The history of Ancient Greece is replete with heroic characters, glorious wars and countless inventions in various sciences that have been the engine of progress for subsequent generations of people for over 2000 years. But there were also “dark” pages in the history of the Greeks that they would prefer to forget. One of these was the Peloponnesian War, which turned ancient Greece from the cultural center of the world into a distressed civilization.

Shortly after the most glorious moment of the ancient Greek wars occurred - the victory of the united Greek forces over the Persian Empire - the two dominant city-states of Greece, Athens and Sparta, succumbed to the desire for absolute power and domination. This led to the Peloponnesian War, which destroyed many cities and ended the Golden Age of Greece in the fifth century AD.

1. Peloponnesian War

The war took its name from the peninsula in southern Greece that is still called the Peloponnese to this day. Many Greek city-states, including Sparta, Corinth and Argos, were located in this region.

2. Delian and Peloponnesian League

The Peloponnesian War was fought among numerous Greek city-states. However, most people know it as a struggle for dominance and power between Athens, leading the Delian League, and Sparta, leading the Peloponnesian League.

3. War of the Athenian Empire against Persia

The Athenian Empire was at its peak just before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. More than 150 Greek city-states that joined the fight against Persia were under Athenian control.

4. The Peloponnesian War consists of two wars

The Peloponnesian War was actually two separate wars. They took place between 431 and 404 BC, and there was a six-year truce between them.

5. "History of the Peloponnesian War"

The History of the Peloponnesian War is without a doubt the most popular historical account of the war written by one of the fathers of Western history, Thucydides. The famous Athenian historian was also one of the military leaders during this war.

6. Sources of information about the Peloponnesian War

You can also find valuable information about the Peloponnesian War in other historical records. In particular, these are the stories of Herodotus, the comedies of Aristophanes, the "Greek History" of Xenophon and the "Athenian Constitution" of the anonymous student of Aristotle.

7. Archidamic War

The First Peloponnesian War is also known as Archidamus' War. It was named after the Spartan king Archidamus II, who commanded the combined forces of the Peloponnesian League.

8. The war lasted ten years

This war lasted ten years - from 431 BC. Until 421 BC. It was less intense and destructive than the second war, and was fought mainly between Athens and Corinth, an ally of Sparta.

9. Enmity between Athens and Sparta

According to most historians and scholars, there were deeper reasons motivating the hostility between Athens and Sparta. Spartan leaders feared that the Athenians might use their superiority in weaponry to destroy Spartan control over members of the Peloponnesian League.

10. Battle of the Siboth Islands

The conflict was caused by a situation where Corinth was defeated in battle by its colony of Corfu. As the Corinthians attempted to regain control of the area, the Athenians offered to assist Corkyra in the Battle of Sibotan Islands against the Corinthian fleet, thus violating the rules of the Thirty Years' Peace Treaty.

11. Spartan meeting

Athens' assistance was seen as the last straw in ongoing tensions between Athens and most members of the Peloponnesian League, who were concerned about Athens' imperial policies. In 432 BC, members of the Peloponnesian League met at a meeting in Sparta, to which an Athenian delegation was also invited.

The Corinthians warned Sparta that if their troops continued to remain passive, Sparta would lose Corinthian support and geopolitical position. Under this pressure, the majority of the Spartan Assembly voted against Athens, thereby declaring war on Athens.

12. The most disciplined and trained army of the Ancient World

During the first war, the Spartans, who had the most trained and disciplined army in the entire history of the ancient world, dominated all battles on earth. At the same time, the Athenians, known for their powerful fleet, easily controlled the sea.

13. Line of defense

In order to organize their line of defense, the Athenians built long defensive walls from Athens to the port of Piraeus. These walls were never attacked by the Spartans and their allies during the First Peloponnesian War.

14. Peace of Nikia

This first war eventually ended in a truce, called the Peace of Nicias, in 421 BC. However, this truce, concluded for 50 years, lasted only 6 years.

15. The Athenians attacked Syracuse

The fragile truce among the Greek city-states after the First Peloponnesian War fell apart in 415 BC when the Athenians attacked the Sicilian city of Syracuse. The Greek cities that existed in Sicily were very rich, so the conquest of Sicily would give the Athenians huge advantages over the Peloponnesians.

