Mother of Julius Caesar. Gaius Julius Caesar - great politician and commander

One of the greatest statesmen and commanders in human history was Gaius Julius Caesar. During his reign, he included Britain, Germany and Galia, on the territory of which modern France and Belgium are located, into the Roman state. Under him, the principles of dictatorship were laid down, which served as the foundation for the Roman Empire. He also left behind a rich cultural heritage, not only as a historian and writer, but also as the author of immortal aphorisms: “I came, I saw, I conquered,” “Everyone is the smith of his own destiny,” “The die is cast,” and many others. His very name has become firmly established in the languages ​​of many countries. From the word “Caesar” came the German “Kaiser” and the Russian “Tsar”. The month in which he was born is named in his honor - July.

Caesar's youth passed in an atmosphere of intense struggle between political groups. Having fallen out of favor with the then-ruling dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Caesar had to leave for Asia Minor and serve his military service there, while simultaneously carrying out diplomatic assignments. The death of Sulla again opened the way for Caesar to Rome. As a result of successful advancement through the political and military ladder, he became consul. And in 60 BC. formed the first triumverate - a political union between Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus.

Military victories

For the period from 58 to 54 BC. The troops of the Roman Republic, led by Julius Caesar, captured Galia, Germany and Britain. But the conquered territories were restless, and revolts and uprisings broke out every now and then. Therefore, from 54 to 51 BC. these lands had to be constantly recaptured. Years of wars significantly improved Caesar's financial condition. He easily spent the wealth he had, giving gifts to his friends and supporters and thereby gaining popularity. Caesar's influence on the army that fought under his command was also very great.

Civil War

During the time that Caesar fought in Europe, the first triumverate managed to disintegrate. Crassus died in 53 BC, and Pompey became close to Caesar's eternal enemy - the Senate, which on January 1, 49 BC. decided to remove Caesar's powers as consul. This day is considered the day the civil war began. Here, too, Caesar was able to show himself as a skilled commander, and after two months of civil war, his opponents capitulated. Caesar became dictator for life.

Reign and death

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INTRODUCTION

Julius Caesar (lat. Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar - Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (* July 13, 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC) - ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer.

Caesar's activities radically changed the cultural and political face of Western Europe and left an outstanding mark on the lives of subsequent generations of Europeans.

THE LIFE OF CAESAR AND HIS FAMILY

Gaius Julius Caesar(authentic pronunciation is close to Kaysar; lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar[ˈgaːjʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈkae̯sar]; July 12 or 13, 100 BC. e. - March 15, 44 BC BC) - ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician Julian family. In the V-IV centuries BC. e. Julia played a significant role in the life of Rome. Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs, who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.

Caesar was married at least three times. The status of his relationship with Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy equestrian family, is not entirely clear, which is explained by the poor preservation of sources about Caesar’s childhood and youth. It is traditionally assumed that Caesar and Cossutia were engaged, although Gaius's biographer, Plutarch, considers Cossutia to be his wife. The dissolution of relations with Cossutia apparently occurred in 84 BC. e. Very soon Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Caesar's second wife was Pompeia, the granddaughter of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (she was not a relative of Gnaeus Pompey); the marriage took place around 68 or 67 BC.

e. In December 62 BC. e. Caesar divorces her after a scandal at the festival of the Good Goddess (see section “Praetour”). For the third time, Caesar married Calpurnia from a rich and influential plebeian family. This wedding apparently took place in May 59 BC. e.

Around 78 BC e. Cornelia gave birth to Julia. Caesar arranged his daughter's engagement to Quintus Servilius Caepio, but then changed his mind and married her to Gnaeus Pompey. While in Egypt during the civil war, Caesar cohabited with Cleopatra, and presumably in the summer of 46 BC. e. she gave birth to a son known as Caesarion (Plutarch clarifies that this name was given to him by the Alexandrians, not the dictator). Despite the similarity of names and time of birth, Caesar did not officially recognize the child as his own, and contemporaries knew almost nothing about him before the assassination of the dictator. After the Ides of March, when Cleopatra's son was left out of the dictator's will, some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) tried to get him recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Due to the propaganda campaign that unfolded around the issue of Caesarion's paternity, it is difficult to establish his relationship with the dictator.

A number of documents, in particular, the biography of Suetonius, and one of the epigram poems of Catullus, sometimes, as a rule, mention the story of Nicomedes. Suetonius calls this rumor " the only spot" on Guy's sexual reputation. Such hints were also made by ill-wishers. However, modern researchers draw attention to the fact that the Romans reproached Caesar not for homosexual contacts themselves, but only for his passive role in them. The fact is that in Roman opinion, any actions in a “penetrative” role were considered normal for a man, regardless of the gender of the partner.

On the contrary, the passive role of a man was considered reprehensible. According to Dio Cassius, Guy vehemently denied all hints about his connection with Nicomedes, although he usually rarely lost his temper

POLITICAL ACTIVITY OF GUY JULIUS CAESAR

Gaius Julius Caesar is the greatest commander and statesman of all times and peoples, whose name has become a household name. Caesar was born on July 12, 102 BC. As a representative of the ancient patrician Julius family, Caesar plunged into politics as a young man, becoming one of the leaders of the popular party, which, however, contradicted family tradition, since members of the family of the future emperor belonged to the optimates party, which represented the interests of the old Roman aristocracy in the Senate. In Ancient Rome, as well as in the modern world, politics was closely intertwined with family relationships: Caesar’s aunt, Julia, was the wife of Gaius Maria, who in turn was the then ruler of Rome, and Caesar’s first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, the successor of all that same Maria.

The development of Caesar's personality was influenced by the early death of his father, who died when the young man was only 15 years old.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Therefore, the upbringing and education of the teenager fell entirely on the shoulders of the mother. And the home tutor of the future great ruler and commander was the famous Roman teacher Mark Antony Gnifon, the author of the book “On the Latin Language”. Gniphon taught Guy to read and write, and also instilled a love of oratory, and instilled in the young man respect for his interlocutor - a quality necessary for any politician. The lessons of the teacher, a true professional of his time, gave Caesar the opportunity to truly develop his personality: read the ancient Greek epic, the works of many philosophers, get acquainted with the history of the victories of Alexander the Great, master the techniques and tricks of oratory - in a word, become an extremely developed and versatile person.

However, young Caesar showed particular interest in the art of eloquence. Before Caesar stood the example of Cicero, who made his career largely thanks to his excellent mastery of oratory - an amazing ability to convince listeners that he was right. In 87 BC, a year after his father’s death, on his sixteenth birthday, Caesar donned a one-color toga (toga virilis), which symbolized his maturity.

However, the political career of young Caesar was not destined to take off too quickly - power in Rome was seized by Sulla (82 BC). He ordered Guy to divorce his young wife, but upon hearing a categorical refusal, he deprived him of the title of priest and all his property. Only the protective position of Caesar's relatives, who were in Sulla's inner circle, saved his life.

However, this sharp turn in fate did not break Caesar, but only contributed to the development of his personality. Having lost his priestly privileges in 81 BC, Caesar began his military career, going to the East to take part in his first military campaign under the leadership of Minucius (Marcus) Thermus, the purpose of which was to suppress pockets of resistance to power in the Roman province of Asia Minor Asia, Pergamon). During the campaign, Caesar's first military glory came. In 78 BC, during the storming of the city of Mytilene (Lesbos island), he was awarded the “oak wreath” badge for saving the life of a Roman citizen.

Guy Julius Caesar is a great politician and commander. However, Caesar decided not to devote himself exclusively to military affairs. He continued his career as a politician, returning to Rome after Sulla's death. Caesar spoke at trials. The young speaker’s speech was so captivating and temperamental that crowds of people from the street gathered to listen to him. Thus Caesar multiplied his supporters. Although Caesar did not win a single judicial victory, his speech was recorded, and his phrases were divided into quotes. Caesar was truly passionate about oratory and constantly improved. To develop his oratorical talents, he went to Fr. Rhodes to learn the art of eloquence from the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon.

In politics, Gaius Julius Caesar remained loyal to the popular party - a party whose loyalty had already brought him certain political successes. But after in 67-66. BC. The Senate and consuls Manilius and Gabinius endowed Pompey with enormous powers, Caesar began to increasingly speak out for democracy in his public speeches. In particular, Caesar proposed to revive the half-forgotten procedure of holding a trial by a popular assembly. In addition to his democratic initiatives, Caesar was a model of generosity. Having become an aedile (an official who monitored the state of the city's infrastructure), he did not skimp on decorating the city and organizing mass events - games and shows, which gained enormous popularity among the common people, for which he was also elected great pontiff. In a word, Caesar sought in every possible way to increase his popularity among citizens, playing an increasingly important role in the life of the state.

62-60 BC can be called a turning point in the biography of Caesar. During these years, he served as governor in the province of Farther Spain, where for the first time he truly revealed his extraordinary managerial and military talent. Service in Farther Spain allowed him to get rich and is paying off the debts that for a long time did not allow him to breathe deeply.

In 60 BC. Caesar returns to Rome in triumph, where a year later he is elected to the post of senior consul of the Roman Republic. In this regard, the so-called triumvirate was formed on the Roman political Olympus. Caesar's consulate suited both Caesar himself and Pompey - both claimed a leading role in the state. Pompey, who disbanded his army, which triumphantly crushed the Spanish uprising of Sertorius, did not have enough supporters; a unique combination of forces was needed. Therefore, the alliance of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus (the winner of Spartacus) was most welcome. In short, the triumvirate was a kind of union of mutually beneficial cooperation of money and political influence.

The beginning of Caesar's military leadership was his Gallic proconsulate, when large military forces came under Caesar's control, allowing him to begin his invasion of Transalpine Gaul in 58 BC. After victories over the Celts and Germans in 58-57. BC. Caesar begins to conquer the Gallic tribes. Already in 56 BC. e. the vast territory between the Alps, Pyrenees and the Rhine came under Roman rule.

Caesar rapidly developed his success: he crossed the Rhine and inflicted a number of defeats on the German tribes. Caesar's next stunning success was two campaigns in Britain and its complete subordination to Rome.

Caesar did not forget about politics. While Caesar and his political companions - Crassus and Pompey - were on the verge of a break. Their meeting took place in the city of Luca, where they reconfirmed the validity of the agreements adopted by distributing the provinces: Pompey got control of Spain and Africa, Crassus got control of Syria. Caesar's powers in Gaul were extended for the next 5 years.

However, the situation in Gaul left much to be desired. Neither thanksgiving prayers nor festivities organized in honor of Caesar's victories were able to tame the spirit of the freedom-loving Gauls, who did not give up trying to get rid of Roman rule.

In order to prevent an uprising in Gaul, Caesar decided to adhere to a policy of mercy, the basic principles of which formed the basis of all his policies in the future. Avoiding excessive bloodshed, he forgave those who repented, believing that the living Gauls who owed their lives to him were more needed than the dead.

But even this did not help prevent the impending storm, and 52 BC. e. was marked by the beginning of the Pan-Gallic uprising under the leadership of the young leader Vircingetorix. Caesar's position was very difficult. The number of his army did not exceed 60 thousand people, while the number of rebels reached 250-300 thousand people. After a series of defeats, the Gauls switched to guerrilla warfare tactics. Caesar's conquests were in jeopardy. However, in 51 BC. e. in the battle of Alesia, the Romans, although not without difficulty, defeated the rebels. Vircingetorix himself was captured and the uprising began to subside.

In 53 BC. e. A fateful event for the Roman state occurred: Crassus died in the Parthian campaign. From that moment on, the fate of the triumvirate was predetermined. Pompey did not want to comply with previous agreements with Caesar and began to pursue an independent policy. The Roman Republic was on the verge of collapse. The dispute between Caesar and Pompey for power began to take on the character of an armed confrontation.

Moreover, the law was not on Caesar’s side - he was obliged to obey the Senate and renounce his claims to power. However, Caesar decides to fight. “The die is cast,” said Caesar and invaded Italy, having only one legion at his disposal. Caesar advanced towards Rome, and the hitherto invincible Pompey the Great and the Senate surrendered city after city. Roman garrisons, initially loyal to Pompey, joined Caesar's army.

Caesar entered Rome on April 1, 49 BC. e. Caesar carries out a number of democratic reforms: a number of punitive laws of Sulla and Pompey are repealed. An important innovation of Caesar was to give the inhabitants of the provinces the rights of citizens of Rome.

The confrontation between Caesar and Pompey continued in Greece, where Pompey fled after the capture of Rome by Caesar. The first battle with Pompey's army at Dyrrhachium was unsuccessful for Caesar. His troops fled in disgrace, and Caesar himself almost died at the hands of his own standard-bearer. However, Pompey no longer posed any threat to Caesar - he was killed by the Egyptians, who sensed the direction in which the wind of political change in the world was blowing.

