Supreme power in ancient Rome. The highest power in ancient Rome belonged to

The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after its collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.

History of Ancient Rome

The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 BC. e. these settlements united into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, at the very epicenter of constantly conflicting peoples - the Latins, the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks. From this date, chronology began in Ancient Rome.

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According to ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were the children of the god Mars and the vestal virgin Remi Silvia. Finding themselves at the center of a conspiracy, they were on the brink of death. The brothers were saved from certain death by a she-wolf who fed them with her milk. Having grown up, they founded a beautiful city, which was named after one of the brothers.

Rice. 1. Romulus and Remus.

Over time, simple farmers turned into well-trained warriors who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The management system, language, achievements of culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire occurred in 476 BC.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome

The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three most important periods:

• Tsarsky . The earliest period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitives. With the development of crafts and the formation of the state system, Rome began to develop at a rapid pace. During this period, power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of whom was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. Rulers did not receive power by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulation and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change the political structure in Rome and proclaimed a republic.

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Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by the slaves who served the masters in the house. It was most difficult for slaves, whose former activities involved grueling work in the fields and mining of mineral deposits.

• Republican . During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The borders of Ancient Rome began to expand due to the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, and the Mediterranean. The Republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at the people's assembly.
• The Roman Empire . Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. At that period of time, Ancient Rome expanded its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to manage empires. Over time, the power split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.

Urban planning and architecture

The construction of cities in Ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Every major settlement was built in such a way that two roads perpendicular to each other intersected in its center. At their intersection there was a central square, a market and all the most important buildings.

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Engineering thought reached its highest peak in Ancient Rome. A subject of particular pride for local architects were aqueducts - water conduits through which a large volume of clean water flowed into the city every day.

Rice. 2. Aqueduct in Ancient Rome.

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One of the oldest temples of Ancient Rome was the Capitol, built on one of the seven hills. The Capitoline Temple was not only the center of religion, it was of great importance in strengthening the state and served as a symbol of the strength, power and might of Rome.

Numerous canals, fountains, an excellent sewage system, a network of public baths (thermal baths) with cold and hot pools made life much easier for city residents.

Ancient Rome became famous for its roads, which provided troops and postal services with rapid movement and contributed to developed trade. Their construction was carried out by slaves who dug deep trenches and then filled them with gravel and stone. Roman roads were so good that they were able to safely survive more than one hundred years.

Culture of Ancient Rome

Matters worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, and civil law. The early culture of Ancient Rome was based on this. Particular importance was given to the development of sciences and various types of research.

Ancient Roman art, in particular painting and sculpture, had much in common with the art of Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave birth to many wonderful writers, poets, and playwrights.

The Romans were very fond of entertainment, among which the greatest demand was gladiator fights, chariot racing and hunting wild animals. Roman spectacles became an alternative to the incredibly popular Olympic Games in Ancient Greece.

Rice. 3. Gladiator fights.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic “Ancient Rome,” we briefly learned the most important things about Ancient Rome: the history of its origins, the features of the formation of the state, the main stages of development. We got acquainted with ancient Roman art, culture, and architecture.

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The relevance of the problems associated with the state structure of Ancient Rome today is increasing, and the topic of the essay under consideration, the systematization of knowledge and ideas about the various manifestations of human development, will to a certain extent help to navigate modern spiritual life, its state and development trends.

The “Rome” community has now developed into a whole state, the “Roman Republic”, the inhabitants of which (in addition to national-tribal, property and other differences) are divided primarily into personally free and personally unfree. Individually free people are divided into citizens and foreigners.

The main citadel of the nobility and the governing body of the republic was the Senate. There were usually 300 senators. The right to appoint senators belonged first to the king, and then to the consuls. According to the law of Ovinius (last quarter of the 4th century), this right passed to the censors. Every five years, the censors reviewed the list of senators, could cross out from it those who, for one reason or another, were not fit for purpose, and add new ones. Ovinius’ law established “that the censors, under oath, should elect the best of all categories of magistrates to the senate.” We are talking about former magistrates up to and including quaestors.

Senators were distributed by rank. In the first place were the so-called “curule senators,” that is, former magistrates who held a curule position: former dictators, consuls, censors, praetors and curule aediles; then came the rest: former plebeian aediles, tribunes of the people and quaestors, as well as senators who had not held any magistracy in the past (there were few of these). First on the list was the most respected senator, called princeps senatus (first senator). Belonging to one category or another determined the voting procedure. The latter occurred either by stepping aside or through personal questioning of each senator. All extraordinary magistrates, for example dictators, and among ordinary ones, consuls, praetors, and later tribunes of the people could convene the Senate and preside over it.

