Explanatory note This course “Methods of teaching psychology. Ways of psychological influence in the process of communication (persuasion, suggestion, imitation, emotional infection)
method of persuasion. This method is used in messages aimed at changing the views of a person, his attitudes, and forming new ones. Persuasion is the main method of influence, it is extremely widely used in practice.
^ By persuasion is understood, on the one hand, a versatile influence on a person with the aim of forming some qualities in her and getting rid of others, and on the other - motivation for a certain activity. The main components of persuasion are informing (storytelling), clarification, proof and refutation, as well as conversation.
In order to encourage a person to activity, an important place is occupied by informing, which is necessary because a person, before doing something, must be convinced that it is worth doing. In order to encourage a person of interest to the necessary practical activity, the communicator should first of all inform him about the value of the goal and the likelihood of its achievement, that is, convince him of the expediency of the action. Information can be provided in a variety of ways and means. One of them is the story.
Story is a lively and figurative presentation of information in order to inform the object of the facts and conclusions necessary to encourage him to act. Being in the form free from any canons, the story allows the communicator to convince and convince the interlocutor.
Analyzing clarification as one of the components of persuasion, its most typical types can be distinguished: schematic, narrative, reasoning and problematic.
A schematic explanation is appropriate for instructing, when the interlocutor must learn, or rather, remember the information being communicated. Such an explanation is conducted in a clear, clear language, in short phrases. Narrative explanation is a statement of facts in the form of a living story, which, with a logical sequence, leads to the appropriate conclusions.
Reasoning clarification consists in the fact that we pose questions to the interlocutor, forcing him to think about them, and we ourselves, through a series of logical reasoning, lead him to the desired conclusion. The problem clarification differs from the previous ones in that the communicator does not give an answer to the questions posed. The interested person himself comes to the answers, but the material for clarification is presented to him in such a way that it leads him to the conclusion that we need.
One should also take into account here the elements of evidence that are built according to the laws of logic and which indicate that the evidence will be very effective if it is based on such facts that are either correct in their essence, or are perceived by the interlocutor as correct. The logic of the proof is related to the specifics of the relationship between the thesis and the argument: thesis- this is a position, the truth or logic of which must be revealed; argument- this is the position from which the truth of the thesis being proved follows.
The proof will be the more convincing the more carefully we select the arguments. These include: reliable facts; definition of the basic concepts of a particular field of knowledge; statements that have been proven to be true. The most important for practical communicative activity are facts. People are used to relying on facts. Facts create in them an appropriate mood for the perception of reality, form an attitude.
Logically refutation is of the same nature as proof. By proving one idea to the interlocutor, the communicator thereby refutes another. Refutation deals with the criticism of the established views of the person of interest, with the destruction of old and the formation of new attitudes. Hence, in the process of refutation, it is necessary to use psychological methods along with logical ones. The success of the rebuttal is largely related to the tactics of the interview. In fact, the whole process of persuasion depends on how the conversation is built, how it is conducted.
an important role in carrying out conversations play questions from the communicator. According to the functions performed, the questions are: leading, probing, direct, situational, clarifying and affirming.
The conversation usually begins with a leading question. This question is framed in such a way that it inspires the interlocutor to present their ideas. The question should feel that the communicator is ready to share the point of view of his interlocutor. The question can aggravate, or vice versa, weaken the vigilance of the interlocutor. Therefore, the formulation of the leading question should be treated with particular care.
If you need to get some information apply probing questions, which are of three types:
a) specific (“What do you think about? ..”);
b) veiled (“So how?”, “So what?”);
c) suggestive (“Maybe you’ll think about it?”, “How would you regard it?” Etc.)
When you need to put the interlocutor to a standstill, are used direct questions requiring a “yes” or “no” answer (“Were you there?”). Alternative questions are also used in this function: “If this is not so, then how do you think?”
The strategy for posing a question is simple: once you pose a question, you must wait for an answer. Silence is the most important stimulator of the speech activity of the interlocutor. On the one hand, silence allows the interlocutor to collect his thoughts, and on the other hand, it forces him to speak out more quickly. The interlocutor here is stimulated subconsciously.
Also important are situational questions. Their main goal is to encourage the interlocutor to be active. These questions model a similar situation: “But suppose you were in his place?” After that, it is always appropriate to start the phrase with the questions: “What?”, “How?”, “To what extent”?” and etc.
^ Clarifying questions should refer to the entire conversation (“So what do you want?”). However, if you ask it in this form, then the interlocutor begins to think that his partner decided everything in advance or listened to him inattentively. Therefore, it is better to say a phrase to which there must be a “yes” answer: “So you think that“ A ”is wrong?” - "Yes". This can be followed affirmative questions: "We agree on the main thing, don't we?"
At the end of the conversation, debriefing questions should be asked. The sequence of questions should be as follows:
“Well, how, did we discuss the main thing?”
"What did we find out?"
“What conclusions have we come to?”
1) do not sit on the edge of the chair, it seems that you want to force the conversation;
do not spin in a chair, this indicates uncertainty and indecision;
do not waste time, think over the plan more carefully;
do not rush, haste leads to miscalculations;
skillfully raise questions, a well-posed question is already half the battle;
use the pronoun "I" as little as possible;
do not look down on the interlocutor;
do not ask unnecessary questions, they alert the interlocutor;
do not get excited, it is best if warmth is felt in your speech;
do not pass yourself off as a soothsayer;
do not draw conclusions for the interlocutor;
Make as few promises as possible.
The process of persuasion should always help the object of our interest to understand the intricate, contradictory circumstances, to make the right decision, to identify the mistakes made, to realize one's guilt. In order for the method of persuasion to give the necessary results, it is necessary to excite the mental activity of the person being convinced, to direct it so that it leads the person being convinced to the very conclusions that they want to convince him of. It is also necessary to predict the course of his thoughts, to change the arguments, the direction of his convictions in connection with his doubts.