The Senate also felt the global changes and completely went over to Caesar’s side, proclaiming him a permanent dictator. But, instead of taking advantage of the favorable political situation in Rome, Caesar delved into solving Egyptian affairs, being carried away by the Egyptian beauty Cleopatra. Caesar's active position on domestic political issues resulted in an uprising against the Romans, one of the central episodes of which was the burning of the famous Library of Alexandria.

However, Caesar's carefree life soon ended. A new turmoil was brewing in Rome and on the outskirts of the empire. The Parthian ruler Pharnaces threatened Rome's possessions in Asia Minor. The situation in Italy also became tense - even Caesar’s previously loyal veterans began to rebel. Army of Pharnaces August 2, 47 BC. e. was defeated by Caesar’s army, who notified the Romans of such a quick victory with a short message: “He has arrived. Saw. Won."

Caesar's generosity was unprecedented: in Rome 22,000 tables were laid with refreshments for citizens, and the games, in which even war elephants participated, surpassed in entertainment all the mass events ever organized by Roman rulers. Caesar becomes dictator for life and is given the title "emperor". The month of his birth is named after him - July. Temples are built in his honor, his statues are placed among the statues of the gods. The oath form “in the name of Caesar” becomes mandatory during court hearings.

Using enormous power and authority, Caesar develops a new set of laws (“Lex Iulia de vi et de majestate”) and reforms the calendar (the Julian calendar appears). Caesar plans to build a new theater, a temple of Mars, and several libraries in Rome. In addition, preparations begin for campaigns against the Parthians and Dacians. However, these grandiose plans of Caesar were not destined to come true.

Even the policy of mercy, steadily pursued by Caesar, could not prevent the emergence of those dissatisfied with his power. So, despite the fact that Pompey's former supporters were forgiven, this act of mercy ended badly for Caesar.

On March 15, 44 BC, two days before the date of his march to the East, at a meeting of the Senate, Caesar was killed by conspirators led by former supporters of Pompey. The plans of the assassins were realized in front of numerous senators - a crowd of conspirators attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, having noticed his loyal supporter young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed doomedly: “And you, my child!” (or: “And you, Brutus”) and fell at the feet of the statue of his sworn enemy Pompey.

CONCLUSION

During his reign, Caesar carried out a number of important reforms and was active in lawmaking. The Romans bowed to their ruler, but there were also dissatisfied ones. A group of senators did not like the fact that Caesar effectively became the sole ruler of Rome, and on March 15, 4 BC. the conspirators killed him right at the Senate meeting. The death of Caesar was followed by the death of the Roman Republic, on the ruins of which arose the great Roman Empire, which Julius Caesar so dreamed of.

Rome in the era of Julius Caesar was the first city whose population approached a million.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. Goldsworthy A. Caesar. - M.: Eksmo

2. Grant M. Julius Caesar. Priest of Jupiter. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf

3. Durov V. S. Julius Caesar. Man and writer. - L.: Publishing House of Leningrad State University

4. Kornilova E. N. “The Myth of Julius Caesar” and the idea of ​​dictatorship: Historiosophy and fiction of the European circle. - M.: Publishing house MGUL

5. Utchenko S. L. Julius Caesar. - M.: Thought

6. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Caesar

The nobility remained the dominant group in the state; True, there were supporters of Caesar among the Roman aristocracy. During the fight with Pompey, there were many young nobles in his camp, whose older relatives fought on Pompey’s side. Unlike Sulla Caesar dealt mercifully with his opponents. The property of only Pompey and his most consistent supporters was confiscated. Many of Caesar's former opponents received amnesty.

After defeating his enemies, Caesar definitely takes the path of reconciliation with the old aristocracy. He showers favors on prominent aristocrats, former supporters of Pompey. They are elected to the highest government positions, sent to the provinces, and given possessions as gifts. Caesar's social policy was characterized by the desire to find support from various social groups, and this is reflected in the numerous reforms he carried out.

Caesar's legislation

The last years of Caesar's activity were marked by anti-democratic reforms carried out in the spirit of the optimates and those Caesarians who shared the views of Sallust: the number of plebeians enjoying the right to receive free bread and some other products from the state was reduced from 320 to 150 thousand. A law was passed again prohibiting the colleges, which had recently been restored by Clodius. In order to reduce the number of Roman homeless and unemployed poor, 80 thousand urban proletarians were evicted by Caesar to the colonies.

Of the events carried out in the interests of the Italian inhabitants, the Julius Law on Municipalities was of particular importance, a significant part of which is known from an inscription that has survived to this day.

Reign of Julius Caesar

This law, proposed by Caesar, but apparently passed in 44 after his death, provided cities with autonomy in resolving local issues, established rules for the selection of city magistrates, gave privileges to veterans, but at the same time limited the right of association.

In the spirit of anti-plutocratic tendencies, laws were passed that protected the identity of debtors. A number of measures were supposed to help boost agriculture. The law, which limited the amounts that could be held by individuals, was intended to increase the funds invested in land holdings. Caesar was responsible for extensive projects for draining swamps, draining soil and building roads, which were only partially implemented. In the interests of the Italian rural proletariat, he established that no less than a third of the shepherds employed in the latifundia had to consist of freeborns.

Back in 59, in the year of his consulate, Caesar passed a strict law against extortion in the provinces (lex Julia de repetundis), which in its main features retained its significance throughout the existence of the Empire. Later, the tax system is streamlined: the activities of publicans are limited and brought under control; farm-outs for indirect taxes remained, while direct taxes in some provinces began to be paid to the state directly by representatives of communities.

A number of measures were supposed to promote the development of exchange. In Italy, the harbor of Rome Ostia was deepened, in Greece it was planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. From the time of Caesar, gold coins began to be minted regularly. The Roman denarius finally turns into a single coin for... the entire West. In the East, however, the previous diversity of monetary systems remained.

Caesar also carried out a calendar reform. With the help of the Egyptian mathematician and astronomer Sosigenes, from January 1, 45, the calculation of time was introduced, which outlived the Roman Empire by several centuries, and existed in Russia until the beginning of 1918 (the so-called Julian calendar). Caesar intended to codify Roman law, which was accomplished only in the era of the late Roman Empire.

Caesar managed to accomplish only a little of what he had planned. The entire system of his reforms was supposed to streamline various relations and prepare the merger of Rome and the provinces into a monarchy of the Hellenistic type. Rome was supposed to retain its significance only as the main city of the Roman world power, the residence of the monarch. However, they even said about Caesar that he intended to move the capital to Alexandria or Ilion.

Caesar was characterized by a combination in his reforms and projects of the traditional principles of the popular party, monarchical ideas common in the countries of the Hellenistic East, and some provisions of the Roman conservatives. In the spirit of the latter, he issued or intended to issue prohibitions against luxury and debauchery. In the interests of the most influential circles of the nobility, some senatorial families were classified as patricians (lex Cassia).

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End of the war, Caesar's reforms.

The dictator opposed Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, and at the Battle of Zela, Roman troops completely defeated their opponents (47 BC).

Upon his return from Rome, Caesar carried out a number of reforms.

1. Arrears in rent for the past year were canceled if this payment did not exceed 2,000 sesterces.
2. The law on the deduction of interest paid from the principal amount of the debt was confirmed.
3. Moneylenders were prohibited, under threat of punishment, from raising interest rates above the established norm.
4. Caesar took measures to demobilize and pay rewards, and settle his legionnaires in their areas. The lands of Pompey and his most prominent supporters were used for settlement. In addition to the existing remnants of the ager publicus, Caesar bought a lot of land at its normal cost, which allowed him to satisfy the land needs of his veterans. He also pioneered the distribution of land for veterans in the province.

The measures taken somewhat stabilized the situation in Italy and the eastern provinces. However, the military threat continued to exist. In Africa there was an army of Pompeys led by Pompey's father-in-law Scipio. In the spring of 46 BC. significant forces were transported to Africa, where the Pompeians were defeated near the city of Thapsus. All cities in the province capitulated to the winner.

Caesar celebrated 4 triumphs in honor of his victory in four major military campaigns. However, the war is not over yet. Pompey's sons Sextus and Gnaeus, as well as Caesar's former supporter Labienus, managed to propagate the legions in Spain in their favor and gather impressive forces. In March 45 BC. The opponents met in southern Spain near the city of Munda. In a stubborn and bloody battle, Caesar managed to snatch victory. After this victory, Caesar becomes the sole ruler of the Mediterranean power.

One of the first measures was the official consolidation of autocracy; Caesar was proclaimed by the Senate as an eternal dictator. He received the rights of a permanent proconsular empire, i.e. unlimited power over the provinces. An important prerogative of Caesar was to obtain the right to recommend candidates for master's positions.

The dictator's unlimited powers were complemented by appropriate external attributes: a purple cloak of triumph and a laurel wreath on his head, a special ivory chair with decorations. Steps were taken towards the deification of the new ruler of the state. Caesar intensively developed the idea that the goddess Venus is the ancestor of the Julian family, and he is her direct descendant.

Reforms:

1. Reorganization of the Senate. Many opponents of the dictator were removed from the Senate, many were forgiven by Caesar. But a significant number of his supporters entered the Senate, and its composition expanded to 900 people.
2. Caesar recommended people to the national assembly for positions. Its composition began to be dominated by veterans and urban plebs bribed with handouts.
3. The number of master's programs was increased. Caesar recruited his friends and supporters to carry out government affairs and made direct appointments to positions.
4. Measures were also taken to strengthen provincial local government units. Control over the activities of governors was tightened. Caesar's proxies were sent to some provinces for control. The right to collect direct taxes was transferred to local authorities. Roman tax farmers were left with the privilege of collecting only indirect taxes. Caesar's provincial policy pursued the goal of a more organic unification of the center. This was also facilitated by the policy of distributing the rights of Roman citizenship to entire settlements and cities. Provinces were included in the structure of the Roman state.
5. Streamlining the system of local self-government in municipalities, colonies, cities and settlements. Activation of economic activity of the population. It was possible to return the masses of Roman legionnaires to the ground.
6. Promotion of trade: in 46 BC. The previously destroyed large trade centers of the Mediterranean - Corinth and Carthage - were restored, the commercial port of Rome Ostia was reconstructed.
7. Reform of the Roman calendar and transition to a new chronology system. January 1, 45 BC era, a new chronology system was introduced, called the Julian calendar.

Caesar's multifaceted reform activities were dictated by the need to solve a number of pressing social and political problems that had accumulated in society during the civil wars. As the experience of Roman history has shown, the creation of a new social and political order was possible only under the conditions of a monarchical system.

Caesar's reforms and the establishment of a monarchical system strengthened the opposition. A conspiracy was drawn up against Caesar, led by Junius Brutus, Cassius Loginus and Decimus Brutus; Cicero became the ideological inspirer of the conspiracy. The conspiracy turned out to be successful; Caesar was killed by the conspirators in the Senate.

Th triumvirate.

According to the conspirators, the murder of the dictator was supposed to lead to the abolition of the emerging monarchical structures and the automatic restoration of the republican system. However, many among the population supported the policy of centralization and a change in the political system.

After the assassination of Caesar, a sharp polarization of political forces arose. Roman society was divided into supporters of the traditional republican system and supporters of Caesar's program. The Republican party was led by Cicero, Brutus and Cassius, the Caesarian party was led by Caesar's closest associates, Mark Antony, Aemilius Lepidus, Gaius Octavius.

The Caesarians had the support of some senators. Their powerful support was also Caesar's many veterans. It was they who began to play the main role in maintaining and consolidating the regime established by Caesar. Caesarian veterans demanded decisive reprisals against the conspirators. In essence, the Caesarian army got out of the control of its leaders and did not so much carry out their political program as dictate its will to the immediate rulers, the Senate, the People's Assembly, and the provinces.

In October 43 BC. Mark Antony, Aemilius Lepidus, Gaius Octavius ​​entered into an agreement on the establishment of the 2nd triumvirate. The Roman Senate, surrounded by Octavian's legions, could not help but approve this agreement. Under this law, the triumvirs received unlimited power for 5 years.

The triumvirs launched real terror against their opponents. Bloody proscripts were drawn up (300 senators, over 2000 horsemen and many thousands of ordinary people). They were supplemented several times based on numerous denunciations from people who were often settling personal scores. Informers appeared for the first time in Rome.

The proscriptions of the 2nd triumvirate led to the physical destruction of the Roman aristocracy, oriented towards the republican order, and to the redistribution of property.

Reign of Gaius Julius Caesar

Ordinary residents also suffered. 18 Italian cities with the most fertile soils were selected, residents were driven off their lands, and the confiscated land was distributed among veterans.

The Republican leaders Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius Longinus managed to prepare a strong army, which was formed in Macedonia. 42 BC One of the bloodiest battles in Roman history took place near the city of Philippi. Victory was won by the triumvirs. Brutus and Cassius committed suicide.

The triumvirs failed to overcome the contradictions that arose among them. In 36 BC. Aemilius Lepidus, governor of the African provinces, tried to oppose Octavian, but was not supported by his own army. He was removed from power and exiled to one of his estates.

