The charge of which body is considered negative? Electric charge – positive and negative

All bodies in the world around us consist of two types of stable particles - protons, positively charged, and electrons, which have the same charge and a negative sign. The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. Therefore the Universe is electrically neutral.

Since the electron and proton never ( at least for the last 14 billion years) do not decay, then the Universe cannot violate its neutrality by any human influences. All bodies are usually also electrically neutral, that is, they contain same number electrons and protons.

In order to make a body charged, it is necessary to remove from it, transferring it to another body, or add to it, taking from another body, a certain number N of electrons or protons. The charge of the body will become equal to Ne. It is necessary to remember ( what is usually forgotten), that the same charge of the opposite sign (Ne) is inevitably formed on another body (or bodies). By rubbing an ebonite stick with wool, we charge not only the ebonite, but also the wool, transferring some electrons from one to the other.

The statement about the attraction of two bodies with identical opposite charges according to the principles of verification and falsification is scientific, since it can, in principle, be confirmed or refuted experimentally. Here the experiment can be carried out purely, without the involvement of third bodies, by simply transferring part of the electrons or protons from one experimental body to another.

The picture is completely different with the statement about the repulsion of like charges. The fact is that only two, for example positive, charge q1, q2 for conducting the experiment cannot be created, since when trying to create them it is always inevitable a third appears, negative charge q3 = -(qi + q2). Therefore, not two will necessarily participate in the experiment, and three charges. It is in principle impossible to conduct an experiment with two charges of the same name.

Therefore, Coulomb’s statement about the repulsion of like charges according to the mentioned principles is unscientific.

For the same reason, an experiment with two charges of different signs q1, - q2 is impossible if these charges are not equal to each other. Here, a third charge q3 = q1 - q2 inevitably appears, which participates in the interaction and influences the resulting force.

The presence of a third charge is forgotten and not taken into account by blind supporters of Coulomb. Two bodies with identical charges of opposite signs can be created by breaking atoms into two charged parts and transferring these parts from one body to another. With such a gap, work must be done and energy must be expended. Naturally, the charged parts will tend to return to their original state with less energy and connect, i.e. they should attract each other.

From the point of view of short-range interaction, any interaction presupposes the presence of an exchange of something material between the interacting bodies, and instantaneous action at a distance and telekinesis are impossible. Electrostatic interactions between charges are carried out by a constant electric field. We don’t know what it is, but we can confidently say that the field is material, since it has energy, mass, momentum and a finite speed of propagation.

Accepted for picture electric field power lines come out of one charge (positive) and cannot break off in emptiness, but always enter another (negative) charge. They stretch like tentacles from one charge to another, connecting them. To reduce the energy of the charge system, the volume occupied by the field tends to a minimum. Therefore, the outstretched “tentacles” of the electric field always tend to contract, like elastic elastic bands stretched during charging. It is due to this contraction that the attraction of unlike charges occurs. The force of attraction can be measured experimentally. It gives Coulomb's law.

It is a completely different matter in the case of charges of the same name. The total electric field of two charges leaves each of them and goes to infinity, and contact between the fields of one and the other charges is not achieved. The elastic “tentacles” of one charge do not reach the other. Therefore, there is no direct material impact of one charge on another, they have nothing to interact with. Since we do not recognize telekinesis, therefore, there can be no repulsion.

How then can we explain the divergence of the eleroscope blades and the charge repulsion observed in Coulomb’s experiments? Let us remember that when we create two positive charges for our experience, we inevitably form a negative charge in the surrounding space.

Here the attraction to him is mistaken and is taken for repulsion.

What negative charges help and give good results for various diseases they show not only modern research, but also a number historical documents collected over centuries.

All living organisms, including humans, are born and develop in the natural conditions of planet Earth, which has one important feature- our planet is a constantly negatively charged field, and the atmosphere around the earth has positive charge. This means that every organism is “programmed” to be born and develop in conditions of a constant electric field that exists between the negatively charged earth and the positively charged atmosphere, which plays a very important role significant role for all biochemical processes in organism.

acute pneumonia;
Chronical bronchitis;
bronchial asthma (except hormone-dependent);
tuberculosis (inactive form);

Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract:

burns;

frostbite;

bedsores;

eczema;

Preoperative preparation and postoperative rehabilitation:

adhesive disease;
improving immune status.