^ Persuasion in all cases is a process that includes the following main elements:
presentation of certain arguments;
transfer of information confirming the correctness of the arguments;
listening to doubts, objections;
presentation of new arguments taking into account objections;
repetition of individual arguments and elements of transmitted information in order to more fully influence the course of the thought processes of the person being convinced.
Of course, the process of persuasion involves the obligatory clarification of the arguments and objections on the part of the person being convinced. He can agree with the arguments, doubt them or express a negative attitude towards them. If there are doubts or a denial is expressed in the process of persuasion, it is necessary to find out the reason and, taking into account it, resume the process of persuasion with new arguments, additional information, repetition of arguments in a different way, which may contribute to a change in the attitude of the person being convinced.
It should be noted that the persuasion must necessarily meet the following requirements:
correspond to the level of development of the convinced; be built taking into account the age, educational, professional and other individual mental characteristics of a given person;
be consistent, logical, evidential;
excite the mental activity of the convinced;
contain both a generalization of the situation, conclusions, and specific facts;
contain an analysis of mutually known facts;
the one who convinces himself must sincerely believe in what he convinces;
^ Coercion Method . It is known that it is not always possible to achieve success by influencing a person with persuasion. Quite often it is necessary to resort to coercion. It should be noted, however, that bare coercion, isolated from persuasion, is in many cases harmful. It is important that the object of influence is to some extent aware of the inevitability of the coercive measures taken against him. And this is achieved, as a rule, in the case when coercion is preceded by persuasion. This methodological provision should become the basis for choosing coercion as a method of influencing a person in practical activities.
By its nature, coercion is divided into physical and psychological. Physical coercion is based on the use of force (it is not considered by us). Psychological coercion acts as an incentive to the person of interest to a certain activity contrary to his desires. The very fact of coercion is present in persuasion. However, here the object of interest, after carrying out explanatory work with him, consciously performs the prescribed without emotional pressure from the communicator. In the process of psychological coercion, the object fulfills the order in a state of strong internal protest. And only external circumstances make him obey.
Therefore, the most important condition for the application of the method of coercion is an external premise. If there is no such prerequisite, coercion becomes meaningless. In the conditions of practical activity, such a prerequisite for coercion is the feeling of fear, which in its primitive form is associated with an unconditioned defensive reflex and is most elementarily manifested in the mechanisms of the self-preservation instinct. The social nature of fear is very complex to a sufficient extent and has not yet been studied. However, it has long been known that fear is evoked and intensified when a person is aware of, and sometimes acutely experiences, his weakness. The communicator must know this pattern and clearly understand that fear has little effect on a strong person. For a person, unstable fear is the strongest motivating factor. And this means that coercion is connected not only with external factors, but also, of course, with internal, psychological ones.
It should be noted here that when evaluating the possibility of using coercion against a particular person, one must mentally take his point of view and draw conclusions about whether this person, say, after presenting him with compromising materials,
rials of fear. If the person of interest, having comprehended the situation, assesses it as dangerous for himself, then he will be seized with fear to one degree or another. The use of coercion here is justified and, one might say, even prepared. If the person of interest in this situation does not see danger and fear does not arise, then the use of coercion will be meaningless.
The emergence of a feeling of fear indicates that a person is directly involved in experiencing the situation. But since people experience differently, then, of course, they will treat the same presented materials differently. Of course, over-emotional, shy natures, as a rule, overestimate the seriousness of their sudden troubles. Purposeful energetic pressure on them can increase the excitement that has arisen in them and bring it to the level of fear. Less sensitive natures, on the contrary, underestimate this seriousness, and therefore methodical “processing” is required in order for them to have a feeling of fear.
In practice, the main methods of psychological coercion are: prohibition, categorical demand, warning and threat.
Prohibition suggests an inhibitory effect on the individual. It comes in two forms:
a) prohibition of impulsive actions;
b) the prohibition of unlawful behavior that is on the verge of coercion and persuasion. The application of the prohibition in many cases does not affect the relationship of the communicator with the interlocutor.
^ Categorical requirement lies in the power of the command and can only be effective when the communicator has very high authority with the subject. In other cases, this technique may be useless, and sometimes even harmful. In many respects, the categorical demand is identical to the prohibition, but among the methods of coercion it is more significant than the prohibition.
Warning, as a rule, replaces the beginning of a new stage in the relationship with the object of influence. If before the warning these relationships are characterized by mutual trust, then with its application they acquire the color of dominance on the part of the communicator. The meaning of the warning is that the communicator causes anxiety in the object, respectively, on its basis - the desire to prevent negative consequences for himself (the interlocutor). In a warning, in addition to content, tone is of great importance. It should be imposing, with an element of menace. All this proves a clear pressure on the object and causes him mainly negative feelings, there is a predominance of feelings of anxiety and fear for the consequences of his behavior. This is what prompts the interlocutor to make certain efforts on himself and obey the instructions of the communicator.
The threat crowns the hierarchy of coercion, bringing the interlocutor to the state of the strongest experience, which gives rise to a feeling of fear. In order to use a threat, it is necessary that it gives rise to a sense of fear in the interlocutor.
Psychological research, especially recently, shows that there are people who are very resistant to a sense of fear. Therefore, it is quite difficult to apply coercion to them. In order to exert psychological influence on such persons, the method of suggestion is used.
^ Method of suggestion. Note that suggestion is one of the means of mutual influence of people in the process of their communication. The peculiarity of suggestion is manifested in the fact that it influences the behavior of the object of influence imperceptibly for him. Uncontrollably penetrating into the psyche, the inspired idea is realized in the form of actions. At the same time, the person himself evaluates his actions as self-evident.