Before the outbreak of civil wars, the Senate enjoyed enormous authority. This is explained mainly by its social composition and organization. Initially, only the heads of patrician families could enter the Senate. But very early, probably from the beginning of the republic, plebeians began to appear in the Senate. As they conquered the highest magistrates, their number in the Senate began to rapidly increase. In the 3rd century. the overwhelming majority of senators belonged to the nobility, that is, to the ruling caste of Roman society. This created the cohesion of the Senate, the absence of internal struggle in it, the unity of its program and tactics, and ensured it the support of the most influential part of society. There was a close unity between the Senate and the magistrates, since each former magistrate eventually ended up in the Senate, and new officials were chosen from virtually the same senators. Therefore, it was unprofitable for the magistrates to quarrel with the Senate. Magistrates came and went, changing, as a rule, annually, and the Senate was a permanent body, the composition of which remained largely unchanged (massive replenishment of the Senate with new members was a very rare occurrence). This gave him continuity of tradition and extensive administrative experience.

The range of affairs over which the Senate was in charge was very wide. Until 339, as stated above, he had the right to approve the decisions of the national assembly. After this year, only the preliminary approval of the Senate of bills submitted to the comitia was required. According to the Menia law, the same procedure was established in relation to the candidacies of officials.

In the event of a difficult external or internal state of the state, the Senate declared a state of emergency, i.e., a state of siege. This was done most often through the appointment of a dictator. From the 2nd century. other forms of imposing a state of siege are included in practice. One of them was that the Senate adopted a resolution: “Let the consuls observe that the republic does not suffer any damage.” This formula gave consuls (or other officials) extraordinary powers similar to those of a dictator. Another way to concentrate executive power was to elect one consul. This method, although very rarely, was used in the 1st century.

The Senate had the highest leadership in military affairs. He determined the time and quantity of recruitment into the army, as well as the composition of the contingents: citizens, allies, etc. The Senate passed a resolution on the dissolution of the army, and under its control the distribution of individual military formations or fronts between military leaders took place. The Senate established the budget of each military leader and awarded triumphs and other honors to victorious commanders.

All foreign policy was concentrated in the hands of the Senate. The right to declare war, conclude peace and treaties of alliance belonged to the people, but the Senate carried out all the preparatory work for this. He sent embassies to other countries, received foreign ambassadors and was generally in charge of all diplomatic acts.

The Senate managed finances and state property: it drew up a budget (usually for 5 years), established the nature and amount of taxes, controlled tax farming, supervised the minting of coins, etc.

The Senate had the highest supervision over the cult. He instituted holidays, established thanksgiving and purification sacrifices, interpreted the signs of the gods in the most serious cases, controlled foreign cults and, if necessary, prohibited them.

The members of all standing judicial commissions before the Gracchi era consisted of senators. Only in 123 did Gaius Gracchus transfer the courts into the hands of the horsemen (this name was then understood as rich merchants and moneylenders).

In the event that the positions of the highest magistrates, who had the right to preside over the popular assembly to elect consuls, were vacant or these magistrates could not arrive at the time of the elections in Rome, the Senate declared an “interregnum.” This term has been preserved from the tsarist era. One of the senators was appointed “interregal” to preside over the consular electoral committees. He performed his position for five days, after which he appointed a successor and transferred his powers to him. He appointed the next one, etc., until consuls were elected in the comitia centuriata.

Thus, the Senate was the highest administrative body of the republic, and at the same time it had supreme control over the entire life of the state.

Both large class classes of the previous period, patricians and plebeians, continued to exist now, and their mutual struggle for political rights was the most characteristic phenomenon in the life of the Roman community during the Republic. Already under Servius Tullius, according to legend, the plebeians, initially without rights, received some rights, for example the right to land ownership, the right to legal marriage and commerce among themselves, a limited right to trial, the right to vote and serve military service. They, thus, became from those without rights to incomplete citizens, and the desire for full legal equality with the patricians, especially in the right to occupy the highest government positions, led to an intensification of their struggle with the patricians, until complete equalization of rights. According to the laws of Lucius Sextius (366 BC), plebeians received access to the highest secular, and according to the law of Ogulna (300 BC) and to the highest spiritual positions, in addition to the previously obtained right to legal marriage with patricians. Thanks to the expansion of the state, the size of the plebs also increased significantly.

