation means "experience", "test". This is a scientifically posed experience of transforming the pedagogical process in precisely taken into account conditions. Unlike methods that only register what already exists, the experiment in pedagogy has a creative character. Experimentally, for example, new techniques, methods, forms, and systems of upbringing and educational activity make their way into practice. A pedagogical experiment may involve a group of students, a class, a school or several schools. Very broad regional experiments are also being carried out. Research can be long-term or short-term depending on the topic and purpose. It must be remembered that the experiment should in no case harm the student. An appropriate base is needed for the experiment.

The pedagogical experiment requires:

Substantiation of the working hypothesis,

Development of the research question,

Drawing up a detailed plan for the experiment,

Strict adherence to the planned plan,

Accurate fixation of results,

Careful analysis of the received data,

Formulation of final conclusions.

The reliability of experimental conclusions depends on compliance with the experimental conditions. All factors other than those tested must be carefully balanced. If, for example, the effectiveness of a new technique is being tested, then the learning conditions, except for the technique being tested, must be made the same both in the experimental and in the control class. Since in real life there are a lot of reasons that affect the effectiveness of the educational process, it is very difficult to comply with this requirement.

There is a classification of experiments according to the purpose of conducting:

1. ascertaining - the existing pedagogical phenomena are studied;

2. verification, clarifying - the hypothesis created in the process of understanding the problem is checked;

3. transformative, formative - in its process, new pedagogical phenomena are constructed.

Basically, these types of experiments are applied in sequence.

According to the venue, a natural and laboratory pedagogical experiment is distinguished.

The object of the pedagogical experiment can be plans, programs, textbooks and teaching aids.

An example of an experiment: in the tenth century BC. ruler of Sparta Lycurgus He set up an experiment confirming the power of education. He took two puppies from the dog and put them in a deep hole. Water and food were lowered down on a rope. He left the other puppies from the same litter to grow free. Let them take the course of "dog science" in life. When the puppies grew up, Lycurgus ordered the hare to be released in front of the dogs. As one would expect, the puppies, who grew up in freedom, chased the hare, caught up with him and crushed him. And the puppies, who grew up in the pit, took to their heels.

Test method. "Test" - a short test, a test. Testing is a purposeful, identical examination for all subjects, carried out under strictly controlled conditions, which makes it possible to objectively measure the studied characteristics of the pedagogical process.

In pedagogy, tests are used: as a form of survey in the classroom - performance tests, tests of elementary skills, such as writing, reading, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of learning - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge, skills in all academic subjects. The same tests are used to study personality.

There are two types of tests: speed and power. In speed tests, the subject usually does not have enough time to answer all the questions; in power tests, everyone has such an opportunity.

An example of a test known in history: the army, after a long march, had to immediately take part in the battle. The commander led them to the river and allowed them to drink. Some fell to their knees from fatigue and drank water directly from the river, while others scooped up helmets and drank without losing their human appearance. It was they who took part in the battle and won. With such a simple test, the commander selected those who still had strength left.

Advantages:

Accuracy,

Simplicity,

Availability,

Possibility of automation.

Questionnaire method. This is the most common method of socio-pedagogical research. The method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires - questionnaires.

Requirements for conducting and compiling questionnaires:

Only professionals should compose;

Must meet the requirements of representativeness (conclusions by class, school, region): by class, 80% should be interviewed, by school - 25-30%, by district - 15-20%, by city - 7-10%, by region - 3-5%, in the region - 1-2%, in the country - 0.1%.

Should be carried out no more than 2 times a year in the same team, otherwise the interest and confidence of the respondents in the ongoing research will be lost. etc.

Questionnaire requirements:

1. The questionnaire must be permeated with a single theoretical thought.

2. Questions in the questionnaire must be submitted with an unambiguous interpretation, otherwise it will not be possible to process them.

For example, do you like the team in your class? The answers are yes, no, don't know.

5. You can use questions that put pressure on the moral qualities of the student.

7. The questionnaire begins with an appeal to the respondent, where the purpose of the questionnaire is necessarily argued, methodological recommendations are given for filling it out.

Advantages:

Coverage of a large number of respondents;

Doesn't take a lot of time;

Simple processing.

Flaws:

There is no confidence in the objectivity of the respondents.

You can not draw conclusions on the basis of only one questionnaire.