Practical activity, saturated with a variety of elements of communication, is a vast area for suggestion. From this it is clear that mastering at least in part the methods of suggestion is very important for any communicator.
The word "suggestion" has a number of meanings. We will consider suggestion as a specific effect on a person in the waking state. Such suggestion, as a rule, is characterized not by uncontrolled, but only by a dulled consciousness and a decrease in criticality in the person concerned.
It should be noted that suggestion as a method of influencing a personality is a psychological effect perceived by an object without proper control of consciousness. The inspiring influence is based on the specific quality of the human psyche - suggestibility that is, the ability to receive suggestion. In order to use the techniques of suggestion, one must be able to identify suggestible people and determine the state of their maximum suggestibility.
The degree of suggestibility depends mainly on the nature of the social role performed by the individual, a sharp change in which, as a rule, creates favorable conditions for increasing suggestibility. And vice versa, an increase in the significance of the social role played leads to an increase in the independence of the object, based on a critical attitude towards one's actions.
The communicator, if he carefully observes the person of interest to him, can always say with certainty whether the level of suggestibility has increased or decreased in this person.
Practice shows that the properties of the human nervous system also affect suggestibility. K.I. Platonov noted that one of the reasons for the weak suggestibility characteristic of some individuals may be the prevalence of the second signaling system over the first (the mental type of the nervous system) with a high balance and mobility of the main cortical processes. Suggestibles, as a rule, belong to a pronounced artistic type of the nervous system. Suggestibility also depends on the mental state of the person and anxiety. Suggestibility is closely related to the characteristics of the human psyche.
This indicates the fact that the communicator, using the methods of studying personality available to him, has the opportunity to draw a conclusion about the suggestibility of the interlocutor of interest. However, at the same time, he must certainly take into account the attitude of this person to the suggested influence.
In recent years, studies have shown that, despite the theoretical possibility of transferring the psyche of a person of interest to a state of reduced criticality, it is practically impossible to quickly inspire him with an idea that contradicts his moral principles. This proposal is also supported by the fact that in the waking state and in the light phases of hypnosis, it is practically impossible for the subject to be forced by suggestion to commit actions that are illegal to his beliefs and views. It should be noted, however, that all this in no way indicates the low applicability of the method of suggestion in the waking state. Among other methods of suggestion, it is the most effective.
The simplest, but at the same time the most reliable way to introduce the object of influence into the background state is muscle relaxation (relaxation). Its essence lies in the fact that during relaxation, the cerebral cortex of the suggested person is to a certain extent freed from side effects and is prepared for the perception of the words of the inspirer. This is facilitated by soft and dim light, calm tones of the environment, monotonous sounds (muffled music, distant noise of transport, sea waves, etc.). Under such conditions, when focusing on the words of the communicator, the object of influence is brought to a state of increased suggestibility. For many, it can be enhanced by the optimal dose of alcohol. Solitude is not always useful, since in some cases it gives rise to anxiety in the object.
A high degree of relaxation of the object of influence can be judged by a number of signs: a torso leaning back in an armchair or chair, a flushed face, shining eyes, freely spaced legs, straightened or slightly bent arms at the elbows. The figure bent over the table, bent legs, wandering eyes, wrinkles on the forehead and vertical wrinkles on the bridge of the nose indicate the stressed state of the object. At the same time, both “relaxation” and emotional tension, paralyzing thinking, increase suggestibility. The introduced idea is given in both cases, as a rule, by direct suggestion: in conditions of relaxation, instruction is more often used, and in conditions of tension, commands or orders. If the object of our interest is in a state of strong intense expectation, then these methods are not very effective; In order for the suggested idea to achieve its goal, that is, to penetrate the psyche of the suggested, it is necessary to remove this tension. If the object of influence does not show signs of either relaxation or tension, then the background state necessary for suggestion can be caused by identification, that is, by identifying oneself with the object according to aspects that are significant for it. Identification with the object of influence is facilitated if the inspirer:
looks at things, facts, events through the eyes of the object;
is sympathetic to his thoughts and desires;
makes him feel positive.
^ The method of setting and varying mental tasks. The impact is not only the transfer of certain positive information. Information impact can take place in the form of a question - a mental task. Its main essence is reduced to the setting of tasks for the purpose of development, the direction of the thought processes of persons who are affected.
The impact is:
methods of setting a problem (question);
the orientation of thought processes as a result of setting the task (question);
assistance in solving the set mental problem. The setting of a mental task in the process of communication is carried out with the help of questions. Therefore, in order to achieve the goals of the method, it is necessary to carefully study the features, types of questions, and possible behaviors when they are posed.
One can not only pose a question, but also express in it one's attitude to certain facts. For this are used:
various interrogative particles;
types of speech intonation;
combination of the question form with mimic possibilities.
In practice, with the help of this method, the process of remembering by association is also realized. By posing a series of questions about the development of a certain event, a significant revival of temporal connections and the restoration in memory of facts, events developing in parallel with the event in relation to which the questions were posed - mental tasks for remembering, are achieved.
With the help of setting mental tasks, they stimulate the process of analyzing their actions, actions, which is an indispensable condition for making certain volitional decisions, changing attitudes towards their behavior, actions. This cannot be achieved by transmission of information alone or by persuasion alone. It is necessary that the active processing of all the facts, all the arguments submitted, be carried out by the person who is directly affected. This role is played by the method of setting mental tasks.
The methods listed above apply to intentional, directed influence, in which a person deliberately selects the right words to achieve a specific goal, touches on the corresponding sides of the soul, and looks for suitable forms of argumentation.
To unintentional influence include contagion and imitation. It has no specific purpose, but arises for some reason. It can be a natural charm that immediately disposes to a person, or, on the contrary, something extremely unpleasant in appearance and manners, which repels, causes fear.