16. Ionian War

The Second Peloponnesian War lasted for eleven years - from 415 BC. to 404 BC It was also called the Decelean or Ionian War.

17. The biggest defeat of Athens

Athenian forces suffered their heaviest losses in 415 BC, when Athens sent a huge expeditionary force to Sicily. The reason for this was the attack of one of Athens' allies (Segesta) on Selinunte, a city that was supported by Syracuse. The Peloponnesian League sent a huge force to reinforce Syracuse against the Athenian invasion, after which the Athenian Empire suffered its worst defeat in over a century.

18. Battle of Cyzicus

However, five years later at the Battle of Cyzicus in 410 BC, the Athenian fleet completely destroyed the Spartan fleet, and this allowed Athens to restore the financial foundation of its empire. Between 410 and 406 BC. Athens won many battles and managed to restore most of its empire.

19. Battle of Aegospotami

The last major battle of the Peloponnesian War (the Battle of Aegospotami) was fought in 405 BC. During it, the Spartan fleet under the command of Lysander completely destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens surrendered in 404 BC. and the Athenian empire fell.

20. Thebes was defeated

According to modern historians, Thebes became the true winner of the Peloponnesian War among the Greeks, since the war allowed them to increase their power and become a major power. Sparta, on the other hand, only gained temporary benefits from its victory.

21. Dominance of Persia

However, the biggest winner was Persia, which regained control of many Greek cities in Asia Minor and Anatolia. The Persian Empire also managed to gain great diplomatic influence on mainland Greece.

22. The Spartans borrowed money from the Persians

Ironically, the Spartans borrowed money from the Persians (whom they had recently fought alongside the Athenians) to build a fleet. These ships ultimately played a decisive role in the victory over Athens.

23. Sparta saved Athens

After Athens surrendered, it was stripped of its formidable walls, its fleet, and all its overseas possessions. Corinth and Thebes wanted to burn and destroy this city, but Sparta refused because its rulers believed that Athens had made a significant contribution to the Greek victory during the Persian invasion.

24. Athens was completely devastated and humiliated

Athens is perhaps the most famous, rich and prosperous city not only in Greece, but in the entire known world at that time. At least this was the case until the Peloponnesian War, when Athens was completely devastated and humiliated. The city never regained its pre-war status, while Sparta became the dominant power in all of Greece.

25. "Thirty Tyrants"

For a short period of time, Athens was ruled by the "Thirty Tyrants" and there was no trace of democracy at that time. It was a reactionary regime established by Sparta. The oligarchs were overthrown and democracy was restored by Thrasybulus in 403 BC.

Sights of Greece are included in the list.

The existence of two military-political blocs of the Greek political blocs of the Greek city-states of the Peloponnesian Union with aristocratic Sparta and the Athenian Maritime Union with democratic Athens at the head led to a constant increase in rivalry between them.

In 446 BC. conclusion of a thirty-year peace between Sparta and Athens. However, he did not hold out for long when Athena and Sparta were breaking from their chains.

In 431 BC. War broke out between the Peloponnesian League and the Athenian Naval League. The Greek historian Thucydides believed that the Peloponnesian War was a consequence of a natural process of development of the development relationship between the policies. By the main reason Thucydides understood this fear of the Lacedaemonians because of the strengthening of Athens. Throughout the Greek world, a political war began between democrats and oligarchs. The heads of the democratic parties called Athens for help, while the oligarchs called for Sparta. Thucydides considered this intervention of Athens to be a secondary reason for military affairs between Kerkyra and Corinth. Athens at sea in 433. are on the side of Kerkyra. Athens forces the colony of Corinth - Potidaea to join the Athenian Maritime League, but Potidaea still remains under the rule of Corinth. After the formation of the Athenian state, Athens demanded from Potidaea the expulsion of the envoys of Corinth and the destruction of the walls that protected them from the sea. Corinth turned to Sparta. In the fall of 432, the Spartan National Assembly decided that Athens was guilty of violating the 30-year peace treaty. After this, a congress of Peloponnesian allies took place at which it was decided to declare war on Athens.