In recent years, mathematical methods have begun to penetrate much more intensively into pedagogical research, which has brought closer the possibility of finding not only qualitative, but also quantitative characteristics for some pedagogical phenomena. For pedagogical science, this is of great importance, since many processes of training and education are characterized by high variability depending on both subjective and objective factors. It is often impossible even to exactly repeat the experiment with the same composition of students, since the previous activity left some trace and now they have become qualitatively somewhat different. In addition, a number of random, unregulated influences could have affected, many of which are difficult to identify and take into account. This forces one to turn to mathematical science, to one of its areas - the theory of probability, which allows one to establish the degree of probability of a particular phenomenon depending on certain conditions for its occurrence and course, to investigate the patterns that determine the manifestation of random influences in different conditions. Methods of mathematical statistics have become quite widespread in pedagogical research. With their help, in particular, the arithmetic mean value of the studied value is established (for example, errors made by students in the control work, popular science books and brochures read by schoolchildren on their own initiative) and the degree of reliability of this indicator, by calculating the standard deviation, which characterizes the degree stability of the arithmetic mean (i.e., dispersion around the arithmetic mean of the data expressed by it). The modeling method is also used in pedagogical research, i.e. the use of diagrams, drawings and logical and mathematical symbolic formulas, usually in the process of formulating hypotheses and then testing them in cases where it is difficult or even impossible to study a given pedagogical phenomenon in natural conditions.

However, it should be taken into account that not all pedagogical phenomena can be measured and calculated when they are characterized, and therefore mathematical methods have not yet found application in a number of pedagogical studies (in particular, in the study of many issues of education).

Bibliography

1. Kovalev N.E. etc. Introduction to Pedagogy. – M.: Enlightenment, 1995.

2. Pedagogy: Textbook. / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - M., 1999.

3. Reader on pedagogy. / Comp. S. N. Polyansky. - M., 1972.

Under the methodology of pedagogical research is meant a set of principles, methods, techniques, techniques, procedures and organization of the actual research work, i.e. the study of pedagogical phenomena, the solution of scientific problems in the educational process.

What is the methodology of pedagogical research

To date, this is a fairly developed branch of pedagogical science. There are methods that have long been historically established and have already become traditional, but there are also those that have arisen relatively recently, or are being created at the present time. Previously known are processed; modern computer, computing and video equipment is used.

Classification

Methods of pedagogical research, although very conditionally, can be divided into two large groups: general scientific and specific pedagogical. Another division is also possible: methods of theoretical research, modeling, formalization, probability theory; systemic, structural-functional, statistical analysis. Logical methods: comparison and comparison, analysis and synthesis, analogy, induction and deduction, proofs, generalization and abstraction. We do not dwell on their characteristics.
There are also practical methods (as opposed to theoretical ones) that have the task of creating, collecting and organizing empirical material - facts of pedagogical content, products of educational activity.
There are classifications of research methods according to sources of accumulation of information, according to the study of the pedagogical process in natural conditions, the same - in specially modified conditions, according to the method of processing and analyzing research data.

Pedagogical sources: pitfalls of the question

Before proceeding to the presentation of questions of research methodology, we emphasize that sources precede methods. This should be understood as follows: before applying the methods as a research tool, one must have a base of facts and the facts themselves. For it is they that prompt the researcher, who has seen a pedagogical problem, to formulate it as a scientific problem, and then turn to research methods. In short, the idea of ​​sources and facts precedes the idea of ​​research methods. The very idea of ​​scientific research begins when a discrepancy, a contradiction, a gap between some new, unknown fact and a known theory is discovered.
We draw attention to the expressed idea because in the textbooks on pedagogy published over the past 30 years, there is no clear and precise presentation of this issue. Moreover, they, firstly, do not even single out as an independent question about pedagogical sources; secondly, in a number of manuals, confusion (contamination) of the concept of "method" with the concept of "source" of pedagogical research is allowed. In some of them, the following are named as methods: the study of school documentation and student work; also - the study of written, graphic works and products of students; study of children's work and documentation of educational institutions; studying the products of students' activities, etc. In the textbooks on pedagogy of recent publications, this issue is covered in a similar way.
The inaccuracy here lies in the fact that only the products of student work and products of student activity are meant, and, for example, not preschoolers, students, etc. But the main drawback of this judgment is that sources (products of activity, student work, school documentation) are classified as methods. In this case, the addition of the word “study” or “analysis” to them does not save, since the actual methodology of study and analysis is not disclosed, and this is the essence: what methods to study and analyze - this is exactly what, unfortunately, not shown. In addition, the "products of students" (student and children's work) are studied by one method, and the documentation of educational institutions - by others.
In some manuals on pedagogy, among the methods of pedagogical research, “study and generalization of advanced pedagogical experience” is named. But the fact of the matter is that this "study and generalization" itself needs methods and organization of research; these are not methods, but rather an area of ​​study. And experience, practice are, as already mentioned, an inexhaustible pedagogical source, but not methods.