^ Contagion is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. It manifests itself through the transmission of a certain emotional state. Since this emotional state occurs in a mass of people, the mechanism of multiple mutual amplification of the emotional influences of communicating people operates. The individual here does not experience organized, deliberate pressure, but simply unconsciously assimilates patterns of someone else's behavior, only obeying him. The degree to which different audiences are susceptible to infection depends, of course, also on the general level of development of the personalities that make up the audience, and more specifically, on the level of development of their self-consciousness.
Imitation- this is a conscious or unconscious repetition, reproduction by a person of the psychological characteristics and behavior of other people, i.e. copying the behavior and speech of another person. There are two types of imitation:
1. simple- in which there is no conflict associated with the execution of an act of imitation.
2. imitation, in which a person initially experiences conflict or discomfort about whether or not to imitate other people.
However, if a person sees that other people behave in a similar way, then the strength of his internal resistance to imitation decreases. Imitation is one of the main mechanisms of a person's socialization, acquiring useful experience and those psychological properties that characterize him as a developed personality.
Imitation is manifested from childhood, as copying the behavior patterns of parents, then significant adults, social authorities, idols.
Questions for self-control:
Describe the psychological impact as a category of communication.
What conditions must be taken into account for the success of the psychological impact?
List the main methods of psychological influence.
What factors should be taken into account when influencing by the method of information transfer?
How is the method of persuasion different from the method of coercion?
How to skillfully use the method of suggestion in pedagogical practice?
What is the peculiarity and usefulness of the method of setting and varying mental tasks?
Topic 5.. Developing an audience-focused lecture strategy.
Scheme of the phased preparation of the lecture.
Choosing a theme and determining the target installation.
Selection and primary processing of material.
Scheme of the phased preparation of the lecture:
Analytical stage- problematic analysis of the topic; formulation of the main questions; search for answers to basic questions in theory. ^ Bottom line: theoretical concept of the lecture.
Strategic stage– definition of the “image” of the audience; formulation of the target setting; definition of the task of the supertask; formulation of the thesis and advertising headline. Outcome: working thesis and promotional lecture title.
^ tactical stage - selection of facts, arguments, illustrations; the choice of methods and techniques that activate the mental activity of listeners; the choice of means that attract attention and interest at different stages; development of lecture composition. Outcome: general plan and composition of the lecture.
Editorial stage - proofreading (correction of incorrectly and inaccurately used words, expressions); replacement of expressions characteristic of written speech with forms of oral speech; clarification of complex terms and concepts, getting rid of unnecessary words, repetitions, dissonant combinations; search for the brightest, most effective words and expressions; cleaning the text from speech stamps. Outcome: edited, spoken aloud text of the lecture.
^ Working (classroom) stage - orientation in a specific audience and adjustment of lecture tactics in accordance with the real situation; delivering a lecture, establishing contact with the audience; change of tactics in the process of self-control and as a result of "feedback" from the audience. Outcome: delivered lecture.
^ Control and final stage - introspection (understanding the reasons for the advantages and disadvantages, successes and failures); study and analysis of listeners' opinions; improvement of the text of the lecture, taking into account the results of the final control. Outcome : edited text and working plan of the lecture.
Each speech should have a theme, general and specific purpose.
Choose a topic that suits your knowledge and interests.
Avoid copying from magazine articles or books - think for yourself.
Choose a range of topics, training on which can give more knowledge than your trainees have.
Choose an appropriate topic that matches the current interests and mindset of the audience, i.e. should be relevant to the audience.
The topic should be important enough, interesting and understandable. Whether a topic is important and exciting depends on:
the main interests of the audience;
group interests;
topical interests;
specific interests;
novelty of the topic;
inherent in the theme of the beginning of the conflict (controversial issues).
Communication includes certain ways of influencing individuals on each other; the main ones are infection, suggestion, imitation
Contagion is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. Infection acts as a form of spontaneously manifested internal mechanism of human behavior. The mechanism of socio-psychological infection is reduced to the effect of multiple mutual amplification of the emotional influences of people communicating with each other. A special situation in which the impact through infection is enhanced is the situation of panic. Panic occurs in the mass of people as a certain emotional state. The immediate cause of panic is the appearance of some news that can cause a kind of shock.
Suggestion is a purposeful, unreasoned influence of one person on another or on a group. When suggesting, an impact is made on another, based on an uncritical perception of a message or information.
Unlike infection, which is usually non-verbal in nature (dances, games, music, emotions, etc.), suggestion, on the contrary, is verbal in nature, that is, it is carried out through verbal communication. With particular force, suggestion acts on impressionable people who, at the same time, do not have a sufficiently developed ability for independent logical thinking, do not have firm life principles and beliefs, and are unsure of themselves.
Imitation as a way of influence is manifested in following an example, a model through its reproduction. Imitation is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.
social perception
Communication carries the function of interpersonal cognition, its essence depends on the completeness and adequacy of the teacher's knowledge of the student's personality.
Social perception is the establishment of mutual understanding and effective interaction based on psychologically competent perception (the ability of people to listen to each other).
Mechanisms of interpersonal perception:
Identification- the process of unconscious identification of "I" with the "other", the perception of another person as an extension of oneself.
empathy- the ability of a person with the help of feelings to penetrate into the world of spiritual experiences of another person, to share his experiences.
Reflection- internal activity of a person, focused on self-knowledge, understanding of their actions and states.
projection- an unconscious tendency to attribute to others their own motives, experiences, qualities.
decentration- the ability of a person to move away from his own egocentric position, the ability to perceive the point of view of another person.
Stereotyping- this is the use of specific standards by which a person evaluates other people. There are types of stereotyping: anthropological - a special physical appearance, certain features; social - personal qualities; emotionally expressive - external attractiveness.