Plans of the warring parties and the alignment of military forces.

Both sides began to mobilize and made very stringent and sometimes impossible demands on each other. So the Spartans demanded the expulsion of the descendants of the Alcmaeonid family from Athens. The Athenians ignored this demand. Afterwards, Sparta demanded to lift the siege of Potedea and dissolve the Athenian Maritime Union. These demands were also rejected.

Pericles convinced the Athenians not to be afraid of war with the Peloponnesus, and in saying this he had sufficient grounds. Firstly, the political crisis was overcome. Secondly, Athens had allies not only in Asia Minor but also in mainland Greece, Sicily and Southern Italy. Athens collected 600 talents of silver per year from the subordinate cities, while also having its own huge savings.

Athens had the best fleet of 300 triremes. But the ground army is weak compared to Sparta.

The cities of Central Greece took the side of Sparta. The Peloponnesian fleet was significantly inferior to the Athenian one and they had much less funds because they did not collect taxes from their allies.

Archidamic War 431 – 421 BC.

The war was fought simultaneously in many places. Also, the war was fought at the limit of strength. The advantage passed from one side to the other. In the spring of 431, hostilities began. At night, a Theban detachment of 300 people took the city of Plataea, an ally of Athens, but due to indecision, the rebels in the city killed this detachment.

Lacedaemonian invasion of Attica and epidemic in Athens.

Immediately after the Plataean events, the Peloponnesians invaded Attica, led by their king Archidamus.

The Pelloponnesians, having invaded Attica, began to devastate its territories, but all the inhabitants had been relocated to Athens in advance, so as soon as the food supply ran out, the Peloponnesians left Attica. The Athenians, under the leadership of Pericles, invaded Megaridu and ravaged it and then retreated.

In the early summer of 430, the Peloponnesians again invaded Attica. This time Pericles abandoned the same tactics and all civilians hid in Athens. But unexpectedly, an epidemic broke out in Attica, as everyone then thought was a plague, but in fact, most likely it was cholera. According to Thucydides, about a quarter of the combat-ready army of the Athenian Maritime League died. Archidamus withdrew his army to prevent the spread of the disease in his army.

The Athenians, realizing that they could not find a better leader, elected Pericles again in 429, but he died during a new outbreak of the epidemic in the fall of 429. In the year of his death, the Athenians achieved the fall of Potidaea. But this city cost them many soldiers and large military expenses.

Revolt on the island of Lesbos

The years 429 and 428 were simply terrible for Athens; they did not carry out a single successful offensive operation. But the Spartans again invaded Attica and burned many fields and houses.

In 427, a rebellion broke out on the island of Lesbos. But since the Spartans did not have time to provide assistance quickly enough, famine began in the city of Mytilene and they surrendered to the Athenians. The Athenians disarmed the garrisons of Mytilene and razed the walls that protected the city from the sea.

The action of Demosthenes in the Peloponnese and the capture of Pylos.

At the same time, 30 ships under the command of Demosthenes were sent to Central Greece.

But this expedition was unsuccessful.

In 425, the Peloponnesians made another invasion of Attica. Demosthenes insisted that the Athenians capture Pylos. Having learned about this, the Spartans hurried home. Soon a squadron from Zakynthos arrived to help the Athenians. The Spartans were defeated; all this was aggravated by the fact that the best warriors were locked up on the island of Sphacteria. The Spartans offered peace to save their soldiers, but the Athenians refused and sent reinforcements led by Cleon to Pylos. Cleon landed on Sphacteria and defeated the Spartan troops. 120 Spartans from noble families were captured by the Athenians. Under the threat of killing prisoners, Sparta was forbidden to attack Attica. At the same time, Cleon carried out a reform of borrowing foros from the allies, forcing them to pay twice as much. However, Athens soon began to suffer setbacks in Boeotia, but the most unpleasant thing for the Athenians was the opening of a theater of operations in Thrace.

Brasidas' campaign in Thrace and the Battle of Amphipolis.