Methods

After these remarks, we will briefly consider the methods of pedagogical research, without adhering to a strict classification. The fact is that the researcher uses them in combination, although at certain stages of activity he turns to one or another method.
Observation (observational methods) is a universal method of many sciences: psychology, biology, chemistry, astronomy, and also pedagogy. To emphasize that we are talking about the observation of the phenomena of education, henceforth we will call it pedagogical observation. The term “pedagogical observation” itself has a number of meanings: worldly meaning (“Follow the child, don’t run out into the road”); observation of a practical teacher (educator, teacher, teacher); control supervision (inspector, director, school administration); educational observation (student-trainee, cadet, listener, trainee teacher) and observation of the researcher. We will talk about the latter in more detail.
Pedagogical observation is a method of understanding the pedagogical process and the phenomena of education through purposeful, systematic, direct perception of them, tracking the change and development of the conditions and results of educational practice. Pedagogical observation is carried out both in natural and experimental conditions. It can be organized at school, and in out-of-school and preschool institutions, and in the family, and in health camps, and in the university, and in the labor collective - in a word, everywhere where the experience of education, training, pedagogical phenomenon is studied and researched.
Observation is non-included and included. An example of non-participant observation can be a visit by the head teacher or a methodologist to a teacher's lesson to study the cognitive activity of students, and the observers do not interfere in any way with the work of the class. And at the same time, the researcher himself can lead the lesson, while simultaneously studying some pedagogical issues, for example, the development of students' cognitive activity, the effectiveness of collective cognitive activity, etc. At the same time, he himself actively manages the cognitive process, dynamically manages it. This is an example of participant observation.
In practice, both types of observation are widely used. With non-involved observation, the researcher evaluates the visible, perceived phenomena more fully and objectively, fixes them more accurately than the one who conducts the classes. But at the same time, he will not always be able to identify the motives for some actions of the teacher leading the lesson, he will not fix his thoughts on a creative approach to the educational process. When observation is turned on, the researcher knows about all this himself. But at the same time, he is more subjective and biased in evaluating his own actions and deeds, say, in a lesson. The possibility of fixing some essential details of the lesson becomes more complicated, some incompleteness of the facts will turn out, and this will affect the overall assessment of the lesson and lead to an inaccurate assessment by the teacher of his own actions.
Pedagogical supervision is carried out not randomly and spontaneously, but purposefully and systematically. This requires prior preparation. Based on the topic, objectives of the study, a specific, selected scientific and pedagogical problem, it is necessary to formulate the purpose and objectives of observation, outline its object, place and calendar dates, and determine the participants. You should also prepare a plan, questions, sequence, organization of observation.
At the time of non-participant observation, one should not interfere in the educational process. It is desirable that those who are being monitored do not know its purpose and themes. Otherwise, their behavior may turn out to be deliberate, unnatural. Then the observed facts will be atypical, random and even distorted.
It is necessary to fix the observed material. This may be an ordinary protocol recording or a transcript, or, if possible, a sound recording, a phonogram. The protocol must indicate the exact conditions of observation: the date and hours, who is being observed (group, class, team, individual), where, type of occupation or activity (lesson, extracurricular activity, labor business, camping trip, etc.), who conducts observation: teacher, educator, someone else. Recording is carried out in free form or in some other way.
After the lesson, the observation materials are supplemented and refined by a conversation with the teacher and, if necessary, with the students. The protocol is being specified. Subsequently, his materials will provide the necessary facts in the analysis of the topic under study.
The entry in the diary is usually kept in the following form: on the left half of the sheet - observations, on the right - value judgments. In this case, it is necessary to record all information about the observed process: date, place, time, object, etc.
Observation provides living facts, obtained, as a rule, in natural conditions, and sometimes in specially created conditions, for example, during an experiment. In this case, the facts are true. The disadvantage is that when observing, facts that reveal the topic of research may not appear, or there may be few of them. Then the observations will have to be repeated many times, and this takes a lot of time.
Survey methods: conversation, questioning, interviews are quite widespread in pedagogical research.
Conversation- this is an exchange of judgments, thoughts of two (dialogue) or several persons, a group. There is its presenter and other participants. It has different forms.