Reflective-perceptual skills a person form an organic complex: to know their own individually - psychological characteristics, to assess their mental state; to carry out a versatile perception and adequate knowledge of the personality of another person.
Important for a deeper understanding of how people perceive and evaluate each other is the phenomenon of causal attribution - this is an explanation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and methods of other people's behavior. The explanation of the causes of human behavior can be through internal causes (internal dispositions of a person, stable traits, motives, inclinations of a person), or through external causes (the influence of external situations).
The processes of casual attribution obey the following patterns. The perception of people is influenced by: 1) Stereotypes - the usual simplified ideas about other groups of people about which we have little information. We acquire stereotypes from the group to which we belong (from parents, teachers in childhood, from the media). Stereotypes are erased if people of different groups begin to interact closely. 2) Prejudice - an emotional assessment of any people as good or bad, without even knowing them themselves, or the motives of their actions. 3) Attitudes - an unconscious readiness of a person to perceive and evaluate any people in a certain habitual way and react in a certain, pre-formed way without a complete analysis of a particular situation.
In interpersonal communication, feedback is important - this is a message addressed to another person about how the interacting subject perceives him, what he feels in connection with the relationship.
There are two interrelated types of social perception (L.I. Mitina):
Self-perceptual (perception and listening to a child or another person);
Empathic (sympathy for the child, empathy, etc.)
Empathic listening provides a better understanding of the interlocutor, helps to neutralize people's inclinations to evaluate, to avoid categorical oppositions ("I - HE (they)"). Often this type of listening allows for a deeper understanding of the behavior of the interlocutor.
The function of social perception in communication is that the interlocutor pays attention to the behavior of the opponent, his words, gestures, intonations, changes in appearance and behavior.
Factors of socio-perceptual distortions in the process of communication:
1) the halo effect - the influence of the general impression of another person on the perception and evaluation of private properties and manifestations of his personality;
2) the effect of inertia - the tendency to preserve the once created idea of a person;
3) sequence effect - influence on the perception of the sequence of receipt of information about a person;
4) the influence of the implicit theory of personality - consideration of a particular person through the prism of implicit ideas about what a person should be like, according to the perceiver;
5) judgment about another person by analogy with oneself - in most cases, an unconscious transfer to other features of properties, experiences, etc.
6) the effect of stereotyping - the imposition of a stereotype, a generalized image of a certain class, group, category of people on the perception of an individual;
7) the desire for internal consistency - the tendency of perception to "crowd out" all aspects of the image of a perceived person that contradict the "concept" that has developed about him;
8) the influence of the characteristics of the perceiver's personality - the impact on social perception of the level of cognitive complexity of the perceiver, the level of his claims, self-esteem, sociability, etc.
Since the mental state is not static, and can change over time, during the day or even a couple of minutes, we are primarily interested in how and by following which way it is possible to achieve a change in the state of the viewer during the performance.
Speaking about the dynamics of changes in mental states, we must first of all understand that, depending on the state of the individual at the moment, the level of exposure to influence will be different. Physical fatigue, relaxation, time constraints, and even hunger can affect an individual's susceptibility. But in view of the focus of the work on interaction with the audience, we will take the average version of the viewer.
Usually, the spectator who came to a performance or concert is in a joyful, cheerful state. He is cheerful, a little excited about the upcoming action and most often does not have behind him those negative factors that affect susceptibility to suggestion. The only thing that distinguishes the viewer is that he himself wants to be suggested by the actors acting on the stage. The environment also has an effect. The atmosphere of the theatre, a large number of people waiting for the action to begin on the stage, a large amount of light and the auditorium itself already have an impact on the individual even before the action begins. All this creates a favorable environment for the perception of what is happening on the stage and exposure to the emotional state of others and actors.
One type of impact is infection. Infection belongs to a special way of psychological impact on a person in the process of communication and interaction, which is carried out not through consciousness and intellect, but through the emotional sphere of a person. It is one of the oldest ways of integrating group activities and is characterized by spontaneity, since it occurs primarily in situations of significant crowds of people - in stadiums, concert halls, carnivals, rallies, etc. In social psychology, contagion is the process of transferring an emotional state from one individual to another at the level of mental contact. Infection is carried out through the transmission of a mental mood endowed with a large emotional charge. Researchers such as G.P. Andreeva, G Lebon, argue that infection is both a product of both the impact on others of the great energy of the mental state of an individual or group, and the person's ability to perceive, empathize with this state, complicity. The effectiveness of the power of mental infection lies in direct dependence on the depth and brightness of emotional excitations coming from the communicator. At the same time, the recipient's psychological readiness to emotionally respond to the corresponding influence is also significant. A strong catalyst for emotional arousal is explosive forms of manifestation of emotions generated by a positive or negative emotional state of people, in particular contagious laughter, crying, etc.
Infection is transmitted from one individual to another through the transmission of an emotional state, and not through the conscious acceptance of any information and patterns of behavior. Therefore, infection is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of the individual to the mental states of others. Infection tends to occur in the mass of people. Being in the thick of the crowd, the individual does not experience deliberate pressure, but unconsciously assimilates the images of someone else's behavior and begins to behave accordingly. Also among the masses of the people there is a mechanism of multiple amplification of emotions.
Speaking of the theater and the audience, we consider them as "the assembled public". The assembled public is a collection of people who have a similar expectation of certain experiences or are interested in the same subject. The general interest and polarization of attitudes around one object or event is the basis for its isolation. .
"Under certain conditions - and, moreover, only under these conditions - an assembly of people presents completely new features that characterize the individual individuals that make up this assembly. The conscious personality disappears. The crowd becomes what, I would say, for lack of a better expression, organized a crowd, or a spiritualized crowd, constituting a single being and subject to the law of the spiritual unity of the crowd.