After the defeat at Pylos, Brasidas became the commander of the Peloponnesian troops. He put forward a successful plan - to enter Thrace and attract the disgruntled allies of Athens to his side.

In the summer of 424, Brasidas moved against Amphipolis, bringing Thessaly and Macedonia to his side. Also, the city of Chalkidiki went over to the side of Sparta. The defense of Amphipolis was entrusted to the strategist Thucydides, but when he arrived with his squadron, the city had already fallen. The failures that befell the Athenians in 424 forced them to agree to a truce with Sparta, and it was concluded for a year.

In 422, Cleon went to Thrace and regained control over the Athenian cities. But near Amphipolis the army of Brasidas was waiting for him. The Spartans won the decisive battle. Cleon was killed during the flight, but Brasidas was also wounded and died soon after.

Peace of Nicias and the end of the Archidamic War.

The war has lasted for 10 years and neither side has achieved an advantage. In Athens, the most zealous supporter of peace was Nicias.

In 421 BC. Peace was concluded for 50 years and was called the Treaty of Nikia. Cities that paid foros to Athens became independent, as well both The parties exchanged prisoners of war.

Sicilian expedition 415-413 BC.

Violation of the Treaty of Nikia and the resumption of the Athenian-Spartan contradictions.

The most zealous opponents of peace were the Corinthians. They concluded treaties of alliance with all cities wishing to continue the war against Sparta. Sparta, in turn, made peace with Boeotia. The Athenians learned with indignation of the conclusion of this alliance, and the opponents of peace began to zealously incite Athens to another war. These included Hyperbolus and Alcibiades. Alcibiades was elected strategist in 420 and began to encourage the Athenians to go to war.

Sicilian expedition.

Sicily has long attracted Athens with its quantity of grain. In 427 and 426, Athens sent military assistance to its allies the Leontians in their fight against Syracuse, but they did not achieve any success since the Sicilian cities made peace.

Alcibiades convinced the Athenians to send a large military expedition to Sicily. The reason for sending troops there was the arrival in 415 of ambassadors from the Sicilian city of Egesta, who asked for help against the city of Selinunte, which was supported by Syracuse.

The Athenians organized a large expedition. Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamachus were appointed as strategists.

The fleet reached the city of Regia, but the residents refused to let them inside. The only city that accepted the Athenians was Naxos. Neighboring Katana had to be conquered. The Syracusans and their allies realized the Athenians' true goal and prepared to repel them. The Athenians besieged Syracuse. But in the prolonged counterattacks of the city, Lamachus was killed.

In the summer of 413 BC. The Athenians sent troops to Sicily with the best commander of Athens, Demosthenes. The Peloponnesian League, in turn, stood up for Sicily and sent the experienced military leader Gylippus with an army. In two battles the Athenian fleet was destroyed. Therefore, Demosthenes and Nicias gathered the remnants of the ground army, divided into 2 groups and went to the southern part of Sicily. Along the way they were surrounded and defeated. The strategos were brought to Syracuse and publicly executed. This was a catastrophic defeat for Athens. They lost their entire fleet of warriors and only a few managed to escape and return to Athens.

Dekelian War 413-404 BC.

Alcibiades fled to Sparta and advised to capture the town of Decelea, which was strategically advantageous for the invasion of Attica. In 413, the Lacedaemonians invaded Attica, led by King Agis. What was unexpected for Athens was that the Spartans were joined by 20 thousand slaves employed in handicraft production. The Athenian allies began to go over to the side of the Peloponnese, which the Athenians tried to stop, so in 412 they managed to restore their influence on the island. Lesbos and Samos. Sparta even agreed to an alliance with Persia and recognized its claims to power in Asia Minor.

Oligarchic coup of 411 BC in Athens.

Under the influence of the military failures that befell Athens, anti-democratic ferment began. Alcibiades blamed the ochlocracy ruling in Athens for forcing him into exile.