Thus, both classes merged into one concept “Roman people”. However, the exercise of the right to occupy senior government positions, due to the costly election campaign and the lack of remuneration for holding office, was available only to wealthy citizens. As a result, from the patricians and rich plebeians, an official, serving nobility (nobili) gradually formed, standing in opposition to the less prosperous plebs.

The governance of the Roman community during the Republican period was based on the will of the people. Therefore, all the most important issues of governance were resolved on the basis of one or another expression of the will of the community, the “people of Rome.” He owned:

legislative power - the right to make laws;

judicial power - the right to conduct a trial;

electoral power - the right to elect magistrates;

the decisive power is in matters of peace and war.

The decisions of the people on points a) and d), as having the force of law, were called “laws of the people” or “people's commands”. The people themselves, as the bearer of supreme power, were invested with a certain greatness, and crimes against the community were considered an insult to the greatness of the Roman people. The fasces of the magistrates present in the assembly bowed before the people's assembly, as a symbol of their admiration for the “greatness of the people.”

The people exercised their rights in public assemblies, usually in the so-called comitia (from Latin - “to come together”), that is, in meetings of full-fledged citizens convened and led by an official who had the right to do so (for example, a consul or praetor), at which they (in their political divisions into curiae, centuries or tribes) decided by voting the next issues proposed for decision.

All Roman citizens (who had the right to vote) had the right to participate in comitia and vote, wherever they were - in Rome, a province or a colony. According to the representatives of the Roman community who participated in the meetings, the comitia were divided into the comitia curiata, comitia centuriata and comitia tributa.

One should distinguish from a comitia free meetings convened by a secular or ecclesiastical official (not along political divisions) or gatherings where the people did not vote, but usually listened to reports and messages or discussed some important issues, especially those that were on the agenda at the nearest comitia. Everyone present could speak at these meetings. They usually gathered at the Forum, and convened by the clergy - at the Capitol.

The reason for the fall of the republic is that it was a state form that developed on the basis of the city-state and which could not provide for the interests of wide circles of slave owners within the framework of a vast empire. Under these conditions, the ruling classes saw the only means of maintaining their power in a dictatorship based on the army. There are many more reasons for the fall of the republic. S.I. Kovalev believes that: “The main and most common reason was the contradiction between the political form of the republic in the 1st century. BC e. and its social and class content. While this form remained the same, its content changed significantly."

The Roman Empire differed from the republic in the very organization of the ruling class. In connection with the territorial growth of the Roman Republic, the state transformed from a body representing the interests of the largest Roman landowners and slave owners, which was the republic, into a body representing the interests of the ruling classes of the entire Roman state.

This implied the involvement of slave-owning circles not only of Italy, but also of the provinces in the leadership of the state, and in the future - the equalization of Italy and the provinces.

Under Caesar and Augustus, only the foundations for the development of the Roman Empire were laid. The differences between the parts of the empire were still enormous. All disparate areas were united by political power and held by his military power.

The monarchical reform of Augustus seemed to close the circle of development of the state structure of Rome: monarchy - republic - monarchy. Just as the republican magistracy is a fragmentation of the single power of the king, so the power of the emperor is again the gathering (concentration) of the republican magistracy in the person of the sovereign, in the form of a new, extraordinary magistracy.

In fact, the monarchy was restored after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), when all military power was concentrated in the hands of Augustus, and legally in 27, when Octavian received the title "Augustus" (venerable, sacred) from the Senate ) supreme leadership and supervision of all affairs, the right to control the actions of other authorities, management of some provinces and the main command over the entire army.

On this basis, the power of the Roman emperors gradually grew, until Diocletian (285-305 AD), when it became a monarchy in the strict sense of the word. All power was concentrated in the hands of one person, and the Senate and the people no longer played any state role. The power of the emperor was lifelong, but not dynastic, hereditary: the emperor could only indicate to the state the person to whom he wished to transfer power after death, appointing him as heir to his personal property and property. This could also be a person adopted by the sovereign. The emperor could accept him as co-emperor and transfer the title "Caesar", awarding him with various honors necessary to create his reputation, especially in the army.

The emperor had the right to relinquish power himself. As a "magistrate" he could be removed by the Senate, but, relying on the army, he did not fear this removal. In any case, the removal of emperors was always an act of violence.

The emperor's powers consisted of military power, which constituted the main support of his influence. It was given to him by the Senate and the army, and as commander-in-chief of the Roman army, the emperor resembled a republican proconsul, since the military forces were in the provinces, the rulers of which were proconsuls.