Most researchers have come to the conclusion that when people interact within the crowd, their emotional state is the same or has one direction of action, be it panic, global enthusiasm, and so on.
On the whole, "the assembled public is an accumulation of a certain number of people who have a similar expectation of certain experiences or are interested in the same subject. This is a general interest and polarization of attitudes around the same subject or event - the basis of its isolation. The next feature is readiness to respond in some similar way. This similarity of attitudes, orientation and readiness for action is the basis for uniting the public"
The mechanism of psychological unification, in general, is quite obvious. After an external, physical connection in one room (the public rarely acts on the street), under the influence of the same stimuli on all, certain similar or general reactions, experiences or stable orientations are formed among the public. Such an audience usually quickly becomes aware of the moods that are born in it, which enhances the impressions caused by the action of the general stimulus.
Speaking about the dynamics of the transmission of a mental state from one individual to another, it should be noted that the greater the number of people on whom this influence is directed, the faster emotions spread within the group. This is due to the fact that with a large crowd of people, the response resonance to the cue of the actor or the action on the stage has a greater amplification in proportion to the number of people to whom it was directed. (Wilson?) Without exception, all the actors interviewed confirmed the fact that it is much more difficult to get the desired reaction from the audience in an empty hall, compared to if the hall is full.
It should also be noted that the use of recognizable images causes a more violent and quick crowd reaction compared to new material. This technique is very often used in humorous programs and shows, where the first "key joke" follows, consisting of a fact and an unexpected comparison, then after a while there is a "final joke" consisting of another fact, but with the same unexpected comparison as in first. With an acceptable quality of both jokes, the reaction to the "final joke" is more violent, as the audience creates a recognizable image.
In works of a tragic type, what is happening on the stage is perceived by the viewer differently than in entertainment genres. There is a phenomenon called "catharsis" - a release from our fears and shocks, a release of tension that follows a powerful explosion of repressed emotions caused by a theatrical production.
Very often operas produce such an effect due to the tragic content of most of them. But speaking of performances of the musical genre, it is important to remember that, unlike dramatic works, where the characters' lines can be modified, synonyms and stage directions can be used, this is unacceptable in most musical works. This seemingly minus, upon closer examination, turns out to be one of the main advantages and most effective methods of influencing the auditorium. The musical accompaniment of performances plays an important role in the perception of the stage action, it can emphasize important moments of the play, increase tension, or vice versa, inspire peace in the public. When staging dramatic performances, directors often face the difficulty of choosing the appropriate music, while musical theater is spared this problem by composers, most of whom deliberately included elements in their music that influence the audience and cause a certain state in it. In contrast to the musical content of the performance, the pauses used by the actors also have a special property. Peter Brook in his book "Empty Space" describes such a case: An amateur actor was called to the stage during a meeting with students from the audience, who was asked to read a monologue from "Henry V", which names the names of the French and English killed and says how many both perished. The mere sight of a volume of Shakespeare was enough to awaken many conditioned reflexes associated with the reading of poetry. His voice sounded unnatural, because he tried his best to make his speech noble and significant; he diligently presented every word, put meaningless accents, the tongue hardly obeyed him, he was tense and unsure, and he was listened to inattentively and restlessly.Then Peter Brook asked the actor to pause after each name.After the first name, the relative silence became tense.This tension was transmitted to the actor, he felt that between him and the audience established an emotional connection, he stopped thinking about himself, all his attention concentrated on what he was talking about. Now the concentration of the listeners actively helped him: his intonations became simpler, he found the right rhythm, this in turn increased the interest of the listeners, and finally a two-way flow of thoughts and feelings arose.
Based on the above, we can assume that pauses have the ability to attract the attention of the viewer and give time to realize what is happening on the stage. But, it can also be said that it is not worth abusing pauses so that the actor’s speech does not turn into a torn text of separate words.
When interacting with the public not for the purpose of entertainment, but for example, during political campaigning, speakers, in this case political speakers, also use certain techniques to obtain a certain psychological state, and hence the desired reaction. In his book, G. Wilson cites two main principles derived by Atkinson, on which such tricks are built:
First, preparatory signals must be given to the public, indicating that the speaker expects to hear applause soon,
Secondly, it should be as clear and unambiguous as possible to indicate the exact moment when the audience should burst into applause. For these purposes, the methods of "three-part list" and "two-part contrast" are used.
"Three-part list", consists of three interconnected ideas, the first two are pronounced with an ascending intonation, the third - with a descending intonation. This sequence serves as a hint of applause.
"Two-part contrast" consists in opposing two similar in form, but opposite in content statements, one of which may carry an indefinite or even negative meaning, and the second serves as a positive explanation. Thanks to this construction of the phrase, the audience feels exactly when it should "enter the game." The use of contrasts in political speech is very similar to the use of punch lines by comic actors that elicit programmed laughter from the audience. If the structure and timing of the lines are accurate, the audience initially sympathetic to the performer will laugh even if they do not hear the expected joke.
Such techniques are not new and have been used in art for a long time, for example, many Italian composers added a loud staccato passage at the end of arias, such orchestral imitation also serves as a signal for applause. All these techniques can be attributed to the group of predictable reactions of the public.
But the most important factor influencing the mental state of the viewer, of course, is the performer himself. The fame of the artist plays a major role in the reaction of the audience to what is happening.
A.K. Bobrov, who worked in the musical theater of Kuzbass, was immensely popular with the public, and caused a reaction from the audience even before appearing on stage, giving a cue from behind the scenes, thereby warning the public about his exit and seeking a reaction from the audience. Naturally, the inclusion of such a "game" with the audience can give certain results, but this method can only be suitable for experienced and well-known actors.