Power was divided between Antony, who ruled the eastern provinces, and Octavian, who ruled Italy, the western and African provinces. The decisive battle between Antony and Octavian took place in 31 BC. off Cape Aktia in western Greece. Complete victory was won by the forces of Octavian. Mark Antony fled to Alexandria with his wife Cleopatra VII. The following year, Octavian launched an attack on Egypt. Egypt was captured by Octavian, and Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

Occupation of Egypt in 30 BC summed up the long period of civil wars that ended with the death of the Roman Republic. The sole ruler of the Roman Mediterranean power was the official heir of Caesar, his adopted son Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian, who opened a new historical era with his reign - the era of the Roman Empire.

Caesar Gaius Julius (102-44 BC)

Great Roman commander and statesman.

The last years of the Roman Republic are associated with the reign of Caesar, who established the regime of sole power. His name was turned into the title of the Roman emperors; From it came the Russian words “tsar”, “Caesar”, and the German “Kaiser”.

He came from a noble patrician family. Young Caesar's family connections determined his position in the political world: his father's sister, Julia, was married to Gaius Marius, the de facto sole ruler of Rome, and Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, Marius's successor. In 84 BC. young Caesar was elected priest of Jupiter.

Establishment of Sulla's dictatorship in 82 BC led to Caesar's removal from his priesthood and a demand for a divorce from Cornelia. Caesar refused, which resulted in the confiscation of his wife's property and the deprivation of his father's inheritance. Sulla later pardoned the young man, although he was suspicious of him.

Having left Rome for Asia Minor, Caesar was in military service, lived in Bithynia, Cilicia, and participated in the capture of Mytilene. He returned to Rome after the death of Sulla. To improve his oratory, he went to the island of Rhodes.

Returning from Rhodes, he was captured by pirates, ransomed, but then took brutal revenge by capturing sea robbers and putting them to death. In Rome, Caesar received the positions of priest-pontiff and military tribune, and from 68 - quaestor.

Married Pompeii. Having taken the position of aedile in 66, he was engaged in the improvement of the city, organizing magnificent festivities and grain distributions; all this contributed to his popularity. Having become a senator, he participated in political intrigues in order to support Pompey, who was busy at that time with the war in the East and returned in triumph in 61.

In 60, on the eve of the consular elections, a secret political alliance was concluded - a triumvirate between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. Caesar was elected consul for 59 together with Bibulus. Having carried out agrarian laws, Caesar acquired a large number of followers who received land. Strengthening the triumvirate, he married his daughter to Pompey.

Having become proconsul of Gaul, Caesar conquered new territories for Rome. The Gallic War demonstrated Caesar's exceptional diplomatic and strategic skill. Having defeated the Germans in a fierce battle, Caesar himself then, for the first time in Roman history, undertook a campaign across the Rhine, crossing his troops across a specially built bridge.
He also made a campaign to Britain, where he won several victories and crossed the Thames; however, realizing the fragility of his position, he soon left the island.

In 54 BC. Caesar urgently returned to Gaul in connection with the uprising that had begun there. Despite desperate resistance and superior numbers, the Gauls were again conquered.

As a commander, Caesar was distinguished by decisiveness and at the same time caution, he was hardy, and on a campaign he always walked ahead of the army with his head uncovered, both in the heat and in the cold. He knew how to set up soldiers with a short speech, personally knew his centurions and the best soldiers and enjoyed extraordinary popularity and authority among them

After the death of Crassus in 53 BC. the triumvirate fell apart. Pompey, in his rivalry with Caesar, led the supporters of Senate republican rule. The Senate, fearing Caesar, refused to extend his powers in Gaul. Realizing his popularity among the troops and in Rome, Caesar decides to seize power by force. In 49, he gathered the soldiers of the 13th Legion, gave them a speech and made the famous crossing of the Rubicon River, thus crossing the border of Italy.

In the very first days, Caesar occupied several cities without encountering resistance. Panic began in Rome. Confused Pompey, the consuls and the Senate left the capital. Having entered Rome, Caesar convened the rest of the Senate and offered cooperation.

Caesar quickly and successfully campaigned against Pompey in his province of Spain. Returning to Rome, Caesar was proclaimed dictator. Pompey hastily gathered a huge army, but Caesar inflicted a crushing defeat on him in the famous battle of Pharsalus. Pompey fled to the Asian provinces and was killed in Egypt. Pursuing him, Caesar went to Egypt, to Alexandria, where he was presented with the head of his murdered rival. Caesar refused the terrible gift and, according to biographers, mourned his death.

While in Egypt, Caesar became immersed in the political intrigues of Queen Cleopatra; Alexandria was subdued. Meanwhile, the Pompeians were gathering new forces based in North Africa. After a campaign in Syria and Cilicia, Caesar returned to Rome and then defeated the supporters of Pompey at the Battle of Thapsus (46 BC) in North Africa. The cities of North Africa expressed their submission.

Upon returning to Rome, Caesar celebrates a magnificent triumph, arranges grandiose shows, games and treats for the people, and rewards the soldiers. He is proclaimed dictator for 10 years and receives the titles of “emperor” and “father of the fatherland.” Conducts numerous laws on Roman citizenship, reform of the calendar, which receives his name.

Statues of Caesar are erected in temples. The month of July is named after him, the list of Caesar's honors is written in gold letters on silver columns. He autocratically appoints and removes officials from power.

Discontent was brewing in society, especially in republican circles, and there were rumors about Caesar's desire for royal power. His relationship with Cleopatra also made an unfavorable impression. A plot arose to assassinate the dictator. Among the conspirators were his closest associates Cassius and the young Marcus Junius Brutus, who, it was claimed, was even the illegitimate son of Caesar. On the Ides of March, at a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, seeing young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed: “And you, my child” (or: “And you, Brutus”), stopped resisting and fell at the foot of the statue of his enemy Pompey.

Caesar went down in history as the largest Roman writer; his “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War” are rightfully considered an example of Latin prose.

the site decided to talk about the women of one of the greatest rulers of the Roman Empire - Gaius Julius Caesar.

Cornelia Zinilla

Cornelia was the daughter of the patrician Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who served as consul subsequently from 87 to 84 BC. e. including a Roman woman named Annia. Her dad was a supporter of Marius, in 84 BC. e. marched with troops against Sulla, who was returning from the war with Mithridates, and was nevertheless killed by his soldiers in Liburnia (modern Croatia). In 85 BC e. year Caesar becomes the flamen of Jupiter. Since this place could only be occupied by patricians who were not related to other classes, he broke off his engagement with Cossutia, the daughter of a rich horseman, to whom he had been engaged since childhood. In 83 BC. e. He, it seems out of love, takes Cornelia Cinna as his wife.

Immediately after the wedding, Sulla orders Caesar to divorce Cornelia

Almost immediately after this wedding, Sulla orders Caesar to divorce his wife. The same order was received by Marcus Piso, who married the widow of Lucius Cornelius Annia. Unlike Piso, Caesar refuses. Perhaps Sulla saw in this proud seventeen-year-old youth a strong political opponent; rather, it was revenge on the descendants and relatives of Lucius Cornelius, despite all this, Caesar was deprived of his entire fortune, the post of flamen, and his mistress - her dowry. The couple had to take cover for some time, the danger of death was so great. Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotte, had to use all the influence of her relatives so that Caesar would not be included in the proscription lists. In 82 BC e. Cornelia gives birth to a daughter. The family has to move to Asia Minor, where Caesar serves under the command of the propraetor Marcus Minucius Termus. The storm passed in 78 BC. e., when Sulla died. The couple returns to Rome, where Cornelia lives continuously from that time on. In 68, Cornelia dies giving birth to her second child.

Pompey Sulla

Pompeia came from the plebeian family of Pompeii. Her father wasQuintus Pompey Rufus, consul of 88 BC. e. , together with Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Her mother, Cornelia Sulla, was Sulla's eldest daughter, whom he married to Quintus Pompey in order to strengthen his affection for him.

Caesar married Pompey in 68 BC e. , after his first wife died in childbirth a year earlier Cornelia Cinna . This was also Pompeii's second marriage. Before that, she was married for three years toGaius Servilius Vatia, nephew of Publius Servilius Vatius of Isauria, consul 78 BC e. . Gaius Servilius was appointedconsul-suffect, however, he died before he could take office and left Pompey a widow.

The marriage to Sulla's granddaughter may seem strange, especially considering the persecution that Caesar suffered from him, but it was necessary for Caesar, since on her paternal side Pompey was a relative of Pompey the Great. This marriage sealed the rapprochement between Caesar and Pompey. The organizer of the marriage was Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta.

They married when Pompey was about 22 years old. According to indirect sources, Pompeii was a beauty. According to descriptions, she was of average height, had a good figure, thin bones; the face is a regular oval, dark red hair, bright green eyes.

Caesar married Pompey when she was about 22 years old

However, the couple did not seem to have any feelings for each other, especially Caesar. He believed that she "likes to spend money, is lazy and is monumentally stupid." The relationship between the spouses can be indirectly confirmed by the absence of children from the couple during 6 years of marriage.

In 62 BC e. Aurelius Cotta exposed Publius Clodius Pulchra, who, disguised as a woman, was escorted by his sister,Claudia Pulhra Tertia on Mysteries of the Good Goddesswhich took place in Caesar's house. A documentary record of this can be read in the “Biography of Cicero”Leonardo Bruni Aretino. This episode is also described in The Ides of MarchThornton Wilder.

The real reason for this behavior of Publius Clodius was his interest in Pompey Sulla. Caesar, then in officePontifex Maximus, after this incident, immediately divorces his wife, although he suggests that she may be innocent. "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion."

After the divorce, she most likely married Caesar's client and associate Publius Vatinius , consul 47 BC e., who had recently lost his first wife.

Calpurnia Pizonis

Calpurnia came from the ancient plebeian family of the Calpurnias. Her father was Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesonnius, consul of 58 BC. e. On her mother's side, Calpurnia was a distant relative of Aurelia Cotta, the mother of Caesar, as well as of Pompey the Great. The name of Calpurnia's mother is not known for sure.

Her date of birth is also unknown. She married Caesar in 59 BC. e. Since this was her first marriage, and girls in Rome were usually married at the age of 15-16, we can assume that she was born around 76 BC. e.

There are no clearly established images of Calpurnia, but a bust is attributed to her, which can be seen at this link: Bust of Calpurnia.

Calpurnia was married to Caesar in 59 BC. e. Immediately after her marriage, her father becomes, under the patronage of Caesar, consul, along with his comrade-in-arms, Aulus Gabinius.

There is very little information about Calpurnia. It is known that Caesar was not permanent in his marriage and had a large number of side relationships. However, a good relationship between the spouses is suggested by the fact that on the eve of his death (after 15 years of marriage), Caesar still spends the night on the female side of his house.

Caesar had a large number of side relationships in his marriage to Calpurnia

According to numerous testimonies, on the night before Caesar's death, Calpurnia had a terrible dream.

Waking up, Calpurnia dissuades Caesar from going to the Senate, but he ignores her requests. A few hours later, Caesar was assassinated in the Senate.

After the death of Caesar, the fate of Calpurnia is unknown, and she is not mentioned in the works of ancient historians. It is known from indirect sources that, most likely, she did not remarry and did not have children. She lived in Herculaneum in prosperity and honor, since the Calpurnius family was rich. The only written mention of her after Caesar's death is in the tombstone inscription on the grave of her freedman Icadion, found in Herculaneum.

Servilia

Servilia came from an ancient famous patrician family; her brother was Marcus Porcius Cato, the most consistent defender of the republic and the implacable enemy of Gaius Julius Caesar.

Servilia's first husband, Marcus Junius Brutus, came from an old family, very famous for its republican traditions. He gave her a son (also Mark) and died in an internecine war in 77 BC. e.

The second husband, Decimus Junius Silanus, was also not the last man in Rome; in 70 BC e. he was elected aedile, and in 62 BC. e. occupies the highest position in the state - becomes consul. Servilia bore him three daughters, who received the name Junia (the Romans added the numeral to the same names of daughters - First, Second, Third).

Servilia cheated on her husbands with the one whom she considered the greatest love of her life - with Gaius Julius Caesar. Plutarch tells an incident that occurred during a meeting of the Senate: “When there was an intense struggle and a heated argument between Caesar and Cato, and the attention of the entire Senate was focused on the two of them, Caesar was given a small tablet from somewhere. Cato suspected something was wrong and, wanting to cast a shadow on Caesar, began to accuse him of secret connections with the conspirators and demanded to read the note out loud. Then Caesar handed the tablet directly into the hands of Cato, and he read the shameless letter of his sister Servilia to Caesar, who seduced her and whom she dearly loved.

Servilia considered Caesar the greatest love of her life

After the death of her second husband, Decimus Silanus, in 61 BC. e. Servilia never married again and devoted herself entirely to her beloved Caesar. It seems that even time had no power over this great love: when Silanus died, Servilia was about 40 years old, and during the civil war she was already over 50. True, the insidious sister of Cato used a good bait to keep Caesar near her and take advantage of not only him love.