As consul, censor and tribune of the people, the emperor had the opportunity to:

take an active part in legislation, leading the Senate and comitia; but along with their decisions, there were also personal orders of the emperor issued on the basis of his law (edicts, decrees, mandates, constitutions, etc.);

participate in legal proceedings: draw up lists of jurors, manage trials, especially military and criminal ones, with the court of the emperor being the highest authority;

participate in the elections of magistrates, and the emperor checked the legal capacity of the candidates, recommended his own (Caesar's candidates), which almost amounted to an appointment, and appointed some officials himself, especially governors in the imperial provinces;

as a censor - to compile lists of the estates, especially the Senate, thus subordinating it to his personal influence;

exercise supreme supervision and leadership in all state affairs, internal and external, manage state economics and finances, mint coins, etc. Censorship supervision over morality was also within the competence of the emperor;

exercise their power in the provinces, where emperors could appoint their officials to govern local communities, often to the detriment of their former autonomy.

The emperor also had spiritual power. As Supreme Pontiff and member of all the most important priestly colleges, the emperor had supreme supervision over the cult and over the property of the spiritual colleges and temples.

In addition to the republican-type magistrates dependent on the emperor, he appointed a number of special officials for various branches of government: to manage the provinces of procurators, legates of Augustus; for individual parts of the management of curators, prefects. Of the latter, the following were especially important: the city prefect - the mayor and the city judge; praetorian prefect - chief of the praetorians, a very influential dignitary after the emperor; the prefect in charge of the provisions of Rome, and others. These ranks usually received their salaries from the imperial treasury and were often appointed from senators or equestrians, sometimes (lower positions) from imperial freedmen.

This is how J. Boje characterizes the state of Rome at this time: “In the 2nd century. the decline of Roman morality is especially noticeable; weakening of patriotic feelings, which ceased to be a source of civic virtues, replaced by the desire for personal well-being, “bourgeois virtues”, which coexisted with the thirst for profit, the kingdom of money, debauchery, and individualism. The connection with family has weakened.”

The Senate continued its apparently honorable existence; legally it stood even above the Emperor, who received his power from the Senate. However, in fact, the enormous personal and military importance of the emperor deprived the Senate of almost all independence, especially since, by virtue of his censorship power, the emperor had the right to replenish the total body of power, and as a tribune of the people, he could stop with his intercession all decisions that were displeasing to him. The Senate was still given control over the cult and management of the (state) treasury. However, when the state treasury merged with the imperial treasury, this right was eliminated. The Senate also had the right to elect magistrates (where, however, it was also constrained by candidates nominated by the emperor). He had judicial power as one of the highest judicial authorities, led by the emperor, as well as the right to govern the Senate provinces, etc. However, in fact, the decisions of the Senate were often only a statement of the will of the emperor.

The death of Rome means the death of the great ancient culture as a whole. As T. Mommsen figuratively noted: “A historical night fell over the Greco-Latin world, and it was beyond human power to avert it, but Caesar nevertheless allowed the exhausted peoples to live out the evening of their development in tolerable conditions. And when, after a long night, a new historical day dawned and new nations rushed towards new, higher goals, many of them saw the seed sown by Caesar flourish, and many owe their national identity to him.”

Based on the above, we can conclude that throughout its existence, Ancient Rome underwent development in its state development from the so-called royal period, when the king was the bearer of supreme power; it was during the royal period that the Roman community received that characteristic appearance that distinguishes it so much from other communities of the ancient world. Further, the Roman community develops into a Republic; some sections acquire rights, such as the right to land ownership, the right to legally marry and trade among themselves, a limited right to trial, the right to vote and serve military service. The Republic is replaced by the Empire, under which the fragmented republican power is concentrated in the hands of the Emperor.

The formation on the territory of Italy of a unique Roman statehood and culture, the creation of a world power that covered the entire Mediterranean and Western Europe, and its long (about 4 centuries) existence, the birth within its borders of a syncretic Mediterranean ancient civilization as a prototype of the future European civilization, the emergence and spread of a new one here. world religion - Christianity - all this gives Ancient Rome a special place in world history.

1. Alferova I.V. Roman Antiquities: a brief outline. – Smolensk: Rusich, 2000, – 384 p.

2. Badak A.N. et al. History of the ancient world. Ancient Rome. – Mn.: Harvest, 2000. – 864 p.

3. Elmanova N. S. Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Historian. – M.: Pedagogika-Press, 1999. – 448 p.

4. Kovalev S.I. History of Rome. Publisher: Leningrad University, 1986. – 744 p.

5. Shtaerman E. M. Social foundations of the religion of Ancient Rome. – M.: Nauka, 1987. – 320 p.

Initially it was very archaic: it was headed by kings, whose power still resembled the power of a leader. The kings led the city militia and served as the supreme judge and priest. Played a major role in the governance of Ancient Rome Senate - council of clan elders. The full-fledged inhabitants of Rome - the patricians - gathered at public assemblies, where kings were elected and decisions were made on the most important issues in the life of the city. In the VI century. BC e. plebeians received some rights - they were included in the civil community, allowed to vote and were given the opportunity to own land.