catechetical(from the Greek. katechesis - instruction, teaching) - a question-answer form of presentation of the topic (originally - Christian dogma): a question is formulated and an answer is immediately given to it. For example, on the topic “Spelling the particle “not” with adjectives” - 1) How is the particle “not” spelled with adjectives? Answer: Together and separately. 2) In what cases is it written together? Answer: When a word with a “not” particle can be replaced by another word of the same meaning without a particle (cheerless - sad, low - low) or when this word is not used without a particle (for example, ridiculous, unsightly). 3) When is the spelling separate? Answer: When there is an opposition in a sentence - not long, but short; not big, but small.
Heuristic(from the Greek. heurisko - I find) - a learning system in which a series of leading questions is asked. During the conversation, her leader gradually brings the interlocutors to the perception of new information. They become, as it were, accomplices in its discovery. The ancient Greek thinker Socrates mastered the high art of such a conversation, therefore such a conversation is also called Socratic.
In pedagogy, there are three types of conversation according to its purpose: informational, educational and research.
AT informational In a conversation, her leader informs the interlocutors of new information, for example, from the field of science, technology, art, politics, sports.
purpose educational conversations - to explain, to inspire the interlocutors with ideas and concepts about the principles and norms of ethics, law, aesthetics, a healthy lifestyle that exist in a given society, about the rules for the relationship of people according to the laws of morality, beauty, health. Often such a conversation is called ethical, but this is inaccurate, because the topic of the conversation is not limited to moral issues, it is much broader. The conversation reveals the meaning of the regulation of people's behavior in society in accordance with the specified norms. The ultimate goal of such work is the formation of personality behavior.
A research conversation involves the receipt by its leader of new information of pedagogical content from the interlocutors themselves. In a heuristic and educational conversation, its leader gives others new knowledge, forms and transforms the behavior of others; in a research conversation, he himself receives new information from others. This is his goal.
The art of a research conversation consists in the fact that through a series of questions, “extract” from the interlocutors as much new information as possible on the topic of research, to learn more facts. Before the conversation, it is necessary to formulate specific questions to which the researcher would like to receive answers.
The number of answers may vary depending on the topic, situation. In the process of talking, it is advisable not to look into the prepared questionnaire: trusting relationships always predispose the interlocutor to frankness, to greater objectivity and informativeness. You should not ask the interlocutor questions that offend his honor, dignity, inquire about the intimate, deeply personal aspects of his life. Respectful attitude to the interlocutor, tact and goodwill will ensure the success of the research conversation.
The content of the research conversation must be recorded immediately after it has been held, so to speak, in hot pursuit. It is possible to keep a record, especially a tape recorder, during the conversation only if the interlocutor does not object and if such a record does not constrain, does not distract him, does not lead to isolation and does not cause a feeling of wariness.
In each case, it is necessary to accurately indicate the date, place of the conversation and data about the interlocutor: last name, first name, patronymic, profession, specialty, position, etc., for example, a physics teacher, a class teacher of the 7th grade, a school principal such and such, grandmother of a student of such and such, etc.
The value of conversation as a method lies in the fact that it is always a live contact between the researcher and the object of study. Direct communication makes it possible to vary questions, ask clarifying questions. At the same time, the researcher often receives information about such valuable facts, the existence of which he did not even suspect.
Questioning is a method of written survey, developed in detail in sociology. At present, questioning is widely used in pedagogical research and especially in social pedagogy.
The questionnaire is a questionnaire from a series of ordered questions and statements. There are two options for answers: selective, when the respondent chooses the one that corresponds (or is closest) to him personally from several proposed and analyzed ones, and constructive, in which the respondent himself formulates the answer. The survey is conducted either with an indication of the respondent's face, or, for greater objectivity, anonymously, i.e. without indicating the name of the respondent. Questions of the questionnaire are closed, ie. nothing more is added to the proposed questions; open when there can be additions to the proposed questions and possible answers.
Having chosen a topic for the survey, the researcher composes questions so that they can be answered specifically. For example, the wording of questions like: What kind of music do you like?
What profession do you like? It is difficult to answer them specifically, as they are too broad and vague. There could be a clarification here: what genre of music do you like or prefer? What area of ​​work do you like? As in a conversation, the questionnaires should not contain questions that affect the dignity of the individual, intimate moments of life.
Advantages of the survey: it allows you to get a lot of information in a relatively short time. His data can be subjected to quantitative analysis by referring to statistical methods, using computer technology. Thus, a generalized picture of the pedagogical phenomenon will be captured.