The ideologist of the coup in Athens was Antiphon and the executive commanders were Phrynichus and Pisander. In the spring of 411, Pisander came from Samos to Athens and proposed choosing a commission of 10 people with unlimited rights. The conspirators dealt with the most influential leader of democracy - Androcles. At the people's meeting it was decided to dissolve the Council of 500, abolish all existing state. Positions and cancel their salaries from the state treasury. A council of 400 was elected and the number of authorized citizens was limited to 5 thousand. But they were unable to bring either the fleet or the ground forces to their side. And soon they began to lose allies in Athens, the authority of Ferament, a supporter of moderate democracy, increased. Taking advantage of the confusion in Athens, the allies tried to free themselves from their influence. Even the strategically important Embeya became an ally of Sparta. Athens was still able to gather troops and a fleet and send it to take Embeia. But the fleet and troops were destroyed by the Peloponnesians who sent their squadron to Embei. After this, democracy in Athens was restored and it was decided to return Alcibiades back.

The last period of the Peloponnesian War. Defeat of Athens.

441 Alcibiades is in Samos and is elected general in Athens. But he doesn’t want to return to Athens without victories. He wins victories at Abydos and Cyzicus. In 410, under the impression of this, democracy was completely restored in Athens. After brilliant victories in 407, Alcibiades returned to Athens. At this time, King Cyrus came to power in Persia and stopped sponsoring Athens and switched his sponsorship to the Spartan commander - Lysander. Alcidiades is defeated near the city of Phocaea. In Athens, Alcibiades is again blamed for everything. A battle takes place near the Arrginus Islands where the Peloponnesian fleet loses, but due to the storm that broke out after the battle, the Athenian fleet suffered heavy losses.

In 405, the final battle took place near the mouth of the Egospotama River. All cities fell from Athens except Saios. In the fall of 405, Lysander sailed to Piraeus and at the same time 2 Spartan armies approached Athens. The Athenians resisted until the spring of 404, but after heavy fighting they were forced to sign peace on harsh terms.

All but 12 ships were transferred to the Peloponnesian League. Athens was forced to tear down the long walls, and the form of government in Athens became an oligarchy (council 30). The last captured object in this war was Fr. Samos remained faithful to democracy.

Results of the Peloponnesian War and the reasons for the defeat of Athens.

The main reason is that Sparta won because its regime was more centralized than in Athens. In addition, Athens pursued too harsh a policy with its allies, who ultimately betrayed them. Athens took too many adventurous actions; the most striking example is the Sicilian expedition, where the best warriors of Athens and almost half of their navy remained. Also, the reason for Sparta's victory was the position of Persia helping Sparta create a strong fleet. In 403, democracy was restored in Athens. The Peloponnesian War had a negative impact not only on Athens, but also throughout Greece, since Sparta relied on military force for its hegemony, which stimulated an exacerbation of social conflicts and a crisis of traditional polis values.

The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) was a turning point in the history of Ancient Greece (Fig. 9.5). Almost all Greek states and neighboring peoples were drawn into it. The cause of the war was the interweaving of political and economic contradictions between Athens and its allies on the one hand, and Sparta and the Peloponnesian League on the other. The main reason for the war is the struggle for leadership, for hegemony in Hellas. An additional factor was the contradictions between supporters of aristocracy and democracy, observed in all Greek states: the personification of the first for many was Sparta, the second - Athens. Trade rivalry between Athens and Corinth, an ally of Sparta, also contributed to increasing tensions between the Athenian Naval League and the Peloponnesian League.

Future opponents had a definite plan of action in the upcoming battle, based on the available forces. Pericles planned, avoiding battle with the Spartans in the "open field", to gather the population of Attica behind the city walls of Athens, connected to Piraeus; Athenian ships were supposed to deliver food to the city and make raids to the shores of the Peloponnese. In fact, this plan gave Atticus

to plunder the enemy, but if successful, he could sooner or later force Sparta to peace due to the impossibility of defeating Athens. The Spartans, on the contrary, counting on the superiority of their ground army, wanted to decide the outcome of the war in a general battle.

Rice. 9.5.

Find and read a work of fiction set against the backdrop of the events of the Peloponnesian War (for example, the book “The Last Drops of Wine” by M. Reno). Write a review of this book. What historical characters are found in the book? How are historical events reflected? Who does the author sympathize with?