Naturally, Marcus Brutus fought against Caesar, but he was luckier than Cato.

The most interesting thing is that Julius Caesar took care of his enemy as if he were his closest person. On the eve of the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar “ordered the commanders of his legions not to kill Brutus in battle, but to deliver him alive if he surrendered voluntarily, and if he offered resistance, to release him without using violence.”

Plutarch explains the reason for Caesar’s mercy: “He gave such an order to please Servilia, the mother of Brutus. It is known that in his youth he was in a relationship with Servilia, who was madly in love with him, and Brutus was born in the midst of this love, and therefore Caesar could consider him his son.”

Brutus managed to survive the Battle of Pharsalus; he reached Larissa safely and from there he wrote to Julius Caesar. “Caesar was glad to see him saved, called Brutus to him and not only freed him from all guilt, but also accepted him as one of his closest friends” (Plutarch). Brutus even convinced his patron to forgive Cassius as well.

Caesar hoped to win over Servilia's son with his mercy. He received the highest of praetorships, and three years later was to become consul. Preparing to cross to Africa to fight Cato and Scipio, Caesar appointed Brutus ruler of Pre-Alpine Gaul. According to Plutarch, “Brutus generally enjoyed the power of Caesar to the extent that he himself desired it. If he had his way, he could have become the first among the dictator’s associates and the most influential person in Rome. But respect for Cassius tore him away from Caesar..."

Cleopatra

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt was born in 69 BC. e, and died in 30 BC. e. She lived a relatively short but bright life, leaving behind many secrets and mysteries. 2 thousand years have already passed since the death of this amazing woman, and humanity cannot forget her name.

Cleopatra's origins were the most noble. She belonged to the Ptolemaic dynasty, who ruled Egypt for 300 years. The founder of the dynasty was Ptolemy Lagus or Ptolemy I, son of Lagus. He was a military commanderAlexander the Great, and after his death founded a separate state in Egypt - the so-called Hellenistic Egypt with its capital in the city of Alexandria.

The future queen's relationship with her father was very good. In 51 BC. e. the king fell seriously ill. Sensing the end was near, he appointed Cleopatra as co-ruler. At this time she turned 18 years old. Having received the title of queen, the girl began to be called Cleopatra VII.

Queen Cleopatra of Egypt was distinguished by her extraordinary intelligence and strong character. There was no way for her to push around. The girl strove for absolute power. She also wanted to rid the country of Roman dependence and turn Egypt into a strong power, which it was under the first Ptolemies.

Surrounded by the young king, the tone was set by the eunuch Pothinus and the boy’s teacher Theodat. They had enormous influence on Ptolemy XIII and dreamed of uncontrolled and absolute power. Skillfully playing on the ambition of other subjects, these people organized a conspiracy. His goal was to kill Cleopatra. But the young queen learned about the impending crime in time. In 48 BC. e. She, along with her younger sister Arsinoe, fled by ship to the lands of Syria.

Here the queen managed to gather a mercenary army, borrowing money from local rulers and merchants. The girl had amazing charm and eloquence. The men were in awe of her and could not refuse money. As a result, Cleopatra VII stood at the head of a fairly strong military unit.

Caesar understands the existing opposition in the country. He declares that he will take on the role of arbiter and will try to sort out the quarrel between the king and queen. A messenger is sent to Cleopatra with an offer to come to Alexandria and meet with the Roman dictator. The girl has no choice but to give consent. But she cannot appear openly in the city, because she is afraid of being killed by her brother’s henchmen.

The way out, however, is found quickly. The queen boards a boat with her devoted admirer Apollodorus and thus ends up in Alexandria. But you still need to get into the palace and see the formidable Roman commander. This task is quite difficult, since there are a lot of Ptolemy XIII’s people in the palace chambers, and they all know the girl by sight.

Cleopatra climbs into a large bag intended for bedding, Apollodorus puts it on his shoulder and freely passes into the premises where Gaius Julius Caesar is located.

Cleopatra is delivered to Caesar in a bedding bag

The young queen appears before the formidable dictator and makes an indelible impression on a mature man who has already exchanged fifty dollars. The Roman is fascinated, but political interests come first. However, he had long ago decided to bet on the queen, moreover, this is fully consistent with the royal will of the late Ptolemy XII.

The next morning, the dictator tells the young king that he considers Cleopatra the rightful heir to the throne and sees no point in depriving her of her royal rank.

Power over Egypt is concentrated in the hands of the young queen. She appoints her youngest brother, Ptolemy XIV, as her co-ruler. In 47 BC. e. he has just turned 13 years old.

The new rulers organize lavish celebrations. A huge fleet of 400 festively decorated ships sails along the Nile. Crowned brother and sister and Julius Caesar stand on the deck of one of them. The people rejoice and rejoice. Finally, Queen Cleopatra of Egypt gains full power. True, she is limited by the Roman protectorate, but this only plays into the hands of the young woman.

At the beginning of June, the dictator leaves for Rome, and literally 3 weeks later the young queen begins to go into labor. She gives birth to a boy and names him Ptolemy Caesar. The entire royal entourage understands whose child this is. He is given the nickname Caesarion. It is with him that the boy goes down in history.

A year passes, and Julius Caesar summons his crowned brothers and sister to Rome. There is a formal reason for this. The conclusion of an alliance between the Roman Republic and Egypt. But the real reason is that the dictator missed his beloved.

In the capital, visitors have full disposal of a luxurious villa surrounded by gardens on the banks of the Tiber River. Here the dictator's beloved receives the Roman nobility. Everyone is in a hurry to pay their respects to the queen, because this also means respect to Caesar.

But there are many people in Rome who are very irritated by this. The situation is aggravated by the fact that the elderly lover ordered a statue of his favorite to be made. He ordered to place it next to the altar of the goddess Venus.

The happy existence lasts just over two and a half years. In mid-March 44 BC. e. The Roman dictator is assassinated by conspirators.

In Rome, thereby hinting at his relationship with the goddess. Cognomen Caesar made no sense in Latin; Soviet historian of Rome A.I. Nemirovsky suggested that it comes from Cisre- the Etruscan name of the city of Cere. The antiquity of the Caesar family itself is difficult to establish (the first known one dates back to the end of the 5th century BC). The father of the future dictator, also Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder (proconsul of Asia), stopped in his career as a praetor. On his mother's side, Caesar came from the Cotta family of the Aurelian family with an admixture of plebeian blood. Caesar's uncles were consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar (91 BC), Lucius Julius Caesar (90 BC)

Gaius Julius Caesar lost his father at the age of sixteen; He maintained close friendly relations with his mother until her death in 54 BC. e.

A noble and cultured family created favorable conditions for his development; careful physical education later served him considerable service; a thorough education - scientific, literary, grammatical, on Greco-Roman foundations - formed logical thinking, prepared him for practical activity, for literary work.

Marriage and service in Asia

Before Caesar, the Julian family, despite their aristocratic origins, was not rich by the standards of the Roman nobility of that time. That is why, until Caesar himself, almost none of his relatives achieved much influence. Only his paternal aunt, Julia, married Gaius Marius, a talented commander and reformer of the Roman army. Marius was the leader of the democratic faction of the populares in the Roman Senate and sharply opposed the conservatives from the optimates faction.

Internal political conflicts in Rome at that time reached such severity that they led to civil war. After the capture of Rome by Marius in 87 BC. e. For a time, the power of the popular was established. The young Caesar was awarded the title of Flaminus Jupiter. But, in 86 BC. e. Mari died, and in 84 BC. e. During a riot among the troops, the consul Cinna, who usurped power, was killed. In 82 BC e. Rome was taken by the troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Sulla himself became dictator. Caesar was connected by double family ties with the party of his opponent - Maria: at the age of seventeen he married Cornelia, the youngest daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, an associate of Marius and the worst enemy of Sulla. This was a kind of demonstration of his commitment to the popular party, which by that time had been humiliated and defeated by the all-powerful Sulla.

In order to perfectly master the art of oratory, Caesar specifically in 75 BC. e. went to Rhodes to the famous teacher Apollonius Molon. Along the way, he was captured by Cilician pirates, for his release he had to pay a significant ransom of twenty talents, and while his friends collected money, he spent more than a month in captivity, practicing eloquence in front of his captors. After his release, he immediately assembled a fleet in Miletus, captured the pirate fortress and ordered the captured pirates to be crucified on the cross as a warning to others. But, since they treated him well at one time, Caesar ordered their legs to be broken before the crucifixion in order to alleviate their suffering (if you break the legs of a crucified person, he will die quite quickly from asphyxia). Then he often showed condescension towards defeated opponents. This is where the “mercy of Caesar”, so praised by ancient authors, was manifested.

Caesar takes part in the war with King Mithridates at the head of an independent detachment, but does not remain there for long. In 74 BC e. he returns to Rome. In 73 BC e. he was co-opted to the priestly college of pontiffs in place of the deceased Lucius Aurelius Cotta, his uncle.

Subsequently, he wins the election to the military tribunes. Always and everywhere, Caesar never tires of reminding of his democratic beliefs, connections with Gaius Marius and dislike for aristocrats. Actively participates in the struggle for the restoration of the rights of the people's tribunes, curtailed by Sulla, for the rehabilitation of the associates of Gaius Marius, who were persecuted during the dictatorship of Sulla, and seeks the return of Lucius Cornelius Cinna - the son of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and the brother of Caesar's wife. By this time, the beginning of his rapprochement with Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus began, on a close connection with whom he built his future career.

Caesar, being in a difficult position, does not say a word to justify the conspirators, but insists on not subjecting them to the death penalty. His proposal does not pass, and Caesar himself almost dies at the hands of an angry crowd.

Spain Far (Hispania Ulterior)

(Bibulus was consul only formally; the triumvirs actually removed him from power).

Caesar's consulate is necessary for both him and Pompey. Having disbanded the army, Pompey, for all his greatness, turns out to be powerless; None of his proposals pass due to the stubborn resistance of the Senate, and yet he promised his veteran soldiers land, and this issue could not tolerate delay. Supporters of Pompey alone were not enough; a more powerful influence was needed - this was the basis of Pompey’s alliance with Caesar and Crassus. The consul Caesar himself was in dire need of the influence of Pompey and the money of Crassus. It was not easy to convince the former consul Marcus Licinius Crassus, an old enemy of Pompey, to agree to an alliance, but in the end it was possible - this richest man in Rome could not get troops under his command for the war with Parthia.

This is how what historians would later call the first triumvirate arose - a private agreement of three persons, not sanctioned by anyone or anything other than their mutual consent. The private nature of the triumvirate was also emphasized by the consolidation of its marriages: Pompey to Caesar’s only daughter, Julia Caesaris (despite the difference in age and upbringing, this political marriage turned out to be sealed by love), and Caesar to the daughter of Calpurnius Piso.

At first, Caesar believed that this could be done in Spain, but a closer acquaintance with this country and its insufficiently convenient geographical position in relation to Italy forced Caesar to abandon this idea, especially since the traditions of Pompey were strong in Spain and in the Spanish army.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 58 BC. e. in Transalpine Gaul there was a mass migration to these lands of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii. After the victory over the Helvetii in the same year, a war followed against the Germanic tribes invading Gaul, led by Ariovistus, ending in the complete victory of Caesar. Increased Roman influence in Gaul caused unrest among the Belgae. Campaign 57 BC e. begins with the pacification of the Belgae and continues with the conquest of the northwestern lands, where the tribes of the Nervii and Aduatuci lived. In the summer of 57 BC e. on the bank of the river Sabris took place a grandiose battle of the Roman legions with the army of the Nervii, when only luck and the best training of the legionnaires allowed the Romans to win. At the same time, a legion under the command of legate Publius Crassus conquered the tribes of northwestern Gaul.

Based on Caesar's report, the Senate was forced to decide on a celebration and a 15-day thanksgiving service.

As a result of three years of successful war, Caesar increased his fortune many times over. He generously gave money to his supporters, attracting new people to himself, and increased his influence.

That same summer, Caesar organized his first, and the next, 54 BC. e. - second expedition to Britain. The legions met such fierce resistance from the natives here that Caesar had to return to Gaul with nothing. In 53 BC e. Unrest continued among the Gallic tribes, who could not come to terms with oppression by the Romans. All of them were pacified in a short time.

By agreement between Caesar and Pompey in Lucca in 56 BC. e. and the subsequent law of Pompey and Crassus in 55 BC. e. , Caesar's powers in Gaul and Illyricum were to end on the last day of February 49 BC. e. ; Moreover, it was definitely indicated that until March 1, 50 BC. e. there will be no talk in the Senate about a successor to Caesar. In 52 BC e. Only the Gallic unrest prevented a break between Caesar and Pompey, caused by the transfer of all power into the hands of Pompey, as a single consul and at the same time proconsul, which upset the balance of the duumvirate. As compensation, Caesar demanded for himself the possibility of the same position in the future, that is, the union of the consulate and the proconsulate, or, rather, the immediate replacement of the proconsulate by the consulate. To do this, it was necessary to obtain permission to be chosen as consul in 48 BC. e. , not entering during 49 BC. e. to the city, which would be tantamount to a renunciation of military authority.