The disadvantage of the survey can be considered that the factual material received is not personalized, there is no direct contact of the questionnaire with the object of study. In the process of collecting material, it is impossible to ask the respondent clarifying questions. Distortion of the answers is not ruled out either due to a misunderstanding of the question of the questionnaire, or a deliberately frivolous attitude to questions and answers.
When processing questionnaires, doubtful ones (incomplete, filled out not according to the instructions) are not taken for short-cutting. Quantitative data obtained through questionnaires are then supplemented by qualitative analysis and interpretation.
Interview (from the English interview - conversation) is one of the main types of survey through a conversation that the researcher conducts according to a predetermined plan, either with one person or with a group. Their answers serve as the material of pedagogical content for subsequent analysis, interpretation and generalization, of course, in conjunction with the material obtained by other methods. The topics of the interview, as well as questionnaires, can be very diverse, for example, about the student’s educational activities: favorite and least favorite subjects, independent study work, preparation of homework assignments, etc. In an interview, in particular, on the last topic, you can ask the following questions: What subjects are given the most homework? Does he prefer to do them alone or with friends? How can this be explained? What subjects do you like to do? Do you get help from your parents when doing homework? Are parents interested in doing homework? As in a conversation, the interviewer should avoid questions that are tactless or that the respondent does not want to answer frankly. In particular, it is doubtful that, on the same topic of the interview, a student would frankly answer, say, such questions: do you always do your homework? If you haven’t done your homework yourself, do you use “cheat sheets”? Do you often write off a task that you have not completed from a friend? To such questions, most likely, the interviewer will not receive a frank answer from the respondent, but most importantly, the student's trust in the researcher will disappear. If he needs to get answers (first-hand factual material) to such questions, then it is better to do this using anonymous questionnaires.
Interviews are free: the interviewer is given freedom in the formulation, formulation and order of questions, in their number, but on condition that they correspond to the research topic. The interview is semi-standardized, when the interviewer uses both strictly necessary and therefore pre-planned, as well as possible and variable questions. A standardized interview is conducted on the basis of strictly formulated questions in the exact sequence - according to the questionnaire. Answers can be open (any possible) or closed, i.e. only those contained in the questionnaire. The material of the interview is analyzed.
The advantage of the interview is the direct communication of the researcher with the object of study, the opportunity to get specific facts first hand. During the interview, electronic and technical means can be used to fix the material. The disadvantage of the interview is the lack of a wide coverage of the studied persons, the limited ability to use the statistical processing of the material received; the moment of chance is also not excluded, i.e. atypical representations of the interviewed person: it may not be a typical representative of the group of people being studied.
Characteristics and essays as research methods are closely related to survey methods.
Characterization as a method can be divided into independent and free. Independent refers to getting references for the same person from different people on the same topic. For example, the leading teacher, the dean of the faculty (as an administrator), the head of the scientific circle in which this student is a member, the coach of the sports section, the attending physician, the chairman of the student council of the hostel, the head of the academic group can independently characterize the same student. , a trade union organization, a friend of a student - a fellow student, etc. In this way, the researcher will receive versatile factual material about the student when studying a specific topic about students in higher education.
Free characterization involves the description by different people of any one personality trait, but different people. For example, all students of one academic group can characterize the ideal student, as each of them imagines him; the same - best friend, authoritative teacher, etc. Then the researcher will analyze what traits different students have identified in an authoritative teacher or an ideal student.
Compositions as a research method are somewhat similar to the characteristics. A group of people writes a free essay on a given topic of interest to the researcher. The amount of work is not defined.
It depends on the ability of the author of the essay to briefly or in detail state the topic under study, as well as on the availability of factual material from the author of the essay. When studying the free time of schoolchildren, the following essay topics can be offered: My holidays; My day off; My daily routine; My favorite activities in my free time, etc. The compositions are analyzed and summarized. A certain difficulty is the analysis of facts, since they are not contained in a standardized form, but in a free description, and therefore it is impossible to apply technical means for analysis. In addition, people of interest to us (the object of study) do not always willingly agree to a request to write an essay.