Infrared radiation

The source of infrared radiation is the vibration of atoms around their equilibrium state in living and non-living elements.

Microspheres as part of the Activator “To your health!” have unique property accumulate infrared radiation and the warmth of the human body and return it back.

All types of short-spectrum waves after visible light have a severe effect on all living organisms and are therefore dangerous and harmful. The shorter the wavelength, the harder the radiation. These waves hitting living tissue, knock out electrons in molecules at their level, and later destroy the atom itself. As a result, free radicals are formed, which lead to cancer and radiation sickness.

Waves on the other side of the visible spectrum are not harmful due to their longer wavelength. All infrared spectrum occupies from 0.7 – 1000 microns (micrometers). The human range is from 6 – 12 µm. For comparison, water has 3 microns and therefore a person cannot stay in it for a long time. hot water. Even at 55 degrees, no more than 1 hour. The cells of the body do not feel comfortable at this wavelength and cannot work well; as a result, they resist and malfunction. By exposing cells to heat with a wavelength corresponding to the cell’s heat, the cell receives native heat and works better. Infrared rays it is heated.

The normal temperature for redox reactions inside the cell is 38-39 degrees Celsius, and if the temperature drops, the metabolic process slows down or stops.

What happens when exposed to infrared heat? Overheating rescue mechanism:

Sweating.
Increased blood circulation.
Sweating.
Sweat glands on the skin secrete fluid. The liquid evaporates and cools the body from overheating.
Increased blood circulation.

Arterial blood flows to the heated area of the body. Venous - is discharged, taking away some of the heat. Thereby cooling the area from overheating. This system is similar to a radiator. Blood flows to the overheated area through capillaries. And the more capillaries, the better the outflow of blood. Let's say that we have 5 capillaries, but in order to save us from overheating we need 50. The body is faced with the task of preventing overheating. And if we warm up this area regularly, it will increase (increase) the number of capillaries in the heated area. It has been scientifically proven that the human body can increase the number of capillaries by 10 times! Scientists have proven it. That the aging process in humans depends on the reduction of capillaries. In old age, the number of capillaries decreases, especially in the legs and leg veins. Even at the age of 120, restoration of capillaries is possible.

So: if you warm up a certain area of the body regularly, the body will increase the number of capillaries in the heated area. Relieving the area from constant overheating. In addition, heat will contribute to the normal functioning of cells, because by heating the cells we improve the metabolic process (metabolism). This will contribute to the restoration of heated tissues and their elasticity and firmness will return. If there are problems such as calluses, corns, thorns, spurs, salt deposits, skin diseases, fungi on the feet, infrared heat will lead to an accelerated process of regeneration (restoration).

Lymphatic drainage effect.

The cells are washed on all sides by intercellular fluid. The intercellular fluid collects and is removed from the tissues using the lymphatic system. With the help of capillaries, arterial blood comes to each cell. Venous blood is removed from the cell. In the process of life, waste substances partially enter the venous blood and partially into the intercellular fluid. In the event of the onset of any illness or stress, mechanical impact, injury, a situation such as the intercellular substance does not have time to remove waste (waste materials during the life of the cell). This is a well-known term - slagging. Slagging is directly related to poor lymph outflow. Excess or inactive water is drawn to waste by diffusion, which leads to swelling of the organ or tissue. Infrared heat improves the outflow of lymph, which leads to the removal of toxins and excess water (removes puffiness). The threat of cancer is reduced, tissue trophism (cell nutrition) is improved, where each cell can be renewed. The intercellular substance, rising through the lymph flow, enters the lymph node, which is a filter.

The lymph nodes contain white blood cells - lymphocytes (they act as guards), they fight infections, viruses and cancer cells, among others. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow.

The effect of infrared heat on veins and blood vessels.

The vessels have a smooth surface inside so that red blood cells can slide along the internal channel. Quality inner surface depends on the number of capillaries inside the vessel wall. As a result of stress, in old age, as a result of smoking, microcirculation inside a large vessel is disrupted, which leads to a deterioration in the condition of the vessel wall. The wall of the vessel ceases to be smooth and elastic. Cholesterol and large fractions form an osterosclerotic plaque, impeding the flow of blood along this channel. Blood flow through the narrowed channel worsens, which contributes to increased blood pressure. Infrared heat renews the current through the capillaries inside the vessel wall, after which the inner wall becomes smooth and elastic, and special systems a blood clot (plaque) is corroded in the blood itself.