Late in the spring, Caesar left Egypt, leaving Cleopatra and her husband, Ptolemy Jr. as queen (the elder was killed at the Battle of the Nile). Caesar spent 9 months in Egypt; Alexandria - the last Hellenistic capital - and the court of Cleopatra gave him many impressions and a lot of experience. Despite urgent matters in Asia Minor and the West, Caesar went from Egypt to Syria, where, as the successor of the Seleucids, he restored their palace in Daphne and generally behaved like a master and monarch.

In July, he left Syria, quickly dealt with the rebel Pontic king Pharnaces and hurried to Rome, where his presence was urgently needed. After the death of Pompey, his party and the party of the Senate were far from broken. There were quite a few Pompeians, as they were called, in Italy; They were more dangerous in the provinces, especially in Illyricum, Spain and Africa. Caesar's legates barely managed to subjugate Illyricum, where Marcus Octavius ​​had been resisting for a long time, not without success. In Spain, the mood of the army was clearly Pompeian; All the prominent members of the Senate party gathered in Africa, with a strong army. There were Metellus Scipio, the commander-in-chief, and the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus and Sextus, and Cato, and Titus Labienus, and others. They were supported by the Moorish king Juba. In Italy, the former supporter and agent of Julius Caesar, Caelius Rufus, became the head of the Pompeians. In alliance with Milo, he started a revolution on economic grounds; using his magistracy (praetour), he announced a deferment of all debts for 6 years; when the consul removed him from the magistracy, he raised the banner of rebellion in the south and died in the fight against government troops.

In 47 Rome was without magistrates; M. Antony ruled it as magister equitum of the dictator Julius Caesar; the troubles arose thanks to the tribunes Lucius Trebellius and Cornelius Dolabella on the same economic basis, but without the Pompeian lining. It was not the tribunes that were dangerous, however, but Caesar’s army, which was to be sent to Africa to fight the Pompeians. The long absence of Julius Caesar weakened discipline; the army refused to obey. In September 47, Caesar reappeared in Rome. With difficulty he managed to calm the soldiers who were already moving towards Rome. Having quickly completed the most necessary matters, in the winter of the same year Caesar crossed over to Africa. The details of this expedition of his are poorly known; a special monograph on this war by one of his officers suffers from ambiguities and bias. And here, as in Greece, the advantage was initially not on his side. After a long sitting on the seashore awaiting reinforcements and a tedious march inland, Caesar finally succeeds in forcing the battle of Thapsus, in which the Pompeians were completely defeated (April 6, 46). Most of the prominent Pompeians died in Africa; the rest escaped to Spain, where the army took their side. At the same time, fermentation began in Syria, where Caecilius Bassus had significant success, seizing almost the entire province into his own hands.

On July 28, 46, Caesar returned from Africa to Rome, but stayed there only for a few months. Already in December he was in Spain, where he was met by a large enemy force led by Pompey, Labienus, Atius Varus and others. The decisive battle, after a tiring campaign, was fought near Munda (March 17, 45). The battle almost ended in Caesar's defeat; his life, as recently in Alexandria, was in danger. With terrible efforts, victory was snatched from the enemies, and the Pompeian army was largely cut off. Of the party leaders, only Sextus Pompey remained alive. Upon returning to Rome, Caesar, along with the reorganization of the state, prepared for a campaign in the East, but on March 15, 44 he died at the hands of the conspirators. The reasons for this can only be clarified after analyzing the reform of the political system that was started and carried out by Caesar in the short periods of his peaceful activity.

The power of Julius Caesar

Statue of Caesar in the garden of the Palace of Versailles (1696, sculptor Coustou)

Over the long period of his political activity, Julius Caesar clearly understood that one of the main evils causing a serious illness of the Roman political system is the instability, impotence and purely urban nature of the executive power, the selfish, narrow party and class nature of the power of the Senate. From the early moments of his career, he openly and definitely struggled with both. And in the era of the conspiracy of Catiline, and in the era of extraordinary powers of Pompey, and in the era of the triumvirate, Caesar consciously pursued the idea of ​​​​centralization of power and the need to destroy the prestige and importance of the Senate.

Monument to Julius Caesar in Rome

Individuality, as far as one can judge, did not seem necessary to him. The agrarian commission, the triumvirate, then the duumvirate with Pompey, to which Yu. Caesar clung so tenaciously, show that he was not against collegiality or the division of power. It is impossible to think that all these forms were for him only a political necessity. With the death of Pompey, Caesar effectively remained the sole leader of the state; the power of the Senate was broken and power was concentrated in one hand, as it once was in the hands of Sulla. In order to carry out all the plans that Caesar had in mind, his power had to be as strong as possible, as unconstrained as possible, as complete as possible, but at the same time, at least at first, it should not formally go beyond the framework of the constitution. The most natural thing - since the constitution did not know a ready-made form of monarchical power and treated royal power with horror and disgust - was to combine in one person powers of an ordinary and extraordinary nature around one center. The consulate, weakened by the entire evolution of Rome, could not be such a center: a magistracy was needed, not subject to intercession and veto of the tribunes, combining military and civil functions, not limited by collegiality. The only magistracy of this kind was the dictatorship. Its inconvenience compared to the form invented by Pompey - the combination of a sole consulate with a proconsulate - was that it was too vague and, while giving everything in general, did not give anything in particular. Its extraordinaryness and urgency could be eliminated, as Sulla did, by pointing to its permanence (dictator perpetuus), while the uncertainty of powers - which Sulla did not take into account, since he saw in the dictatorship only a temporary means for carrying out his reforms - was eliminated only through the above connection . Dictatorship, as a basis, and next to this a series of special powers - this, therefore, is the framework within which Yu. Caesar wanted to place and placed his power. Within these limits, his power developed as follows.

In 49 - the year of the beginning of the civil war - during his stay in Spain, the people, at the suggestion of the praetor Lepidus, elected him dictator. Returning to Rome, Yu. Caesar passed several laws, assembled a comitia, at which he was elected consul for the second time (for the year 48), and abandoned dictatorship. The next year 48 (October-November) he received dictatorship for the 2nd time, in 47. In the same year, after the victory over Pompey, during his absence he received a number of powers: in addition to the dictatorship - a consulate for 5 years (from 47) and tribunic power, that is, the right to sit together with the tribunes and carry out investigations with them - in addition, the right to name the people their candidate for magistracy, with the exception of the plebeians, the right to distribute provinces without drawing lots to former praetors [Provinces to former consuls are still distributed by the Senate.] and the right to declare war and make peace. Caesar's representative this year in Rome is his magister equitum - assistant to the dictator M. Antony, in whose hands, despite the existence of consuls, all power is concentrated.

In 46, Caesar was both dictator (from the end of April) for the third time and consul; Lepidus was the second consul and magister equitum. This year, after the African war, his powers are significantly expanded. He was elected dictator for 10 years and at the same time the leader of morals (praefectus morum), with unlimited powers. Moreover, he receives the right to be the first to vote in the Senate and occupy a special seat in it, between the seats of both consuls. At the same time, his right to recommend candidates for magistrates to the people was confirmed, which was tantamount to the right to appoint them.

In 45 he was dictator for the 4th time and at the same time consul; his assistant was the same Lepidus. After the Spanish War (January 44), he was elected dictator for life and consul for 10 years. He refused the latter, as, probably, the 5-year consulate of the previous year [In 45 he was elected consul at the suggestion of Lepidus.]. The immunity of the tribunes is added to the tribunician power; the right to appoint magistrates and pro-magistrates is extended by the right to appoint consuls, distribute provinces among proconsuls and appoint plebeian magistrates. In the same year, Caesar was given exclusive authority to dispose of the army and money of the state. Finally, in the same year 44, he was granted lifelong censorship and all his orders were approved in advance by the Senate and the people.

In this way, Caesar became a sovereign monarch, remaining within the limits of constitutional forms [For many of the extraordinary powers there were precedents in the past life of Rome: Sulla was already a dictator, Marius repeated the consulate, he ruled in the provinces through his agents Pompey, and more than once; Pompey was given by the people unlimited control over the funds of the state.] All aspects of the life of the state were concentrated in his hands. He disposed of the army and provinces through his agents - pro-magistrates appointed by him, who were made magistrates only on his recommendation. The movable and immovable property of the community was in his hands as a lifelong censor and by virtue of special powers. The Senate was finally removed from financial management. The activity of the tribunes was paralyzed by his participation in the meetings of their collegium and the tribunician power and tribunician sacrosanctitas granted to him. And yet he was not a colleague of the tribunes; having their power, he did not have their name. Since he recommended them to the people, he was the highest authority in relation to them. He disposes of the Senate arbitrarily both as its chairman (for which he mainly needed the consulate), and as the first to answer the question of the presiding officer: since the opinion of the almighty dictator was known, it is unlikely that any of the senators would dare to contradict him .

Finally, the spiritual life of Rome was in his hands, since already at the beginning of his career he was elected great pontiff and now the power of the censor and the leadership of morals were added to this. Caesar did not have special powers that would give him judicial power, but the consulate, the censorship, and the pontificate had judicial functions. Moreover, we also hear about constant court negotiations at Caesar’s home, mainly on issues of a political nature. Caesar sought to give the newly created power a new name: this was the honorary cry with which the army greeted the winner - imperator. Yu. Caesar put this name at the head of his name and title, replacing his personal name Guy with it. With this he gave expression not only to the breadth of his power, his imperium, but also to the fact that from now on he leaves the ranks of ordinary people, replacing his name with a designation of his power and at the same time eliminating from it the indication of belonging to one family: the head of state cannot be called like any other Roman S. Iulius Caesar - he is Imp(erator) Caesar p(ater) p(atriae) dict(ator) perp(etuus), as his title says in the inscriptions and on coins.

Foreign policy

The guiding idea of ​​Caesar's foreign policy was the creation of a strong and integral state with natural borders, if possible. Caesar pursued this idea in the north, south, and east. His wars in Gaul, Germany and Britain were caused by his perceived need to push the border of Rome to the ocean on the one hand, and at least to the Rhine on the other. His plan for a campaign against the Getae and Dacians proves that the Danube border lay within the limits of his plans. Within the border that united Greece and Italy by land, Greco-Roman culture was to reign; the countries between the Danube and Italy and Greece were supposed to be the same buffer against the peoples of the north and east as the Gauls were against the Germans. Caesar's policy in the East is closely related to this. Death overtook him on the eve of the campaign to Parthia. His eastern policy, including the actual annexation of Egypt to the Roman state, was aimed at rounding out the Roman Empire in the East. The only serious opponent of Rome here were the Parthians: their affair with Crassus showed that they had in mind a broad expansionist policy. The revival of the Persian kingdom ran counter to the objectives of Rome, the successor to the monarchy of Alexander, and threatened to undermine the economic well-being of the state, which rested entirely on the monetary East. A decisive victory over the Parthians would have made Caesar, in the eyes of the East, the direct successor of Alexander the Great, the legitimate monarch. Finally, in Africa, Julius Caesar continued a purely colonial policy. Africa had no political significance: its economic importance, as a country capable of producing huge quantities of natural products, depended largely on regular administration, stopping the raids of nomadic tribes and re-establishing the best harbor in northern Africa, the natural center of the province and the central point for exchange with Italy - Carthage. The division of the country into two provinces satisfied the first two requests, the final restoration of Carthage satisfied the third.

Reforms of Julius Caesar

In all of Caesar's reform activities, two main ideas are clearly noted. One is the need to unite the Roman state into one whole, the need to smooth out the difference between the citizen-master and the provincial-slave, to smooth out the differences between nationalities; the other, closely related to the first, is the streamlining of administration, close communication between the state and its subjects, the elimination of intermediaries, and a strong central government. Both of these ideas are reflected in all of Caesar’s reforms, despite the fact that he carried them out quickly and hastily, trying to take advantage of the short periods of his stay in Rome. Because of this, the sequence of individual measures is random; Caesar each time took on what seemed most necessary to him, and only a comparison of everything he did, regardless of chronology, makes it possible to grasp the essence of his reforms and notice a harmonious system in their implementation.

Caesar's unifying tendencies were reflected primarily in his policy towards parties among the ruling classes. His policy of mercy towards his opponents, with the exception of irreconcilable ones, his desire to attract everyone to public life, without distinction of party or mood, his admission of his former opponents among his close associates, undoubtedly testifies to the desire to merge all differences of opinion about his personality and his regime . This unifying policy explains the widespread trust in everyone, which was the reason for his death.