Method biographies. Studying the biographies of famous scientists, writers, other figures of art and culture, sports, heroes of labor, war, revolution, political figures, etc. provides rich factual material of pedagogical content. The researcher analyzes the conditions in which they were formed as individuals: what was the family, the surrounding social environment, hobbies, where did he study, who and where did he work, which, according to the researcher, contributed to the development, formation and formation of talent, outstanding personality traits. For example, the most interesting material of pedagogical content is provided by the study of the biography of A.S. Boris Alexandrovich Arbuzov; the first cosmonaut of the Earth Yu.A. Gagarin (according to the memoirs of his mother, brother and sister); biographies of G.K. Zhukov, an outstanding commander of the Second World War, a native of a poor peasant family (based on the materials of V.V. Karpov, K. Simonov and others); conditions for raising sister and brother Zoya and Alexander Kosmodemyansky, who became Heroes of the Soviet Union and died for the honor and freedom of the Fatherland in the last war (according to the memoirs of their mother L.T. Kosmodemyanskaya and others). And quite, it would seem, an ordinary example of a large family of Lena Alekseevna and Boris Pavlovich Nikitin on the early and intensive development of children (according to the monographs of parents about their family) is of undoubted interest for teachers and pedagogy. There are many such biographies. We have given only a few notable examples.
The advantage of the biographies method is that the researcher takes for study the life and work of those people who, as a rule, have already shown themselves by outstanding abilities, practical deeds and have become known to society. He mentally restores (reconstructs) the conditions of their life and development, looking for the driving forces for the formation of the outstanding abilities of the individual. This method is difficult. which requires long-term, sometimes lasting for years, painstaking work of the researcher. At the same time, it is practically impossible to resort to the help of statistics and computer technology. On the other hand, the results of research work are rewarded a hundredfold with the facts obtained, primarily of pedagogical content, but not only: the researcher deals with facts related to a wide range of the history of science, culture, sociology, etc.
Pedagogical experiment(from lat. experiment - test, experience). This, although complex and time-consuming, is perhaps the most productive method of pedagogical research. The fact is that pedagogical processes taking place in familiar conditions do not always contain ready-made material on a topic of interest to the researcher. And therefore it is difficult to accumulate factual material by the method of ordinary observation. Then the researcher artificially creates such conditions under which those phenomena that he studies would appear. In other words, he resorts to a pedagogical experiment that uses a set of methods: observations, conversations, statistical studies, etc. The experiment is carried out in specially created (in this sense, unusual, artificial) and at the same time controlled conditions and situations. An experiment is a kind of “pedagogical experience” setting up to test the degree of effectiveness of methods, teaching and upbringing techniques. The experiment allows you to isolate certain pedagogical phenomena, change the situation of the course of pedagogical processes and, if necessary, repeat them.
Depending on the specifics of conducting pedagogical research, various types of experiments are used.
Ascertaining experiment involves experimental work in slightly modified controlled conditions. For example, when studying the degree of effectiveness of the use of technical means in teaching in a regular (traditional) lesson, classes are conducted using devices and equipment, moreover, at different stages of the lesson, as well as without technical means. The results of mastering the material by students are compared and conclusions are drawn: is there a difference in the effectiveness of training with the use of TS or not; if so, in what, and what kind?
Transformative experiment(it is also called creative) means a significant and even significant change in the conditions, sometimes the environment of the pedagogical process. For example, the same topic in literature in the same class is studied in lessons that are traditional in structure: a survey, presentation of new material, consolidation, verification of what has been learned. In another class, it is studied in a different organization - in the form of a business game, "holiday", etc. In this case, both the situation and the atmosphere of conducting classes change and are transformed. The results of mastering the material are also analyzed and conclusions are drawn about the effectiveness of a particular organization of the lesson.
Laboratory experiment in contrast to the natural, which is carried out under normal and familiar conditions, it is organized in a special laboratory. Special devices and equipment are used here, reproducing the pedagogical situation, fixing the corresponding reactions of the subjects. For example, when studying the reaction of the behavior of a 2nd grade schoolgirl in a special room, she alone is shown scenes played out by puppets (a kind of puppet theater). According to the plot, scenes that cause delight, and scenes of conflict relations, etc. are shown. behavior options. The devices record the girl's reaction to these scenes: sympathetic, joyful, trying to help the victim; regret, indifference, etc. The recorded data are compared with the corresponding scenes that caused certain experiences. Conclusions are drawn.