« Physics - 10th grade"

First, let's consider the simplest case, when electrically charged bodies are at rest.

The branch of electrodynamics devoted to the study of the equilibrium conditions of electrically charged bodies is called electrostatics.

What is an electric charge?
What charges are there?

With words electricity, electric charge, electricity you have met many times and managed to get used to them. But try to answer the question: “What is an electric charge?” The concept itself charge- this is a basic, primary concept that cannot be reduced to modern level development of our knowledge to some simpler, elementary concepts.

Let us first try to find out what is meant by the statement: “This body or particle has an electric charge.”

All bodies are made of tiny particles, which are indivisible into simpler ones and are therefore called elementary.

Elementary particles have mass and due to this they are attracted to each other according to the law universal gravity. As the distance between particles increases, the gravitational force decreases in inverse proportion to the square of this distance. Majority elementary particles, although not all, in addition, have the ability to interact with each other with a force that also decreases inversely with the square of the distance, but this force is many times greater than the force of gravity.

So in the hydrogen atom, shown schematically in Figure 14.1, the electron is attracted to the nucleus (proton) with a force 10 39 times greater than the force of gravitational attraction.

If particles interact with each other with forces that decrease with increasing distance in the same way as the forces of universal gravity, but exceed the gravitational forces many times, then these particles are said to have an electric charge. The particles themselves are called charged.

There are particles without an electric charge, but there is no electric charge without a particle.

The interaction of charged particles is called electromagnetic.

Electric charge determines the intensity of electromagnetic interactions, just as mass determines the intensity of gravitational interactions.

The electric charge of an elementary particle is not a special mechanism in the particle that could be removed from it, decomposed into its component parts and reassembled. The presence of an electric charge on an electron and other particles only means the existence of certain force interactions between them.

We, in essence, know nothing about charge if we do not know the laws of these interactions. Knowledge of the laws of interactions should be included in our ideas about charge. These laws are not simple, and it is impossible to outline them in a few words. Therefore, it is impossible to give a sufficiently satisfactory short definition concept electric charge.

Two signs of electric charges.

All bodies have mass and therefore attract each other. Charged bodies can both attract and repel each other. This the most important fact, familiar to you, means that in nature there are particles with electric charges of opposite signs; in the case of charges of the same sign, the particles repel, and in the case of different signs, they attract.

Charge of elementary particles - protons, which are part of all atomic nuclei, are called positive, and the charge electrons- negative. There are no internal differences between positive and negative charges. If the signs of the particle charges were reversed, then the nature of electromagnetic interactions would not change at all.

Elementary charge.

In addition to electrons and protons, there are several other types of charged elementary particles. But only electrons and protons can exist in a free state indefinitely. The rest of the charged particles live for less than a millionth of a second. They are born during collisions of fast elementary particles and, having existed for an insignificantly short time, decay, turning into other particles. You will become familiar with these particles in 11th grade.

Particles that do not have an electrical charge include neutron. Its mass is only slightly greater than the mass of a proton. Neutrons, together with protons, are part of atomic nucleus. If an elementary particle has a charge, then its value is strictly defined.

Charged bodies Electromagnetic forces play in nature huge role due to the fact that all bodies contain electrically charged particles. The constituent parts of atoms - nuclei and electrons - have an electrical charge.

Direct action electromagnetic forces between bodies is not detected, since the bodies are in normal condition electrically neutral.

An atom of any substance is neutral because the number of electrons in it is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Positively and negatively charged particles are bonded to each other electrical forces and form neutral systems.

A macroscopic body is electrically charged if it contains an excess amount of elementary particles with any one sign of charge. Thus, the negative charge of a body is due to the excess number of electrons compared to the number of protons, and the positive charge is due to the lack of electrons.

In order to obtain an electrically charged macroscopic body, that is, to electrify it, it is necessary to separate part of the negative charge from the positive charge associated with it or transfer a negative charge to a neutral body.

This can be done using friction. If you run a comb through dry hair, then a small part of the most mobile charged particles - electrons - will move from the hair to the comb and charge it negatively, and the hair will charge positively.

Equality of charges during electrification

With the help of experiment, it can be proven that when electrified by friction, both bodies acquire charges that are opposite in sign, but identical in magnitude.