At the end of the 6th century. BC e. in Rome, the power of the kings was replaced by an aristocratic republic, in which the patricians played the leading role. Despite the fact that the government of Rome received the name republic, that is, “common cause,” real power remained in the hands of the most noble and wealthy part of Roman society. During the Roman Republic, the nobility were called nobles.

The citizens of Ancient Rome - nobles, horsemen and plebeians - formed a civil community - civitas. The political system of Rome during this period was called a republic and was built on the principles of civil self-government.

Comitia (highest authority)

The highest power belonged to the people's assembly - comitia. The composition of the people's assemblies included all citizens who had reached the age of majority. The comitia adopted laws, elected boards of officials, made decisions on the most important issues in the life of the state and society, such as concluding peace or declaring war, exercised control over the activities of officials and the life of the state in general, introduced taxes, and provided civil rights.

Master's degrees (executive branch)

Executive power belonged to Master's programs The most important officials were two consul, who headed the state and commanded the army. Below them stood two praetor who were responsible for legal proceedings. Censors They conducted a census of the property of citizens, that is, they determined membership in one class or another, and also exercised control over rights. People's Tribunes, elected only from among the plebeians, were obliged to protect the rights of ordinary citizens of Rome. The tribunes of the people often put forward draft laws in the interests of the plebeians and, in connection with this, opposed the Senate and the nobles. An important tool of the people's tribunes was the law veto - a ban on orders and actions of any officials, including consuls, if, in the opinion of the tribunes, their actions infringed on the interests of the plebeians. There were also other master's programs in which master's degree were engaged in various current affairs.

Senate

In the state system of the Roman Republic, the Senate played a very important role - a collective body, which usually included 300 representatives of the highest Roman aristocracy. The Senate discussed the most important issues of state life and submitted decisions for approval by people's assemblies, heard reports from officials, and received foreign ambassadors. The importance of the Senate was great, and in many respects it was he who determined the domestic and foreign policy of the Roman Republic.

Principate

After the establishment of imperial power in Ancient Rome in the first, early period of the Roman Empire, it began to be called Principate.

Dominant

After the crisis of the Roman Empire, Diocletian took the place of emperor. The unlimited monarchy he established was called dominatrix.

In the late Roman Empire, central power became increasingly weaker. The change of emperors often occurred by force - as a result of conspiracies. The provinces were leaving the control of the emperors.

Story

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

• Royal period (/-/509 BC).
• Republic (510/ - /27 BC)
  • Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
  • Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
    • Sometimes the period of the Middle (classical) Republic (287-133 BC) is also highlighted.
• Empire (30/27 BC - AD)
  • Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - AD)
  • Late Roman Empire. Dominant ( - yrs.)

Map of Rome in antiquity

During the royal period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium, the area inhabited by the Latin tribe. During the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although a vertical system of governing subordinate territories had not yet developed at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon brought it into conflict with Carthage, a major state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expanding to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC. e. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the eventual winner, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not last a century in power. The heyday of the Roman Empire occurred in the relatively calm time of the 2nd century, but already the 3rd century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy situation of the empire became more complicated. The establishment of the Dominat system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for some time by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the 4th century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which completely undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.

The magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. The Senate initially had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of senators, later their number varied. A seat in the Senate was obtained after passing the ordinary magistracy, but the censors had the right to conduct lustration of the Senate with the possibility of expelling individual senators. The Senate met on the Kalends, Nones and Ides of each month, as well as on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the Senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convening of the Senate and comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable due to certain “signs”.

Dictators, elected in special cases and for no more than 6 months, had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, lack of accountability. With the exception of the extraordinary magistracy of the dictator, all offices in Rome were collegiate.

Society

Laws

As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not simply defeating the enemy or establishing peace; the war only ended to their satisfaction when former enemies became “friends” or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not to subject the entire world to the power and imperium of Rome, but to extend the Roman system of alliances to all countries on earth. The Roman idea was expressed by Virgil, and it was not just the poet’s fantasy. The Roman people themselves, the populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a partnership born of war, namely, the alliance between the patricians and the plebeians, the end of internal discord between whom was put by the famous Leges XII Tabularum. But even this document of their history, hallowed by antiquity, was not considered by the Romans to be inspired by God; they preferred to believe that Rome had sent a commission to Greece to study the legal systems there. Thus the Roman Republic, itself based on law - a perpetual union between patricians and plebeians - used the instrument of leges mainly for treaties and the administration of the provinces and communities belonging to the Roman system of unions, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed the societas Romana.