A laboratory experiment captures facts more accurately (albeit indirect, but objective), but it can only be carried out in a special room equipped with special devices. The difficulty also lies in deciphering the records of the behavior of the subjects, in decoding the indicators characterizing the behavior of the subject.
Control experiment is organized to check the degree of reliability of the results that were obtained earlier during the ascertaining, transforming or laboratory experiments. It is organized in the form of repeated or cross. The repeated experiment is carried out as a duplication of an experiment that has already taken place. Crossover refers to the swapping of the experimental group (EG) with the control group (CG): the former experimental group in the crossover experiment becomes the control group, and the former control group becomes the experimental group.
Comparing the results of repeated and cross experiments, we can judge how reliable the facts and materials obtained are, to what extent they can be used for subsequent analysis.
pilot experiment can also be called preliminary. Any method of research, and especially a pedagogical experiment, must be carefully prepared. The initial version of the experiment may be successful, but it may not be the best. Therefore, it is necessary to check in practice the level of sophistication and the quality of the experimental methodology. Such a preliminary experiment is first carried out not in full, but in an abbreviated version. This is a pilot experiment designed to test and bring the experimental methodology to a high level. After that, individual links of the experiment or its fragments are corrected. And only then it is possible to organize a pedagogical experiment in full.
Steps and procedures experiment. The experiment is planned: the pedagogical problem under study determines its theme. Its purpose and tasks are formulated, a working hypothesis is put forward; an object is selected, experimental material is developed, the terms and stages of the experiment, its participants are determined. Then the experiment itself is carried out, which can be relatively short in time, for example, a series of lessons within one week, or long, for example, vocational guidance work with students at school according to a special system for a year, two or three years. At the same time, there must be experimental groups and control. In the experimental groups, the educational process is organized under changed conditions. In the control groups, the educational process takes place in normal, familiar conditions. At each stage and after the completion of the experiment, the results of the studied fragment of educational work in the experimental and control groups are compared. In fact, the experiment is carried out in order to compare the results of work in these groups and, based on the facts obtained, draw reasoned conclusions and generalizations.
The test (from the English test - test, research, verification) is an objective and standardized measuring behavior sampling individual. Speaking figuratively, we grab a “drop” from the “sea”, analyze its features and judge the entire “sea” by it. Similarly, from the whole endless series of behavioral decisions, actions and deeds of a person, the researcher selects a fragment of his behavior; this is actually a sample. Sampling refers to the execution of a short-term task, the result of which is analyzed. According to the data obtained, this person is judged in general, extending the same characteristics to other times of the behavior of the person being studied. The test is designed to establish certain, including psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a person. It is characterized by short duration, relative simplicity of the procedure and availability of equipment, direct fixation of the results. Tests are standard, strictly formulated, so that the correct answers to questions and tasks do not allow variability. They can be used as a research tool for both an individual and entire groups at the same time. The results obtained are amenable to statistical processing.
Depending on the purpose, there are tests of achievement, intelligence, creativity (abilities), personality, etc.
Tests achievements designed to identify level achieved by an individual (pupil, student) knowledge, skills and abilities in some area, in particular in academic subjects. According to the indicators of the completed task, they judge the quality of the student's mastery of knowledge. In foreign countries (and now in Belarus) tests have long been successfully used to control students' knowledge; Actually, that's what achievement tests are for. If knowledge is being tested not of some fragment of a subject, but of the entire course or a large section, then they use battery tests, i.e. a whole series.
Achievement tests are described in detail in the topic of monitoring and evaluating the success of training.
The weak side of achievement tests is that the researcher (diagnostician, teacher) cannot identify a number of factors of interest to him. For example, it is possible to identify the breadth, depth and meaningfulness (understanding) of a student's knowledge, but it is impossible to determine the strength (duration of retention of what has been learned). The test also does not establish what causes, what explains this or that level of the revealed knowledge of the student, i.e. it most often does not allow establishing causal relationships in the results of learning. It also does not determine the general education and training of the individual for the entire period of study at school, university.
Intelligence Tests- psychodiagnostic techniques for research and qualitative assessment of the level of human intellectual development. The procedures are quite common and the formula for the intelligence test is well known. It must be said that among scientists, teachers and psychologists, there are both supporters and opponents of the establishment of an intellectual coefficient.