Let's take an electrometer, on the rod of which there is a metal sphere with a hole, and two plates on long handles: one made of hard rubber and the other made of plexiglass. When rubbing against each other, the plates become electrified.

Let's bring one of the plates inside the sphere without touching its walls. If the plate is positively charged, then some of the electrons from the needle and rod of the electrometer will be attracted to the plate and collected on the inner surface of the sphere. At the same time, the arrow will be charged positively and will be pushed away from the electrometer rod (Fig. 14.2, a).

If you bring another plate inside the sphere, having first removed the first one, then the electrons of the sphere and the rod will be repelled from the plate and will accumulate in excess on the arrow. This will cause the arrow to deviate from the rod, and at the same angle as in the first experiment.

Having lowered both plates inside the sphere, we will not detect any deviation of the arrow at all (Fig. 14.2, b). This proves that the charges of the plates are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.

Electrification of bodies and its manifestations. Significant electrification occurs during friction of synthetic fabrics. When you take off a shirt made of synthetic material in dry air, you can hear a characteristic crackling sound. Small sparks jump between the charged areas of the rubbing surfaces.

In printing houses, paper is electrified during printing and the sheets stick together. To prevent this from happening, special devices are used to drain the charge. However, the electrification of bodies in close contact is sometimes used, for example, in various electrocopying installations, etc.

Law of conservation of electric charge.

Experience with the electrification of plates proves that during electrification by friction, a redistribution of existing charges occurs between bodies that were previously neutral. A small portion of electrons moves from one body to another. In this case, new particles do not appear, and pre-existing ones do not disappear.

When bodies are electrified, law of conservation of electric charge. This law is valid for a system into which charged particles do not enter from the outside and from which they do not leave, i.e. for isolated system.

In an isolated system algebraic sum the charges of all bodies are conserved.

q 1 + q 2 + q 3 + ... + q n = const. (14.1)

where q 1, q 2, etc. are the charges of individual charged bodies.

The law of conservation of charge has deep meaning. If the number of charged elementary particles does not change, then the fulfillment of the charge conservation law is obvious. But elementary particles can transform into each other, be born and disappear, giving life to new particles.

However, in all cases, charged particles are born only in pairs with charges of the same magnitude and opposite in sign; Charged particles also disappear only in pairs, turning into neutral ones. And in all these cases, the algebraic sum of the charges remains the same.

The validity of the law of conservation of charge is confirmed by observations of a huge number of transformations of elementary particles. This law expresses one of the most fundamental properties of electric charge. The reason for the charge retention is still unknown.

We have to literally peel freshly washed clothes from the dryer one from another, or when we just can’t get our electrified and literally standing on end hair in order. Who hasn't tried to hang balloon to the ceiling after rubbing it against your head? This attraction and repulsion is a manifestation static electricity . Such actions are called electrification.

Static electricity is explained by its existence in nature electric charge. Charge is an integral property of elementary particles. The charge that appears on glass when it is rubbed against silk is conventionally called positive, and the charge arising on ebonite during friction with wool is negative.

Let's consider an atom. An atom consists of a nucleus and electrons flying around it (blue particles in the figure). The nucleus is made up of protons (red) and neutrons (black).

The carrier of a negative charge is an electron, a positive charge is a proton. A neutron is a neutral particle and has no charge.

Magnitude elementary charge- electron or proton, has a constant value and is equal to

The entire atom is neutrally charged if the number of protons matches the number of electrons. What happens if one electron breaks off and flies away? The atom will have one more proton, that is, there will be more positive particles than negative ones. Such an atom is called positive ion. And if one extra electron joins, we get negative ion. The electrons, having come off, may not rejoin, but move freely for some time, creating a negative charge. Thus, free charge carriers in a substance are electrons, positive ions and negative ions.

In order for there to be a free proton, the nucleus must be destroyed, and this means the destruction of the entire atom. We will not consider such methods of obtaining electric charges.

A body becomes charged when it contains an excess of one or another charged particles (electrons, positive or negative ions).

The amount of charge on a body is a multiple of the elementary charge. For example, if a body has 25 free electrons and the remaining atoms are neutral, then the body is negatively charged and its charge is . The elementary charge is not divisible - this property is called discreteness

Like charges (two positive or two negative) repulse, opposite (positive and negative) - are attracted

Point charge- is a material point that has an electric charge.