Social structure of Roman society

Over time, the social structure as a whole has become noticeably more complex. Horsemen appeared - people not always of noble origin, but engaged in trading operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation for patricians) and concentrated significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the families gradually faded away. Around the 3rd century. BC e. The patriciate merges with the equestrians into the nobility.

Until the late Republic, there was a type of marriage cum manu, “at hand,” that is, when a daughter got married, she fell into the power of the head of the husband’s family. Later, this form of marriage fell out of use and marriages began to be concluded sine manu, without hand, in which the wife was not under the authority of her husband and remained under the authority of her father or guardian. Ancient Roman marriage, especially in the upper classes, was often based on financial and political interests.

Several families with related ties formed a gens, the most influential of which played an important role in political life.

Fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral standards and personal considerations. A father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a boy from the age of 14.

Roman law provided for two forms of marriage:

When a woman passed from the power of her father to the power of her husband, that is, she was accepted into her husband’s family.

After marriage, a woman remained a member of the old family, while laying claim to the family inheritance. This case was not the main one and was more like cohabitation than marriage, since the wife could leave her husband at almost any time and return home.

Regardless of what form the young people preferred, marriage was preceded by a betrothal between the young people. During the betrothal, the newlyweds took a marriage vow. Each of them, when asked whether he promised to marry, answered: “I promise.” The groom handed his future wife a coin, as a symbol of the wedding union concluded between the parents, and an iron ring, which the bride wore on the ring finger of her left hand.

At weddings, all matters related to organizing the wedding celebration were transferred to the manager - a woman who enjoyed general respect. The manager led the bride into the hall and handed her over to the groom. The transfer was accompanied by religious rituals in which the woman played the role of a priestess of the hearth. After the feast at the parents' house, the newlywed was seen off to her husband's house. The bride had to theatrically resist and cry. And the manager stopped the girl’s persistence, taking her from her mother’s arms and handing her over to her husband.

Celebrations associated with the arrival of a new family member began on the eighth day after birth and lasted three days. The father raised the child from the ground and gave the baby a name, thereby announcing his decision to accept him into the family. After this, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, usually amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits.

For a long time, it was not necessary to register a child. Only when a Roman reached adulthood and donned a white toga did he become a citizen of the Roman state. He was presented before officials and included in the list of citizens.

The registration of newborns was first introduced at the dawn of the new era by Octavian Augustus, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the Temple of Saturn, where the office of the governor and the archive were located. At the same time, the child’s name and date of birth were confirmed. His free origin and right of citizenship were confirmed.

Status of women

The woman was subordinate to the man because she, according to Theodor Mommsen, “belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community.” In wealthy families, women were given an honorable position and were in charge of managing the household. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could freely appear in society, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. The basic principle of building Roman society is reliance on the elementary unit of society - the family (surname).

The head of the family, the father (pater familias), had unlimited power in the family, and his power in the family was formalized by law. The family included not only father and mother, but also sons, their wives and children, as well as unmarried daughters.

The surname included slaves and all household property.

The father's authority extended to all members of the family.

The father made almost all decisions regarding family members himself.

At the birth of a child, he determined the fate of the newborn; he either recognized the child, or ordered him to be killed, or abandoned him without any help.

The father alone owned all the family property. Even after reaching adulthood and getting married, the son remained without rights in the family name. He had no right to own any real property during his father's lifetime. Only after the death of his father, by virtue of a will, did he receive his property by inheritance. The unlimited domination of the father existed throughout the entire Roman Empire, as did the right to control the fate of loved ones. In the late period of the Roman Empire, fathers were freed from unwanted children due to economic difficulties and the general decline of the moral foundations of society.

In Roman families, a woman had great rights, since she was entrusted with the responsibilities of running the household. She was the sovereign mistress of her house. It was considered good form when a woman managed family life well, freeing up her husband’s time for more important government affairs. A woman's dependence on her husband was limited, in essence, to property relations; A woman could not own or dispose of property without her husband’s permission.

A Roman woman appeared freely in society, went on visits, and attended ceremonial receptions. But politics was not a woman’s business; she was not supposed to attend public meetings.