Creative tests(from lat. creatio - creation) are designed to reveal the creative abilities, talent, giftedness of the individual. Performing tests of this kind, the subject finds (or does not find) an unexpected, unusual, extraordinary solution to tasks, showing (or not showing) a creative, unconventional approach. According to the results of testing, the degree of giftedness of a particular individual is judged.
Personality Tests aimed at assessing the emotional and volitional components of mental activity and human behavior.
Predictive tests(from the Greek. prognosis - foresight, prediction) are intended to predict the development of the individual under study in the future, about the prospects and possible outcome of this development. This is kind of one of the difficult tests; the forecast probability does not exceed 50%.
Thus, trusts perform in practice the functions of knowledge control, diagnostics and forecasting of an individual's development. In the last two functions, they are also the explorer's tool. (Achievement tests, as well as intelligence and personality tests, are more common in educational institutions.)
Projective Methods is a type of test. The subject speaks about his possible actions, deeds, behavior in a conditionally proposed situation. For example, what would he do in a particular situation if he became the director of the school. For example, he would introduce a five-day school week in all classes, abolish school grades and all kinds of exams, introduce free attendance for schoolchildren, give students the right to choose their teacher and class teacher, and so on. An analysis of such judgments provides good material for the researcher.
Rating scales(from lat. scala- ladder) as self-assessment and rating. Self-assessment involves an individual's assessment of his achievements, personal qualities, actions, deeds, etc., according to certain parameters. Moreover, a rating scale is established in points, percentages or other quantitative indicators, which are then subjected to statistical analysis and qualitative interpretation. The weak side of this method lies in the significant subjectivity of the individual's assessments of his own personal qualities, actions, deeds and behavior.
Rating(from the English rating - assessment, order, classification, class, category) is a method of subjective assessment of a phenomenon on a given scale. Such assessments are given by experts (competent judges). Their role is played, in particular, by experienced methodologists, school directors, innovative teachers, psychologists, university professors, employees of scientific centers, advanced training institutes, etc. For example, when studying the professional qualifications of a teacher and establishing the level of his pedagogical skills, experts, in accordance with the proposed scale, evaluate the individual qualities and actions of the teacher. The data are analyzed: a quantitative analysis is carried out according to a special formula, and, in addition, a qualitative assessment is given.
Pedagogical Council(lat. consilium - meeting, discussion) as a method of pedagogical research was first developed and proposed by Yu.K. Babansky in the 70s. Now the council is used most often in pedagogical diagnostics.
A council is assembled consisting of a subject teacher, a class teacher, a school psychologist, a doctor, a social pedagogue, a representative of the school administration, a lawyer or other specialists whose opinion on the issue under discussion can be important and useful.
The consultation procedure consists in discussing and comprehensively analyzing some pedagogical fact and phenomenon that are of interest to researchers and diagnosticians. The members of the council express their ideas about the object and subject of diagnostics and research, give facts and arguments confirming their opinion, look for effective ways (methods and means) of educational work in relation to a particular student or group in the current situation, sometimes make a decision about to radically change the environment of the educational process. Such a versatile collective discussion and a deep analysis of the situation give a detailed picture of the pedagogical phenomenon and allow you to draw reasonable and objective conclusions about the object and subject being studied. The course of the consultation is usually recorded. It will have material of a psychological and pedagogical, sometimes legal and medical nature.
The pedagogical council assumes reliance in the teaching and educational process not so much on the intuition of the teacher, but on the data of a thorough and balanced - without haste! - analysis of pedagogical facts and phenomena.
Mathematical statistics and probability theory are used in the study when the material of pedagogical content has quantitative facts, but not all pedagogical phenomena can be expressed in the abstract concepts of statistics. For example, it is difficult to express in quantitative data the measure of humanity, mercy, intelligence, because there are no corresponding meters and norms. They do, however, lend themselves to quality.
A number of authors of textbooks on pedagogy include the study and generalization of the practical experience of teachers and educators among the research methods. But this is hardly legal. It's not a method, but rather an idea. Experience itself is a source that is studied and generalized by the methods that have already been mentioned: observation, questioning, etc.
Finishing the conversation about the methods of pedagogical research, we emphasize that they are not used separately, but in a complex, complementing each other. For example, pedagogical facts accumulated by observation are supplemented by facts obtained by questionnaire, experimental and other methods. Each method has strengths, preferences, and weaknesses that overlap when combined.