Law of conservation of electric charge

A closed system of bodies in electricity is a system of bodies when there is no exchange of electric charges between external bodies.

The algebraic sum of the electric charges of bodies or particles remains constant during any processes occurring in an electrically closed system.

The figure shows an example of the law of conservation of electric charge. In the first picture there are two bodies of opposite charges. The second picture shows the same bodies after contact. In the third figure, a third neutral body was introduced into an electrically closed system and the bodies were brought into interaction with each other.

In each situation, the algebraic sum of the charge (taking into account the sign of the charge) remains constant.

The main thing to remember

1) Elementary electric charge - electron and proton
2) The amount of elementary charge is constant
3) Positive and negative charges and their interaction
4) Carriers free charges are electrons, positive ions and negative ions
5) Electric charge is discrete
6) Law of conservation of electric charge

Electric charge– a physical quantity characterizing the ability of bodies to enter into electromagnetic interactions. Measured in Coulombs.

Elementary electric charge– the minimum charge that elementary particles have (proton and electron charge).

The body has a charge, means it has extra or missing electrons. This charge is designated q=ne. (He equal to the number elementary charges).

Electrify the body– create an excess and deficiency of electrons. Methods: electrification by friction And electrification by contact.

Point dawn d is the charge of the body, which can be taken as a material point.

Test charge() – point, small charge, always positive – used to study the electric field.

Law of conservation of charge:in an isolated system, the algebraic sum of the charges of all bodies remains constant for any interactions of these bodies with each other.

Coulomb's law:the forces of interaction between two point charges are proportional to the product of these charges, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, depend on the properties of the medium and are directed along the straight line connecting their centers.

, Where
F/m, Cl 2 /nm 2 – dielectric. fast. vacuum

- relates. dielectric constant (>1)

- absolute dielectric permeability. environment

Electric field– a material medium through which the interaction of electric charges occurs.

Electric field properties:

Electric field characteristics:

Tension(E) – vector quantity, equal to strength, acting on a unit test charge placed at a given point.

Measured in N/C.

Direction– the same as that of the acting force.

Tension does not depend neither on the strength nor on the size of the test charge.

Superposition of electric fields: the field strength created by several charges is equal to the vector sum of the field strengths of each charge:

Graphically The electronic field is represented using tension lines.

Tension line– a line whose tangent at each point coincides with the direction of the tension vector.

Properties of tension lines: they do not intersect, only one line can be drawn through each point; they are not closed, they leave a positive charge and enter a negative one, or dissipate into infinity.

Types of fields:

Uniform electric field– a field whose intensity vector at each point is the same in magnitude and direction.

Non-uniform electric field– a field whose intensity vector at each point is unequal in magnitude and direction.

Constant electric field– the tension vector does not change.

Variable electric field– the tension vector changes.

Work done by an electric field to move a charge.

, where F is force, S is displacement, - angle between F and S.

For uniform field: force is constant.

The work does not depend on the shape of the trajectory; the work done to move along a closed path is zero.

For a non-uniform field:

Electric field potential– the ratio of the work performed by the field, moving a test electric charge to infinity, to the magnitude of this charge.

-potential– energy characteristic of the field. Measured in Volts

Potential difference:

If
, That

, Means

-potential gradient.

For a uniform field: potential difference – voltage:

. It is measured in Volts, the devices are voltmeters.

Electrical capacity– the ability of bodies to accumulate electrical charge; the ratio of charge to potential, which is always constant for a given conductor.

Does not depend on charge and does not depend on potential. But it depends on the size and shape of the conductor; on the dielectric properties of the medium.

, where r is the size,
- permeability of the environment around the body.

Electrical capacity increases if any bodies - conductors or dielectrics - are nearby.

Capacitor– device for accumulating charge. Electrical capacity:

Flat capacitor– two metal plates with a dielectric between them. Electric capacity of a flat capacitor:

, where S is the area of the plates, d is the distance between the plates.

Energy of a charged capacitor equal to the work done by the electric field when transferring charge from one plate to another.

Small charge transfer
, the voltage will change to
, the work is done
. Because
, and C =const,
. Then
. Let's integrate:

Electric field energy:
, where V=Sl is the volume occupied by the electric field

For a non-uniform field:
.

Volumetric electric field density:
. Measured in J/m 3.