Education

Boys and girls began to be taught at the age of seven. Rich parents preferred homeschooling. The poor used the services of schools. At the same time, the prototype of modern education was born: children went through three stages of education: primary, secondary and higher. The heads of the family, caring about their children’s education, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or get a Greek slave to teach them.

The vanity of parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education.

At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, and were given information on history, law and literary works.

At the Higher School, training took place in oratory. During practical classes, students performed exercises that consisted of composing speeches on a given topic from history, mythology, literature or from social life.

Outside Italy, education was received mainly in Athens, on the island of Rhodes, where they also improved in oratory and gained an understanding of various philosophical schools. Studying in Greece became especially relevant after Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius Crassus, being censors in 92 BC. e. , closed Latin rhetoric schools.

At the age of 17-18, the young man had to leave his studies and undergo military service.

The Romans also took care that women received an education in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer of family life and educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied together with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. The Roman state began to train slaves already in the 1st century AD, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers of estates and were engaged in trade, and were appointed overseers over other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the state bureaucracy; many slaves were teachers and even architects.

A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one, since he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Marcus Licinius Crassus.

Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to form a significant stratum in Rome. Having nothing in their souls except the thirst for power and profit, they sought to take the place of an employee, a manager in the state apparatus, and engage in commercial activities and usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to appear, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed persistence in the struggle for their place in the sun. Ultimately, they were able to achieve legal equality and push the Romans out of government.

Army

For almost the entire period of its existence, the Roman army was, as practice has proven, the most advanced among the rest of the states of the Ancient World, having gone from a people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (during the era of the Punic Wars, the marine corps actually showed itself to be excellent). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in varied terrain and in harsh weather conditions.

If there is a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military danger ( tumultus) all work stopped, production stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - residents of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus. Since the usual recruitment procedure took more time, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate, carried out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment for the infantry, and green for the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me"). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.

Culture

Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as affairs worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. The early culture of Rome developed on this basis. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were accepted only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman value system or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture at its peak had a huge influence on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.

The early Roman worldview was characterized by a sense of self as a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civil community and the priority of state interests over personal interests, combined with conservatism, which consisted of following the morals and customs of their ancestors. In - vv. BC e. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the individual began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought.

Language

Latin language, the appearance of which dates back to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. constituted the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted other Italic languages ​​and over time took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Latin was spoken by the population of the small region of Latium (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower reaches of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latium was called Latins (lat. Latini), its language is Latin. The center of this area became the city of Rome, after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves Romans (lat. Romans).

There are several stages in the development of Latin:

• Archaic Latin
• Classical Latin
• Postclassical Latin
• Late Latin

Religion

Ancient Roman mythology is close to Greek in many aspects, even to the point of direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the veneration of spirits also played a large role: genii, penates, lares, lemurs and mani. Also in Ancient Rome there were numerous colleges of priests.

Although religion played a significant role in traditional Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. e. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC. e. Roman philosophers (most notably Titus Lucretius Carus and Marcus Tullius Cicero) largely revised or questioned many of the traditional religious positions.

Art, music, literature

Life

The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G. B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family legislation and religious rituals.

To make better use of daylight, the Romans usually rose very early, often around four in the morning, and, after breakfast, began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

In the first centuries of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mainly thick, hard-cooked porridge from spelled, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in households, but also bread cakes were baked. Culinary art began to develop in the 3rd century. BC e. and under the empire reached unprecedented heights.

The science

Main article: Ancient Roman Science

Roman science inherited a number of Greek research, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics) it was mainly of an applied nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that became widespread worldwide. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Law and agricultural sciences reached a particular flourishing; a large number of works were devoted to architecture, urban planning and military technology. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedist scientists Gaius Pliny Secundus the Elder, Marcus Terentius Varro and Lucius Annaeus Seneca.

Ancient Roman philosophy developed primarily in the wake of Greek philosophy, with which it was largely connected. The most widespread in philosophy is Stoicism.

Roman science in the field of medicine achieved remarkable success. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome we can note: Dioscorides - a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus - an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen - a talented anatomist who discovered the functions of nerves and the brain.

Encyclopedic treatises written during the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge throughout most of the Middle Ages.

Heritage of Ancient Rome

Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about a person’s duty to himself and the state, about the importance of law and justice in the life of society, complemented the ancient Greek culture with its desire to understand the world, a developed sense of proportion, beauty, harmony, and a pronounced play element . Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.