The unifying tendency also has a clear effect in relation to Italy. One of Caesar's laws concerning the regulation of certain parts of municipal life in Italy has reached us. True, it is now impossible to assert that this law was the general municipal law of Yu. Caesar (lex Iulia municipalis), but it is still certain that it immediately supplemented the statutes of individual Italian communities for all municipalities and served as a corrective for all of them. On the other hand, the combination in the law of norms regulating the urban life of Rome and municipal norms, and the significant likelihood that the norms of urban improvement of Rome were mandatory for municipalities, clearly indicates a tendency to reduce Rome to municipalities, to elevate municipalities to Rome, which from now on should was only the first of the Italian cities, the seat of central power and a model for all similar centers of life. A general municipal law for all of Italy with local differences was unthinkable, but some general norms were desirable and useful and clearly indicated that in the end Italy and its cities represented one whole united with Rome.

Assassination of Julius Caesar

Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. e. at a meeting of the Senate. When friends once advised the dictator to beware of enemies and surround himself with guards, Caesar replied: “It is better to die once than to constantly expect death.” One of the conspirators was Brutus, one of his close friends, whom he considered his son. According to legend, seeing him among the conspirators, Caesar cried out in Greek: “And you, my child? " and stopped resisting. The most likely version of Plutarch is that Caesar did not say anything when he saw Brutus among the killers. Caesar had a stylus in his hands - a writing stick, and he somehow resisted - in particular, after the first blow, he pierced the hand of one of the attackers with it. When Caesar saw that resistance was useless, he covered himself from head to toe with a toga in order to fall more decently (this was customary among the Romans; Pompey also covered himself with a toga so that they would not see his face during death). Most of the wounds inflicted on him were not deep, although many were inflicted: 23 puncture wounds were found on his body; The frightened conspirators themselves injured each other, trying to reach Caesar. There are two different versions of his death: that he died from a fatal blow (the more common version; as Suetonius writes, it was a second blow to the chest) and that death was due to blood loss. After Caesar was killed, the conspirators tried to make a speech to the senators, but the Senate fled in fear. Some scholars believe that Caesar himself gave up his life. He did not listen to his wife’s advice that day, dismissed the few guards and did not even pay attention to the note from an anonymous friend (this note was hardly pulled out of Caesar’s hands during the “autopsy”). He could wish for death due to attacks of an unusual illness and did not resist very much. It was rumored that he suffered from epilepsy.

Gaius Julius Caesar as a writer

A broad education, grammatical and literary, gave Caesar the opportunity, like most educated people of that time, to be active not only in politics, but also in literature. Caesar's literary activity in his mature years was, however, not a goal for him, but a means of a purely political nature. Two of his literary works that have survived to this day: “Notes on the Gallic War” (Commentarii de bello gallico) and “Notes on the Civil War” (Commentarii de bello civili) (the first in 7, the second in 3 books) - are nothing more than political tools to influence public opinion.

The "Commentarii de bello gallico" was written after the end of the struggle with Vercingetorix, but before the break with Pompey, probably in 51 BC. e. They characterize the entire course of the Gallic war until the decisive actions of 52 BC. e. inclusive. Their goal, obviously, was to show Rome how much Caesar had done during the 8 years of his proconsulate, how much he had achieved and how wrong those who said that he was looking for war were. The comments definitely suggest that all Gallic campaigns were the result of aggressive actions by the Gauls and Germans themselves. The hero of the story is, first of all, himself (he is spoken of in the third person), but even more so is his army, strong, brave, seasoned, devoted to their leader to the point of oblivion. Caesar's story was in this regard a demonstration at the Senate and a monument to the army, Caesar's veterans. The ancient critics were clearly aware that before them was only material for the historian, and not a complete historical work; Caesar himself clearly indicated this, giving his work the title of comments (notes, protocol).

The books “Commentarii de bello civili”, which speak about events from January 1, 49 BC, are even more imbued with political trends. e. until the Alexandrian War, which they promise to tell. Failure to fulfill this promise on the one hand, a number of indications that the comments were written after the end of the civil wars give the right to conclude that Caesar was unable to complete his work. Caesar is trying in every possible way to show that he was forced to war not so much by Pompey as by the Senate. There is no feeling of hostility towards Pompey; in relation to him there are only a number of subtle critical remarks, not devoid of causticity, but this is all the more damaging to the Senate and individual representatives of the Senate party. The most poisonous arrows are aimed at minor figures. “Scipio (Pompey’s father-in-law), having suffered several defeats (in Syria) near Mount Amana, proclaimed himself emperor” (you need to know that the title of emperor was given for victories and troops). Lentulus, when Julius Caesar approaches Rome, only manages to open the reserve treasury, but flees without having time to seize the money from there, etc.

Attacks on the Pompeians serve only to highlight more clearly the legality and necessity of Caesar's actions. Throughout the entire work there is a repeated indication, firstly, of Caesar’s constant desire to end the matter peacefully and of the fact that all his attempts were proudly and unreasonably rejected by Pompey; secondly, to the fact that in all battles he spared the enemy troops and sought, where possible, to end the matter with the least bloodshed or without it at all; Along with this, he also spares individuals, the leaders of the Pompeian party, while Pompey’s camp only thinks about executions, revenge and proscriptions (the latter is fully confirmed by the Pompeian Cicero in a number of his letters); finally, only Caesar relies on the true sympathy of the Italian municipalities and provinces. Caesar carefully and in detail notes how one city after another drove the Pompeians out of their walls and enthusiastically admitted Caesar's troops. Next to the good will (voluntas) of Italy, the heroism and dedication of the army, represented mainly by soldiers and lower officers, comes to the fore; already from the “Commentarii de bello civili” it is clear that the new regime is going to rely on Italy, the provinces and especially the army.

The historical accuracy of the comments has already been discussed. An excellent literary description of them is given by Cicero (“Brutus”, 75, 262), however, not without some flattery: “they are naked, straight and beautiful, all ornaments of speech have been removed from them, like clothes. Wanting to prepare material for use by others who would undertake to write history, Caesar may have rendered a service to the more stupid of them, who may wish to twist (his account) with hot tongs; he scared away intelligent people from treating the same topic; There is nothing more pleasing to history than pure and brilliant brevity.” Indeed, the main literary advantage of the commentaries is the clarity and simplicity of presentation and style, not devoid of some pathos in moments of uplift, the concreteness of the images and the subtle characteristics of not only individuals, but also entire nations, especially the Gauls.

Of the works of Gaius Julius Caesar that have not reached us, the most voluminous were probably the collections of his speeches and letters. His two pamphlets, entitled “Auticatones,” were of a purely political nature. These pamphlets were responses to the literature generated by the death of Cato of Uticus - literature in which Cicero was the first to speak. Caesar sought to prove that the panegyrics of Cato were exaggerated. These pamphlets were written in 45 BC. e. , in the camp at Munda. Caesar's poetic works were purely literary works: “Praise of Hercules”, the tragedy “Oedipus”, the poem “Iter”, which describes his journey from Rome to Spain in 46 BC. e. We also have information about one of his scientific works, in 2 books - “De analogia”, a grammatical treatise, where the famous grammatical dispute between analogists and anomalists was examined and resolved in favor of the former, that is, in favor of the principle of regularity. Several additions were added to Caesar's comments after his death, which were long considered to be the works of Caesar himself. This is the 8th book of commentaries on the Gallic war, speaking about the events of 51 and 50, undoubtedly written by Hirtius; further “Commentarii de bellum Alexandrinum”, where, in addition to events in Alexandria, events in Asia, Illyria and Spain are considered, “Bellum Africanum” - the events of the African war, and “Bellum Hispanicum” - the second Spanish war. It is difficult to say who the authors of the last three additions are. There is no doubt that the Spanish and African wars were described by a participant, perhaps by a person close to the 5th Legion. Regarding bellum Alexandrinum, it is possible that here too the author is Hirtius. Additions to the commentaries have been preserved along with them in a number of manuscripts of the same root (do the publishers designate this version?); only the comments on the Gallic War were preserved in another edition, which seems to be better (?).

The content of the article

CAESAR, GAI JULIUS(Gaius Iulius Caesar) (100–44 BC), Roman statesman and commander whose dictatorship marked the decisive turn from republicanism to empire. Caesar was born on July 12, 100 BC. (the year of his birth cannot be considered definitively established; there are arguments in favor of 102 or 101 BC). Caesar was the only son in the family (he had a younger sister Julia), he was 15 years old when his father, also Gaius, died. Caesar's mother Aurelius, who died in 54 BC, when he was already 46, supervised his education and retained a significant influence on her son throughout his life. Aunt Julia, my father’s sister, was married to Gaius Marius, who in the year of Caesar’s birth served as consul for the sixth time.

The beginning of a political career.

Caesar's youth came during one of the most turbulent decades in Roman history. Roman armies captured the city twice, first in 87 BC, and the triumphant popularists were led by Caesar's uncle, Marius (d. 86 BC), and Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who was killed by his own soldiers in 84 BC, just the same year that Caesar married his daughter Cornelia. Another time, the city was attacked in 82 BC by the enemy Maria Sulla, the leader of the Optimates, upon returning from a campaign in the East. In both cases, the capture of the city was followed by massacres of political opponents, accompanied by the confiscation of their property. Sulla's proscriptions were especially cruel.

Caesar refused, risking his life, to Sulla’s demand to divorce his wife, who had given birth to a daughter, Julia, and after some time, in 81 BC, he left for the province of Asia. The praetor who ruled it sent Caesar as an ambassador to the court of the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes.

Upon receiving news of Sulla's death, Caesar returned to Rome in 78 BC. and gained fame here for bringing prominent politicians to trial. Caesar then went to Rhodes, as Cicero had done a few years earlier, to study rhetoric under the renowned Molon. Winter 75–74 BC In the Aegean Sea, Caesar fell into the hands of pirates. While in their captivity, waiting for the money that the pirates demanded as a ransom to arrive, Caesar, as if jokingly, promised to crucify them and, as soon as he was free, he carried out his threat. In 73 BC Caesar was elected pontiff, after which he returned to Rome to begin his normal political career. Caesar served as a quaestor (financial magistrate) from 69–68 BC. in the province of Farther Spain.

In the political life of Rome in the 60s, the dominance of the optimates was contested by Pompey and Crassus. Among the optimates, led by Quintus Lutatius Catulus (consul of 78 BC) and Lucius Licinius Lucullus (consul of 74 BC, whose campaign in Asia Minor against Mithridates began very successfully, but did not end in final victory), belonged mainly to people who made a career under Sulla. In contrast, Pompey and Crassus, as consuls in 70 BC, repealed the most reactionary sections of Sulla's constitution.

In the absence of Pompey, who spent from 67 to 62 BC. a brilliant campaign first against the Mediterranean pirates and then against Mithridates, Crassus, his ever-zealous rival, discovered Caesar's promising talents and provided him with a significant loan. Caesar, who entered into a new marriage with Pompeia (granddaughter of Sulla and relative of Pompey) after the death of Cornelia (in 68 BC), became in 65 BC. curule aedile. Being an aedile, i.e. the person responsible for the condition of public buildings, Caesar returned the trophies of Marius to their former place of honor in the Capitol, thereby making a bid for the role of leader of the popularists.

But what really caused a sensation in Rome was the election of Caesar, an aspiring politician, as high priest (pontifex maximus). This took place in 63 BC, when Cicero was consul. Using funds provided by Crassus, Caesar secured votes for himself in the election of the high priest, beating out the oldest members of the priestly college. All of Caesar's rivals (chief among them was Catulus) were former supporters of Sulla's regime. December 5, 63 BC Caesar spoke in the Senate against Marcus Cato, his most implacable opponent on the issue of punishing Catiline's accomplices, whose arrest marked the failure of the famous conspiracy. Cato insisted on the immediate execution of all attackers, and he managed to carry out the appropriate decision, and Caesar, showing magnanimity, spoke in favor of life imprisonment.

While occupying the position of praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported the people's tribune Quintus Metellus Nepos, who demanded that Pompey be recalled to Rome and given powers to restore order. As a result, Caesar was temporarily removed from office and once again incurred the hostility of Catulus.

In early 61 BC, leaving Rome to rule Further Spain for a year, Caesar divorced Pompeia over suspicions that she was involved in the sacrilege of Publius Clodius. Clodius was awaiting trial for the fact that in December of the previous year he, disguised as a woman, entered Caesar's house, where the festival of the Good Goddess was being celebrated, at which men were not allowed to attend. On this occasion, Caesar is reported to have stated: "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion."

The first triumvirate.

Returning to Rome after successfully ruling Spain for a year, Caesar was elected consul for 59 BC. thanks to a political alliance with Pompey and Crassus (both of whom failed in their political aspirations due to the resistance they received from Cato and his followers). Their union, the so-called The “first triumvirate” (named by analogy with the triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus, enshrined in law in 43 BC), made it possible to unite the voices of the adherents (clients) of these political figures. Caesar wanted to command a large army. Pompey sought approval of the activities that he carried out in the East, and land plots for his retired veterans. Crassus, defending the interests of his followers, insisted on revising the contract for collecting taxes in the province of Asia (a company of farmers, friends of Crassus, acquired the right to collect taxes in this province in 61 BC, at a price that they now considered unrealistic).