Electric dipole– a system consisting of two equal, but opposite in sign, point electric charges located at some distance from each other (dipole arm -l).

The main characteristic of a dipole is dipole moment– a vector equal to the product of the charge and the dipole arm, directed from the negative charge to the positive one. Designated
. Measured in Coulomb meters.

Dipole in a uniform electric field.

The following forces act on each charge of the dipole:
And
. These forces are oppositely directed and create a moment of a pair of forces - a torque:, where

M – torque F – forces acting on the dipole

d – sill arm – dipole arm

p – dipole moment E – tension

- angle between p Eq – charge

Under the influence of a torque, the dipole will rotate and align itself in the direction of the tension lines. Vectors p and E will be parallel and unidirectional.

Dipole in a non-uniform electric field.

There is a torque, which means the dipole will rotate. But the forces will be unequal, and the dipole will move to where the force is greater.

-tension gradient. The higher the tension gradient, the higher the lateral force that pulls the dipole. The dipole is oriented along the lines of force.

Dipole intrinsic field.

But . Then:

Let the dipole be at point O and its arm small. Then:

The formula was obtained taking into account:

Thus, the potential difference depends on the sine half angle, under which the dipole points are visible, and the projections of the dipole moment onto the straight line connecting these points.

Dielectrics in an electric field.

Dielectric- a substance that does not have free charges, and therefore does not conduct electric current. However, in fact, conductivity exists, but it is negligible.

Dielectric classes:

with polar molecules (water, nitrobenzene): the molecules are not symmetrical, the centers of mass of positive and negative charges do not coincide, which means they have a dipole moment even in the case when there is no electric field.

with non-polar molecules (hydrogen, oxygen): the molecules are symmetrical, the centers of mass of positive and negative charges coincide, which means they do not have a dipole moment in the absence of an electric field.

crystalline (sodium chloride): a combination of two sublattices, one of which is positively charged and the other negatively charged; in the absence of an electric field, the total dipole moment is zero.

Polarization– the process of spatial separation of charges, the appearance of bound charges on the surface of the dielectric, which leads to a weakening of the field inside the dielectric.

Polarization methods:

Method 1 – electrochemical polarization:

On the electrodes – movement of cations and anions towards them, neutralization of substances; areas of positive and negative charges are formed. The current gradually decreases. The rate of establishment of the neutralization mechanism is characterized by the relaxation time - this is the time during which the polarization emf increases from 0 to a maximum from the moment the field is applied. = 10 -3 -10 -2 s.

Method 2 – orientational polarization:

Uncompensated polar ones are formed on the surface of the dielectric, i.e. the phenomenon of polarization occurs. The voltage inside the dielectric is less than the external voltage. Relaxation time: = 10 -13 -10 -7 s. Frequency 10 MHz.

Method 3 – electronic polarization:

Characteristic of non-polar molecules that become dipoles. Relaxation time: = 10 -16 -10 -14 s. Frequency 10 8 MHz.

Method 4 – ion polarization:

Two lattices (Na and Cl) are displaced relative to each other.

Relaxation time:

Method 5 – microstructural polarization:

Characteristic of biological structures when charged and uncharged layers alternate. There is a redistribution of ions on semi-permeable or ion-impermeable partitions.

Relaxation time: =10 -8 -10 -3 s. Frequency 1KHz

Numerical characteristics of the degree of polarization:

Electricity– this is the ordered movement of free charges in matter or in a vacuum.

Conditions for the existence of electric current:

presence of free charges

the presence of an electric field, i.e. forces acting on these charges

Current strength– a value equal to the charge that passes through any cross section of a conductor per unit of time (1 second)

Measured in Amperes.

n – charge concentration

q – charge value

S – cross-sectional area of the conductor

- speed of directional movement of particles.

The speed of movement of charged particles in an electric field is small - 7 * 10 -5 m/s, the speed of propagation of the electric field is 3 * 10 8 m/s.

Current Density– the amount of charge passing through a cross section of 1 m2 in 1 second.

. Measured in A/m2.

- the force acting on the ion from the electric field is equal to the friction force

- ion mobility

- speed of directional movement of ions = mobility, field strength

The greater the concentration of ions, their charge and mobility, the greater the specific conductivity of the electrolyte. As the temperature increases, the mobility of ions increases and the electrical conductivity increases.