Correlating the above, it can be confidently stated that using the complex application of the methods described above and the artist's own charm, it will be possible to achieve any result from the public, leading it along.
Conclusions to the first chapter
A mental state is a complex and diverse, rather stable, but changing mental phenomenon that can be changed and controlled by special techniques.
When an actor interacts with the audience, it is important to take into account many factors, such as the theme of the performance, the number of spectators in the hall, key moments pre-built by the director, the complexity of the material for perception, musical accompaniment and, of course, the contact of the performer himself with the audience.
The main forms of influence of an individual on a group of people are infection and imitation.
Contagion can be defined as the unconscious involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. It manifests itself not through the more or less conscious acceptance of some information or patterns of behavior, but through the transmission of a certain emotional state, or "mental mood". Examples: religious ecstasies; mass psychoses; panic; emotional contagion in a situation of mass spectacles.
Imitation. Its specificity, in contrast to infection and suggestion, lies in the fact that here it is not a simple acceptance of the external features of the behavior of another person, but the reproduction by him of the features and images of the behavior demonstrated. Since we are talking about the assimilation of the proposed patterns of behavior, there are two plans for imitation: either for a specific person, or for the norms of behavior developed by the group.
In the theater, infection manifests itself as the transfer of the performer's emotional mood to the audience, and imitation, as a process taking place inside the audience, is a chain reaction of applause, the delight of the audience or its indignation.
For successful activity, it is important for an actor to know all these techniques and be able to use them in the process of work.
Communication includes certain ways of influencing individuals on each other; the main ones are infection, suggestion, imitation.
Contagion is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. Infection acts as a form of spontaneously manifested internal mechanism of human behavior. The mechanism of socio-psychological infection is reduced to the effect of multiple mutual amplification of the emotional influences of people communicating with each other.
A special situation in which the impact through infection is enhanced is the situation panic. Panic occurs in the mass of people as a certain emotional state. The immediate cause of panic is the appearance of some news that can cause a kind of shock.
Suggestion is a purposeful, unreasoned influence of one person on another or on a group. When suggesting, an impact is made on another, based on an uncritical perception of a message or information.
Unlike infection, which is usually non-verbal in nature (dances, games, music, emotions, etc.), suggestion wears, against, verbal character, those. carried out by means of a voice message. With particular force, suggestion acts on impressionable people who, at the same time, do not have a sufficiently developed ability for independent logical thinking, do not have firm life principles and beliefs, and are unsure of themselves.
Imitation as a means of influence manifests itself in following an example, a model through its reproduction. Imitation is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.
Psychological self-education
Questions for discussion and reflection
1. Philosopher E.V. Ilyenkov argues that “personality arises when an individual begins independently, as a subject, to carry out external activities according to the norms and standards set for him from the outside - by that culture in the bosom of which he wakes up to human life, to human activity."
2. The outstanding teacher V.A. Sukhomlinsky writes: “The root of all difficulties and failures in the classroom in the overwhelming majority of cases lies in the teacher’s forgetting that the lesson is the joint work of children and the teacher, that the success of this work is determined primarily by those relationships that develop between teachers and students.
Is it possible to assume that the structure of relations between schoolchildren in the classroom includes connections and relations between schoolchildren and teachers?
3. If "the personality begins, is realized and fulfills itself in real actions", then what are the possibilities of the school in the formation of the personality?
4. According to UNESCO, in developed countries, about 80% of all information received by children aged 12-15 is drawn by them not at school, but in the process of extracurricular communication. What pedagogical conclusions can be drawn based on this fact?
5. Why is the first impression of schoolchildren about the teacher such an important factor in their interaction in educational work?
6. Psychologist T.V. Dragunova characterizes adolescence as follows: “On the one hand, a teenager very clearly manifests a desire for communication and joint activities with peers, a desire to live a collective life, to have close comrades, a friend ... The experience of loneliness is hard and unbearable for a teenager... The virtues of a peer he likes often make a teenager see and realize the lack of those qualities that appeal to him and are valued by his comrades. There will be a desire to be the same and even better. A comrade becomes a model for a teenager.”
What, in your opinion, is the peculiarity of the relationship between activity, community and consciousness of a teenager? Can this description be used in relation to the initial period of student life?
Literature for reading
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Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. M., 1968.
Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication . M., 1983.
Bodalev A.A. On the relationship of communication and relationships // Vopr. psychology. 1994. No. 1.
Buber M. I and You. M., 1993.
Vinogradova M.D., Pervin I.B. Collective cognitive activity and education of schoolchildren. M., 1977.
Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. M., 1988.
Gordeeva N.D., Zinchenko V.P. Functional structure of action. M., 1982.
Davydov V.V. The concept of activity and psyche in the works of A.N. Leontiev // Problems of developing education. M., 1986. S.217-224.
Dobrovich A.B. To the teacher about the psychology and psychohygiene of communication. M., 1987.
Kan-Kalik V.A. Teacher about pedagogical communication. M., 1987.
Levitan K.M. Fundamentals of pedagogical deontology. M., 1994.
Leontiev A.A. pedagogical communication. M., 1979.
Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1979.
Mudrik A.V. Communication as a factor in the education of schoolchildren. M., 1984.
Communication and optimization of joint activities / Ed. G.M. Andreeva, Ya. Yanoushek. M., 1987.
Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Collective. M., 1982.
Parygin B.D. Fundamentals of socio-psychological theory. M., 1971.
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Slobodchikov V.I. Psychological problems of the formation of the inner world of man // Vopr. psychology. 1991. No. 2.
Feigenberg E.I., Asmolov A.G. Cultural-historical concept and the possibility of using non-verbal communication in the rehabilitation education of the individual // Vopr. psychology. 1994. No. 6.
Tsukerman G.A. Types of communication in education. Tomsk, 1994.