A law for the purchase of land for distribution among Pompey's veterans was passed in January 59 BC. at a stormy public meeting, Caesar’s colleague in office, optimate Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who, like his father-in-law Cato, opposed the adoption of this decree, was thrown off the stage, breaking the fasces - signs of consular dignity. Bibulus responded by attempting to prevent Caesar and his followers from making any new laws. To do this, he maliciously took advantage of the traditional practice, according to which the consideration of business in the popular assembly of Rome did not begin until the presiding consul announced, after observing the sky, that the heavenly signs were favorable. Now Bibulus has announced that he is making appropriate observations. In earlier times this would have brought all public life to a standstill. However, Caesar, with his characteristic determination and equanimity, ignored Bibulus's antics, after which he retired from business, locking himself in his home, which brought him a lot of ridicule. As a result, Caesar remained virtually the sole consul, so that the legislative program of the “troika” was carried out throughout the year. The strong-willed actions, which greatly embarrassed Pompey, brought upon Caesar and his associates a lot of sharp criticism. Their political opponents argued for years that all laws passed in 59 BC were unconstitutional and therefore invalid.

Gallic Wars.

The law, proposed by the tribune of the people Publius Vatinius and ratified by decree of the Senate, placed at Caesar's disposal three provinces for a period of five years (Caesar's tenure as proconsul was then extended for another five years): Cisalpine Gaul (the region of Italy north of the Apennines, the border was the river Rubicon), Transalpine Gaul (modern Provence) on the other side of the Alps and Illyricum along the northeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the spring of 58 BC. Caesar left Rome and remained in Gaul until his invasion of Italy in January 49 BC. Every summer, Caesar opened a military campaign north of the Alps, in the winter he withdrew the army to winter quarters, and he himself returned to the south in order to exercise civil administration of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum and, communicating with the politicians who visited him, not to lose contact with Rome. Every winter, Caesar wrote a report on his summer campaign, and in 51 BC. These diaries, magnificent in their clarity, cover the period from 58 to 52 BC. (i.e. the first 7 books that have come down to us Notes on the Gallic War, De bello Gallico) were published in Rome. Book VIII, covering the events of 51–50 BC, was compiled by Aulus Hirtius in 44 BC, after the death of Caesar.

Thus, the main source of information about Caesar's actions in Gaul is Caesar himself. Of course, he downplayed or even completely hid his own mistakes, but he had few mistakes, and therefore his reports can be trusted. Events 58–52 BC showed both Caesar himself and the Roman world that he was a brilliant commander. In addition, during these years he became fabulously rich (due to the robbery of Gaul) and acquired great strength: when Caesar took over the provinces, there were four legions (about 20 thousand soldiers), Caesar increased the number of troops to eleven legions, not counting the cavalry and auxiliary units.

The northern border of Transalpine Gaul ran approximately along the Cevennes Mountains and the Rhone River. The country located north of this line (according to Caesar, it was divided into three parts, inhabited respectively by the Belgae, Aquitani and Gauls), the Romans called “shaggy Gaul” (Gallia comata). Roman traders managed to penetrate this region; the Aedui, who lived near the border, became allies of Rome back in 121 BC. Caesar's campaigns in 58 BC, undertaken at the request and in the interests of the Aedui, were aimed at repelling two enemy invasions. The first attempt to seize these lands was made by the Gallic tribe of the Helvetii, numbering 368 thousand people and wishing to move from the northern coast of Leman (modern Lake Geneva) to the Santon region off the Atlantic coast. The second group of conquerors was led by Ariovistus, a leader from the Germanic Suebi tribe, with the help of whom the Sequani, another Gallic tribe, had already managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the Aedui in 61 BC. Ariovistus captured a third of the territory of the Sequani, and was joined by a large number of compatriots who came from the eastern banks of the Rhine. Now, under the command of Caesar, the Helvetii were defeated: one part on the banks of the Arar (now the Saone), and the other near the Aedui city of Bibracte (near the modern city of Autun). The Romans put Ariovistus and his Germans to flight east of Vesontion (modern Besançon) in eastern France: they were again driven across the Rhine, and Ariovistus himself soon died.

Now Caesar decided to conquer and turn into a province all of Gaul. In 57 BC he defeated the Belgae tribes in the north and conquered the coastal tribes along the Atlantic coast, after which he considered his task completed. The revolt of the coastal tribes in 56 BC, which was suppressed by one of Caesar's officers, Publius Licinius Crassus (son of Crassus), was an unexpected shock. In 55 BC Caesar undertook two short reconnaissance expeditions, one to the other side of the Rhine (which gave his engineers the opportunity to demonstrate their skills in the construction of the famous bridge over the Rhine), and the second across the English Channel to Britain. During the next, longer and better prepared invasion of Britain (54 BC), Caesar crossed the Thames and accepted submissions from the supreme ruler of the south-eastern Britons, Cassivellaunus, but Britain was not occupied this time either.

In the same winter, an attack was made on Caesar's camps in Gaul, one of them was taken, and one and a half legions stationed there were almost completely destroyed. There was also unrest in 53 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rhine for the second time, and in 52 BC, while he was still south of the Alps, the conquered tribes of Gaul broke away from Rome, and later that year even rebelled edui. The fragmentation of the Gallic tribes, which Caesar had skillfully exploited since 58 BC, was replaced by an alliance, so this time Caesar was dealing with a united Gallic army, led by the prudent and reasonable Vercingetorix from the Arverni tribe. At the beginning of the war, Caesar gained the upper hand, managing to break through to his legions through the snow-covered Cevennes. However, in the city of Gergovia (near modern Clermont-Ferrand) he suffered a setback. Having defeated Vercingetorix in an open battle, Caesar locked his opponents in Alesia, located on a hill (not far from modern Dijon), but fell into the ring of the Gallic army that arrived to the rescue. The victory won over this army by Caesar, and the subsequent capitulation of Alesia, were the most remarkable of his military achievements. All that remained was to suppress the last pockets of resistance (51 BC).

Resumption of the triumvirate.

After five years of power given to Caesar in 59 BC, he avoided being recalled to Rome by concluding a new agreement with Pompey and Crassus in Luca (modern Lucca), a border city on the border of Cisalpine Gaul and Roman Italy, in April 56 BC. As a result of this agreement, Pompey and Crassus secured the position of consuls in the elections of 55 BC. and achieved the adoption of the Pompey-Licinius law, which extended Caesar’s power over Gaul for another five years. However, the extension of Caesar's powers was balanced by the introduction of two more extraordinary appointments for a period of also five years: Crassus received Syria for this period, and Pompey received Spain.

The collapse of the union.

Nevertheless, the optimates who controlled the Senate, finally noticing the incredible growth of Caesar’s personal power, wealth and power, kept Pompey in Italy, allowing him to rule the province through deputies. The personal relationship between Pompey and Caesar fell apart in 54 BC, when Caesar's daughter Julia, to whom Pompey had been married since 59 BC, died. Then in 53 BC. the third member of the triumvirate, Crassus, died at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, having been defeated by the Parthians. As he contemplated plans to return to a civilian career in Rome, Caesar guessed that once he lost the immunity status guaranteed by the empire, the supreme military power, political opponents would try to force him into exile, using charges in court of bribery and illegal use of force in 59 BC. .e. To ruin their plans, Caesar should have extended his immunity until his election as consul in 48 BC. (the first year in which, according to the then Roman laws, a person who held this position in 59 BC could become consul for a second time). At the same time, Caesar wanted to retain the title of commander-in-chief until the end of 49 BC, citing the Pompey-Licinius law . The only obstacle to this plan that could have been foreseen in advance, namely the law according to which candidates for the office of consul had to attend the elections in person, and as a private citizen, was removed by a law passed by all ten tribunes as early as 52 BC. Now Caesar was allowed to seek consulate in absentia. However, the former consul in 51 BC. Optimate supporter Marcus Claudius Marcellus made it clear that the Senate was not ready to recognize this decree.

Caesar accepted the challenge thrown at him. He carefully avoided even hints of military pressure, left most of the army north of the Alps and obeyed the Senate's decrees, according to which in 50 BC. he should have handed over two of his legions (one of which he had previously borrowed from Pompey) to be sent to the East. He willingly did this, since it was beneficial for him to have loyal troops in Italy. At the same time, Caesar tried to influence the authorities in Rome through his adherents-tribunes: in 50 BC. it was Gaius Scribonius Curio, whose support Caesar bought by paying his huge debts, and in 49 BC. Caesar's main support was Mark Antony, who served under his command in Gaul from 54 to 51 BC. Curio and then Antony were given the task of creating a stalemate by vetoing any attempt by the Senate to appoint new proconsuls to the provinces.

The overwhelming majority of the Senate wanted a compromise, which was revealed during the vote on December 1, 50 BC, when Curio’s proposal received 370 votes (only 22 against), according to which Caesar had to renounce the status of commander and personally appear at the consular elections 49 before AD, so that Pompey, who still remained in Italy, simultaneously resigned. But here extremists from among Caesar’s opponents took extreme measures. On December 2, the day after the above-mentioned resolution was adopted in the Senate, the consul of 50 BC. Gaius Claudius Marcellus put a sword into Pompey's hands and called on him to save the state. On January 1, the Senate adopted a resolution according to which, if Caesar did not resign, he was declared an enemy of the state. However, while the tribunes cast their veto, the resolution could not enter into force. Finally, on January 6, Antony and one of his fellow tribunes, Quintus Cassius Longinus, were intimidated and not allowed to attend the Senate meeting, and in their absence, a law introducing a state of emergency was passed. Moreover, the tribunes had to flee to Caesar, since the law threatened them with punishment. On January 10–11 (dates are given according to the calendar of that time), Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Italy under the plausible pretext of protecting the rights of the tribunes. He had only one legion at his disposal (XIII), the other two (VIII and XII) were summoned from Transalpine Gaul and were in a hurry to join Caesar.

Civil War.

Although Pompey had seven legions in Spain, the government forces in Italy itself, not counting the small number of recruits, since conscription began only now, were reduced to the same two legions that Caesar in 50 BC. placed at the disposal of the Senate and who were still waiting to be sent to the East. Caesar, undoubtedly, hoped through Pompey to persuade the Senate to come to the desired agreement, but Pompey stubbornly refused to meet with Caesar. Pompey decided to leave Italy, transporting all the magistrates, the Senate and the army through Brundisium (modern Brindisi), a port on the east coast of the peninsula, to Epirus in northwestern Greece. There he hoped to recruit an army, since, given the complete lack of ships, Caesar could not get to him on the other side of the Adriatic very soon. Caesar was abandoned by his deputy Titus Labienus, who went over to Pompey's side. However, for the enemy this was perhaps the only gratifying event: as Caesar rapidly advanced towards Rome along the eastern coast of Italy, one city after another, to the horror of the Senate, readily opened its gates to him. In Corfinia, Caesar besieged the republican army sent to meet him (30 cohorts, i.e. about three legions) led by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and, practically without a fight, lured the soldiers to his side, and released the commander in peace. And yet he was late and could not prevent Pompey from crossing from Brundisium to Dyrrhachium.

The civil war lasted four years. The first two are described by Caesar himself in Notes on the Civil War (De bello civili). In 49 BC, while ships were gathering from various places in Brundisium, Caesar crossed to Spain and there, near Ilerda, he defeated two of Pompey’s legates, Marcus Petreius and Lucius Afranius. He then returned to Italy and at the beginning of winter crossed over to Epirus with seven legions. When trying to capture Pompey's camp near Dyrrachium (modern Durres), Caesar almost suffered a crushing defeat. Then both armies went east, and although Caesar's army was inferior in number to Pompey's army (22,000 legionnaires versus 47,000), on August 9, 48 BC. Caesar achieved a final victory over him at the Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey fled, but was killed upon arrival in Egypt.

Pursuing the enemy, Caesar encountered resistance in Alexandria; the winter passed in a bitter struggle against Ptolemy XIII and the inhabitants of the Egyptian capital. The Roman commander again won a victory, after which he elevated Cleopatra, who had by that time become his mistress, to the Egyptian throne, and made her other younger brother and new husband Ptolemy XIV her co-ruler. After a brief acquaintance with Egypt during a trip along the Nile, Caesar moved to Asia Minor against Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates, who had captured the province of Pontus. In August 47 BC. Caesar immediately put Pharnaces' army to flight at the Battle of Zela. In the future triumph, this victory was mentioned with the famous phrase “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) - it was carried written on a special tablet. Caesar returned to Rome, but almost immediately set out again for Africa, where the surviving Republicans, including Cato, managed to gather a new army under the command of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (consul of 52 BC, whose daughter Pompey married after his death Julia). The Republicans were defeated at Thapsus in April 46 BC, and Cato committed suicide in Utica. Those who managed to escape or joined Pompey’s sons Gnaeus and Sextus in Spain were defeated by Caesar at Munda on March 17, 45 BC. in the last and perhaps most stubborn battle of this war. In October, Caesar returned to Rome.