The cultural heritage of Ancient Rome can be traced in scientific terminology, architecture, and literature. Latin has long been the language of international communication for all educated people in Europe. It is still used in scientific terminology. Based on the Latin language, Romance languages ​​arose in former Roman possessions and are spoken by the peoples of a large part of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law they created, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman possessions that Christianity arose and then became the state religion - a religion that united all European peoples and greatly influenced the history of mankind.

Historiography

Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France.

The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon, “The History of the Decline and Collapse of the Roman Empire,” which covered the period from the end of the 2nd century until the fall of the fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon valued the virtue of Roman citizens, however, the disintegration of the empire according to him began already under Commodus, and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.

Niebuhr became the founder of the critical movement and wrote the work “Roman History”, where it was brought to the First Punic War. Niebuhr attempted to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic that was preserved mainly by noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, viewed from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.

In the Napoleonic era, the work of V. Duruis “History of the Romans” appeared, emphasizing the then popular Caesarian period.

A new historiographical milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. A major role was played by his voluminous work “Roman History”, as well as “Roman State Law” and “Collection of Latin Inscriptions” (“Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum”).

Later, the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero, “The Greatness and Fall of Rome” was published. The work of I.M. has been published. Grevs “Essays on the history of Roman land ownership, mainly in the era of the Empire”, where, for example, information appeared about the farm of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic, and the farm of Horace was considered a model of the average estate of the Augustan era.

Against the hypercriticism of the works of the Italian E. Pais, who denied the authenticity of the Roman tradition until the 3rd century AD. e. , De Sanctis spoke in his “History of Rome”, where, on the other hand, information about the royal period was almost completely denied.

The study of Roman history in the USSR was closely connected with Marxism-Leninism, which did not have specialized works at its core and relied on such frequently cited works as “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, “Chronological Extracts”, “Forms Predating Capitalist Production ", "Bruno Bauer and Early Christianity", etc. The emphasis was on slave revolts and their role in Roman history, as well as agrarian history.

Much attention was given to the study of the ideological struggle (S. L. Utchenko, P. F. Preobrazhensky), which was seen even in the most favorable periods of the empire (N. A. Mashkin, E. M. Shtaerman, A. D. Dmitrev, etc.) .

Attention was also paid to the conditions of the transition from the Republic to the Empire, considered, for example, in Mashkin’s work “The Principate of Augustus” or in V. S. Sergeev’s “Essays on the History of Ancient Rome”, and to the provinces, in the study of which A. B. Ranovich stood out.

Among those who studied the relations of Rome with other states, A. G. Bokshchanin stood out.

Since 1937, the “Bulletin of Ancient History” began to be published, where articles on Roman history and archaeological excavations began to be frequently published.

After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, “The History of Rome” by S. I. Kovalev and “The History of the Roman People” by critic V. N. Dyakov were published in 1948. In the first work, the Roman tradition is considered reliable in many respects, in the second, doubt was expressed on this score.

see also

Primary sources

• Dio Cassius. "Roman History"
• Ammianus Marcellinus. "Acts"
• Polybius. "General history"
• Publius Cornelius Tacitus. "History", "Annals"
• Plutarch. "Comparative Lives"
• Appian. "Roman History"
• Sextus Aurelius Victor. "On the Origin of the Roman People"
• Flavius ​​Eutropius. "Breviary from the foundation of the city"
• Guy Velleius Paterculus. "Roman History"
• Publius Annaeus Florus. "Epitomes of Titus Livius"
• Herodian. "History of Rome from Marcus Aurelius"
• Diodorus Siculus. "Historical Library"
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Roman Ancient History"
• Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars"
• The so-called “Authors of the Lives of the Augustans” ( Scriptores Historiae Augustae): Aelius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Aelius Lampridius, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius ​​Vopiscus

Fragments

• Gnaeus Naevius. "Punian War"
• Quintus Ennius. "Annals"
• Quintus Fabius Pictor. "Annals"
• Lucius Cincius Aliment. "Chronicle"
• Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder. "Beginnings"
• Pompey Trog. "Philip's Story"
• Gaius Sallust Crispus. "Yugurthine War"
• Granius Licinian

Later fundamental works

• Theodor Mommsen Roman history.
• Edward Gibbon The history of the decline and destruction of the Roman Empire.
• Platner, Samuel Ball. A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome

Notes

Links

	Portal "Ancient Rome "
	Ancient Rome on Wikimedia Commons

• X Legio - Military equipment of antiquity (including fragments of Russian translations of Roman authors and articles on the military affairs of Ancient Rome)
• Roman glory Ancient warfare
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
• The Art of Ancient Rome - Photo Gallery by Stevan Kordić

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