Elkonin D.B. The psychology of the game. M., 1978.
Communication mechanisms are socio-psychological phenomena and processes that arise as a result of the mutual influence of people on each other, which have a direct impact on the level of their psychological contact and mutual understanding, on the nature and effectiveness of their communicative behavior.
Mechanisms of influence on a person:
Infection - oldest mechanism. The transfer of a certain emotional, mental mood from one person to another is based on an appeal to the emotional-unconscious sphere of a person (infection with panic, irritation, laughter). The product of the impact on others of the powerful energy of the mental state of an individual or group, the human ability to perceive, sympathize, complicity, empathy for this state.
Infection characterizes the largely unconscious, involuntary susceptibility of the individual to certain mental states.
The effect depends on the degree of intensity of the emotional state of the influencer and the number of listeners. The higher the emotional mood of the influencing person, the more powerful the effect. For a feeling of unity to arise, under the influence of an emotional trance, the number of people must be large enough.
Infection functions:
1. An even greater strengthening of group cohesion, when such cohesion is already in place.
2. A means of compensating for the lack of organizational cohesion of the group.
Suggestion - based on an appeal to the unconscious, to human emotions, but by verbal, verbal means. Moreover, the influencer must remain in a rational state, and not in a state of emotional trance.
Suggestion appeals to the readiness of the individual to receive instructions for action, orders.
You can only inspire with a word. The role of intonation is very great: 90% depends on intonation, which expresses the persuasiveness, significance of the word.
Suggestibility - the degree of susceptibility to suggestion, the ability to non-critical perception of incoming information. It is not the same: it is higher in people with a weak nervous system and with sharp fluctuations in attention, extroverts, gullible, anxious, malleable, a weak desire for self-expression, reproductive thinking, the desire to work according to the model. Hard-to-suggest - a strong type of nervous system, a fast pace of psychological work, an introvert, a skeptic, calm, stubborn, a strong desire for self-expression, a creative figure, independent.
Suggestion forms:
1. Hypnotic suggestion
2. Suggestion in a state of relaxation - muscular and mental relaxation
3. Suggestion in the active state, when the person is awake
Suggestion techniques are aimed at reducing the criticality of a person when receiving information, reduce criticality and increase a person's susceptibility to the information received.
1. Transfer reception assumes that when transmitting a message, a new one is associated with well-known facts, phenomena, people to whom a person has an emotionally positive attitude, so that this emotional state is transferred to new information (transfer of a negative attitude, then the information is rejected).
2. Methods of evidence (quoting a famous person, scientist, thinker).
3. Appeal to all (most people think that ..)
Belief - appeals to logic, reason. Assumes a fairly high level of development of logical thinking. The content and form of persuasion must correspond to the level of development of the personality, thinking.
1. Persuasive speech should be built taking into account the individual characteristics of the listener.
2. It should be consistent, logical, as evidence-based as possible, contain both generalizing and specific examples.
3. It is necessary to analyze the facts known to the listeners.
4. The person who convinces himself must be deeply convinced of what he proves.
The slightest inaccuracy, logical inconsistency will reduce the effect of persuasion.
1) The listener compares the information received with the information he has, and as a result, an idea is created of how the speaker presents it, where he draws it from; if it seems to a person that the speaker is telling a lie, hiding the facts, then confidence in him drops sharply.
3) The settings of the speaker and the listener are compared. If the distance is large, then persuasion may not be effective, but the persuader may first report elements of similarity with the views of those being persuaded. Or, on the contrary, first report significant differences in attitudes, and then confidently prove and refute alien opinions (this is extremely difficult to do).
TO persuasion is a method of influence based on logical techniques, which are mixed with socio-psychological pressures of various kinds (influence of the authority of the source of information, group influence). Persuasion is more effective when the group is persuaded rather than the individual.
Persuasion is based on logical methods of evidence. The evidence consists of:
1. Thesis is a thought, the truth of which is required to be proved; it must be clearly, precisely, unambiguously defined and justified by the facts.
2. An argument is a thought, the truth of which has already been proven, and therefore it is given to justify the truth or falsity of the thesis.
3. Demonstration - logical reasoning, a set of logical rules used in the proof.
Boomerang effect - persuasion leads to results opposite to the intentions of the persuader. It happens:
1. When the initial attitudes between the persuasive and the persuaded are separated by a large distance, and from the very beginning the speaker shows this, but does not have strong arguments and authority. The audience does not listen, rejects the information and further strengthens its position.
2. In the case of an abundance of information, arguments, evidence for an insignificant reason. An emotional barrier is created that rejects all persuasive arguments, although outwardly, a person can and will agree.
Efficiency depends on the primary and secondary information: Primary information is perceived easier, more trusting, they are not affected by previous prejudices, however, information about a long-known event, a person who came last, can cross out the previously existing attitude to this event or person.
Imitation - reproduction of the activities, actions, qualities of another person whom you want to be like.
Conditions for imitation:
The presence of a positive emotional attitude, admiration or respect for this person - the object of imitation.
Less experience of a person in comparison with the object of imitation.
Clarity, expressiveness, attractiveness of the sample.
Availability of the sample, at least in part.
Conscious orientation of the desires and will of a person to the object of imitation (I want to be like that).
Imitation is the most important factor in the development of a child's personality, but it is also inherent in adults. Young people imitate, first of all, what is socially new.
Tarde divided imitation into types:
1) Logical and non-logical
2) According to the sequence and mechanism of movement - on the internal and external
3) According to the degree of stability - imitation-fashion and imitation-custom
4) By social nature - imitation within a class and imitation of one class to another.
Oratory as a prototype of journalism
Quotes about Napoleon - dslinkov — LiveJournal
Me vengeance The man on the bulldozer destroyed the city