Apparently, Caesar was not too worried about the threat from Sextus Pompey, who survived the Battle of Munda, for the victorious commander intended in the spring of 44 BC. left Italy again, accompanied by 18-year-old Octavius, the grandson of his sister Julia, at the head of an army that was to concentrate on the other side of the Adriatic Sea during the winter. Caesar was planning a full-scale expedition beyond the Danube, to the north of which the new state of Dacia had recently been formed, led by King Burebista. After this, Caesar was planning to move to Syria and possibly invade Parthia in order to restore the prestige of Roman arms, which had suffered significant damage after the defeat and death of Crassus.

Dictator in Rome.

There is no doubt that ever since Caesar began active military operations in Gaul, the problems of the army and the empire occupied him constantly and relentlessly. In his eyes, these problems stood much higher than the task of revising the state structure. In this area, it was necessary to find a solution that, without hurting deeply rooted republican feelings, would allow the introduction of those elements of the authoritarian system that were necessary to overcome corruption and general chaos in governance.

The five months Caesar spent in Rome, from October 45 BC, turned out to be his first long stay here since 59 BC. Since 49 BC Caesar's personal dictatorship began to influence the traditional republican way of life. The Senate continued to sit, the number of which increased to 900 people thanks to Caesar’s addition to the list of senators; elections were still held, albeit under strict control; appointments were made to traditional positions. Meanwhile, Caesar had the same full power that Sulla had previously had. First dictatorship of Caesar in 49 BC. was a regular commission, which he carried out for only eleven days, to carry out the elections in the absence of the consuls of that year, who had joined Pompey. But after receiving news of the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar was again elected dictator, and after the battle at Thapsus he became dictator for a period of 10 years, in the winter of 45 BC. he was declared dictator for life. Moreover, Caesar was elected consul in 48, 46, 45 and again in 44 BC.

When Caesar left Italy after 49 BC, real power was in the hands of his deputies. While he was serving as dictator, his first deputy was considered to be his “chief of cavalry.” In 48–47 BC. he was Mark Antony, and starting from 46 BC. - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Prominent senators, including Cicero, were deeply outraged by the enormous power and influence of such followers of Caesar as Gaius Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus, to whom, although they were not even members of the Senate, they had to bow down to inquire about the wishes of the ruler.

When, after Thapsus and Munda, Caesar's military superiority was established to such an extent that no rivalry with him could even be thought of, the Senate showered him with an avalanche of personal honors, which had no analogues in the Roman tradition, but rather imitated the extravagant insignia with which Hellenistic kings were previously honored. The month of the Quintilis was renamed July (Julius), a statue of Caesar was installed in the temple of the god Quirinus, and even a special priest, “flamen Julius,” was assigned to him, like a deity.

In 46 BC. Caesar stationed four Roman legions in Egypt and brought Cleopatra to Rome along with Ptolemy XIV. The statue of Cleopatra now stood in the temple of Venus Genetrix (Ancestor) in the new Forum of Caesar. However, there is no evidence that Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra when she was in Rome, and the hypothesis that allegedly all of Rome was afraid of his divorce from Calpurnia (whom Caesar married in 59 BC), marriage with Cleopatra and transfer of the court of the newly founded royal dynasty to Egypt. Cleopatra's son Caesarion (later called Ptolemy XV Caesar) was probably born in 47 or 46 BC, and although later political benefits led Cleopatra herself and Antony to claim that the boy was Caesar's son, these claims are unreliable.

Historians disagree about whether Caesar, corrupted by power and success, actually intended to perpetuate strong autocratic rule. Undoubtedly, in the last years of his life he was tactless and arrogant. While the triumph of 46 BC was held in honor of victories over the external enemies of Rome (including the Gaul Vercingetorix, who was kept alive until his triumph and then executed), in 45 BC. there was not even an attempt to hide the fact that the triumph was celebrated on the occasion of the victory over the Roman citizens. At the beginning of 44 BC. Caesar insulted the senators by not rising from his seat when they appeared in full force to honor him, and the expulsion of two tribunes from the Senate was equally tactless. However, either out of hypocrisy or out of sincere disgust, Caesar constantly expressed furious disgust for all manifestations of servility. Having discovered the inscription "Demi-god" on a statue erected by the Senate in 46 BC, Caesar ordered its removal. In January 44 BC. he stubbornly resisted attempts to hail him as "king", repeating "I am not a king, but Caesar", he also, with obvious signs of anger, refused the crown, which Antony, along with two other noble youths (both of whom later participated in the murder of Caesar), tried to give him crowned at the Lupercalia festival in February 44 BC.

Role in history.

Caesar's greatest achievement was the conquest and first attempt to romanize "shaggy Gaul", as well as the establishment of the borders of the empire along the Rhine. As consul of 59 BC he passed legislation to prevent abuses by the provincial administration and founded a daily newspaper, Acta Diurna (Daily Events), which was distributed throughout the Roman world. As a dictator, Caesar was able to come to a reasonable agreement with the moneylenders, relieving the Romans of the burden of huge debts. In 46 BC. Caesar corrected the calendar, which had fallen into complete disarray, by introducing instead the calculation of time, which, with minor changes made in the Middle Ages, is used by the entire modern world. Caesar planned, but did not have time to complete the creation of a unified system of municipal government in Italy. Even more important was the unification of Italy, carried out by Caesar through the extension of Roman citizenship to the entire peninsula up to the Alps (49 BC). Caesar also granted citizenship rights to some non-Romans, particularly certain Gallic tribes.

There is no doubt that Caesar was subject to periodic epileptic seizures. Accessible and frank, loved by his soldiers, attractive to women, insightful in assessing human qualities, Caesar was distinguished by genuine and sincere generosity. His exceptional human qualities are confirmed, for example, by the order he gave after the Battle of Pharsalus to destroy Pompey’s personal papers and by the mercy with which he, having won, granted forgiveness to all who fought against him (Cicero received forgiveness in 48 BC, Marcus Marcellus, consul in 51 BC - in 46). Unlike Marius and Sulla, Octavian and his fellow triumvirs, Caesar never resorted to proscriptions. In the eyes of many people he was the greatest of the Romans. So, Plutarch Parallel biographies, a series of paired biographies of prominent Romans and Greeks, examines Caesar alongside Alexander the Great. Pliny the Elder calls him the most energetic of historical characters.

Caesar was an extremely versatile man, perhaps the most gifted in the history of Rome. The beauty of his literary style, transparently clear and devoid of any pomposity, was appreciated by the best of Caesar's contemporary critics. Caesar turned out to be a more successful commander than Pompey, although not at all more skillful - he took desperate risks in Britain, almost losing his entire fleet there, and was close to defeat at Gergovia in 52 BC. and at Dyrrachium. Caesar owed his victory over Pompey to several circumstances. Firstly, he retained self-confidence, whereas Pompey lost it towards the end of his life. Then Caesar, unlike Pompey, was never bothered by influential politicians. In addition, Caesar, again unlike Pompey, had an army that, through his own efforts, was united into a formidable force. In the face of all difficulties and adversity, the troops did not lose faith in the “luck of Caesar.” Caesar's opponents were amazed by the willingness of his army to follow their commander to the conquest of Italy in 49 BC, and when some legions rebelled (in 49 BC and in 47 BC), Caesar easily achieved them obedience.

Two circumstances make it difficult to make a final judgment about Caesar. Firstly, Cicero, his contemporary, hated Caesar as an enemy of the republican system. Secondly, Augustus, in his political interests, considered it expedient to obscure Caesar's advance to dictatorial power. As a result, the name of Caesar was hardly mentioned by the poets of the Augustan era, and Livy, the author of the official history of Rome before the fall of the republic, was subjected to friendly reproaches from Augustus, who nicknamed him a Pompeian. It is impossible to guess what kind of government system Caesar would have introduced in Rome, had he remained alive and turned his talent to rebuilding the Roman system of government.

Murder on the Ides of March.

Whatever Caesar's intentions regarding the government, he became so hated by a significant part of the Senate that 60 senators took part in the conspiracy organized by Marcus Brutus to assassinate Caesar. The degree of bitterness can be judged by the fact that with such a large number of participants, their plan was kept secret. On the Ides of March, i.e. On March 15, 44 BC, two days before Caesar was scheduled to leave Rome for his great eastern campaign, he was stabbed to death at a Senate meeting in Pompey's new theater.

After Antony’s funeral speech, with which he tried to inflame passions, the crowd put Caesar’s body to fire right in the forum. During the games held in memory of Caesar in July, a comet appeared in the sky, perceived by the people as a sign of his divinity. January 1, 42 BC Caesar was officially proclaimed “divine” - divus Caesar. Octavius, adopted by Caesar according to his will and after that taking the name Caesar Octavian, subsequently became Emperor Augustus and, having created the principate, resolved the problems of government, doing what Caesar failed to do.

Literature:

Plutarch. Caesar.– In the book: Plutarch. Comparative biographies, vol. 2. M., 1964
Utchenko S.L. Julius Caesar. M., 1984
Egorov A.B. Rome on the brink of eras: problems of the birth and formation of the principate. L., 1985
Parfenov V.N. Rome from Caesar to Augustus: essays on socio-political history. Saratov, 1987
Gaius Julius Caesar. Notes on the Gallic War. M., 1993
Mommsen T. History of Rome, vol. 3. St. Petersburg, 1995
Ferrero G. Julius Caesar. Rostov-on-Don, 1997



Gaius Julius Caesar is probably the most famous historical figure in Italy. Few people do not know the name of this great ancient Roman political and statesman and outstanding commander. His phrases become catchphrases; just remember the famous “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”). We know a lot about him from chronicles, memories of his friends and enemies, and his own stories. But we don’t know the exact answer to the question of when Gaius Julius Caesar was born.

When was Gaius Julius Caesar born?

He was born on July 13 in 100 BC (according to other biographical sources this is 102 BC). He came from the noble Julius family, his father was the proconsul of Asia, and his mother came from the Aurelian family. Thanks to his origin and good education, Caesar could make a brilliant military and political career. Guy was interested in the history of the great campaigns, especially Alexander the Great. Caesar studied Greek, philosophy and literature, but most of all he wanted to study oratory. The young man sought to convince and influence the audience through his speech. Caesar quickly realized how he could win over the people. He knew that support among ordinary people would help him reach heights faster. Caesar organized theatrical performances and distributed money. The people quickly responded to such attention from Caesar.

Caesar receives, under the patronage of his mother, the position of priest of Jupiter in 84 BC. e. However, the dictator Sulla was against this appointment and did everything to ensure that Caesar left and lost all his fortune. He goes to Asia Minor, where he does military service.

In 78 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar returns back to Rome and begins to actively engage in public activities. To become an excellent speaker, he took lessons from the Rhetor Molon. He soon received the position of military tribune and priest-pontiff. Caesar becomes popular and is elected aedile in 65 BC. e., and in 52 BC. e. becomes praetor and governor of one of the provinces of Spain. Caesar proved himself to be an excellent leader and military strategist.

However, Gaius Julius aspired to rule, he had grandiose plans for his future political career. He concludes a triumvirate with Crassus and the general Pompey, they opposed the Senate. However, people from the Senate understood the degree of the threat and offered Caesar a position as ruler in Gaul, while the other two participants in the alliance were offered positions in Syria, Africa and Spain.

As proconsul of Gaul, Caesar carried out military operations. So, he conquered the trans-Alpine territory of Gaul and reached the Rhine, pushing back the German troops. Gaius Julius proved himself to be an excellent strategist and diplomat. Caesar was a great commander, he had a huge influence on his charges, he inspired them with his speeches, in any weather, at any time he led the army.

After the death of Crassus, Caesar decides to seize power in Rome. In 49 BC, the commander and his army crossed the Rubicon River. This battle becomes victorious and one of the most famous in Italian history. Pompey flees the country, fearing persecution. Caesar returns to Rome victorious and proclaims himself autocratic dictator.

Caesar carried out government reforms and tried to improve the country. However, not everyone was happy with the autocracy of the dictator. A conspiracy was brewing against Gaius Julius. The organizers were Cassius and Brutus, who supported the republic. Caesar heard rumors of an impending threat, but he ignored them and refused to strengthen his guard. As a result, on March 15, 44 BC. e. the conspirators fulfilled their plan. In the Senate, Caesar was surrounded and the first blow was dealt to him. The dictator tried to fight back, but, unfortunately, he failed and died on the spot.

His life radically changed not only the history of Rome, but also world history. Gaius Julius Caesar was born under the republic, and after his death a monarchy was established.