The first period of the war is called Archidamus' War(431-421 BC), named after the Spartan king Archidamus. The Thebans began hostilities (Thebes was part of the Peloponnesian League). In 431

BC e. they unexpectedly attacked the city of Plataea, allied with Athens, at night. The Plataeans surrounded them and completely destroyed them. A little later, Archidamus, at the head of a large Peloponnesian army, invaded Attica, began to destroy gardens and vineyards, and burn villages. According to Pericles' plan, the villagers took refuge in Athens and the Athenian fleet sailed to the Peloponnese, devastating the coastal areas. In 430 BC. e. Archidamus and his army again invaded Attica, the population again took refuge behind the Long Walls. And here an unexpected misfortune happened: an epidemic of some terrible disease broke out in Athens (usually called the plague, but more likely it was cholera or typhus), which, due to overcrowding and unsanitary conditions, spread with tremendous speed; The plague spread to the fleet, disrupting another raid, and entered the camp near Potidaea. As a result, the epidemic claimed 1/3 of the country's population. The Spartans, fearful of the infection, withdrew their army. Many Athenians began to express dissatisfaction with Pericles, blaming him for the misfortunes that befell the city. For the first time in 14 years, he was not elected strategos (for the next 429), recognizing his last report as unsatisfactory and sentenced to pay a fine. In 429 BC. e. there was no Spartan invasion; Potidaea fell in the same year. The Athenians, somewhat regaining their spirits, again elected their recognized leader as strategos, but Pericles soon became the victim of a new wave of epidemic.

In 428, the Spartans again invaded Attica, at the same time Mytilene rebelled on the island of Lesbos (a member of the archaeus), and Athens sent its squadron there. The following year, the Spartans and Thebans could celebrate success: Plataea finally fell, but the Athenians also suppressed the rebellion in Lesbos. At the suggestion of the demagogue Cleon, the Athenian ecclesia first decided to execute all the men of Mytilene, but, having come to their senses, the next day voted to execute “only” 1000 aristocratic instigators.

After some calm, military operations revived in 425. The Athenian strategist Demosthenes, unexpectedly for the Spartans, captured the port of Pylos on the western coast of the Peloponnese and called for an uprising of the helots. A Spartan detachment of several hundred men occupied the small island of Sphacteria at the entrance to the harbor of Pylos, but was blocked there by the Athenians. Sparta sent ambassadors to Athens with a proposal for peace on terms status quo ante bellum(pre-war situation). In Athens, opinions were divided, but Cleon still achieved a decision to reject the peace proposal. Meanwhile, the siege of Sphacteria dragged on, and Cleon, who criticized Demosthenes for indecision, went with reinforcements to the scene of action. As a result, he and Demosthenes managed to capture the island, capturing about 300 Peloponnesians, including 120 Spartiates. The prisoners were taken to Athens, and the Spartans were warned that if they invaded Attica, they would be executed.

In 424 BC. e. The Athenians attempted to invade Boeotia, but suffered a crushing defeat at Delium. Sparta, in which a young energetic commander advances Brasidas, takes the initiative. Brasidas proposed a plan for a daring expedition: with an army composed of released helots and mercenaries, with the consent of the state, but at his own peril and risk, moving at night, he made a long trip to the north, across all of Greece to the Chalkidiki peninsula with the goal of strike at the rear of the Athenian arche. The Athenian strategist Thucydides, a future historian, was unable to prevent the Spartans from capturing a number of cities, including Amphipolis. Cleon sets off with a large army to Chalkidice. In 422, a battle took place near Amphipolis in which both commanders, Cleon and Brasidas, died. In Athens, after the death of Cleon, the radical party loses its influence. In 421 peace was concluded with Sparta. From the Athens side, negotiations were conducted Nikias, and after his name this world is called Nikiev: peace on the terms status quo ante bellum and the exchange of prisoners was concluded for 50 years.

The period of “precarious pacification” begins (421-415 BC). As it turned out, the powers that made peace did not seriously think about fulfilling its terms. The Spartans did not ensure the return of Amphipolis, and the Athenians, in turn, were in no hurry to return Pylos. In Athens, the triumph of the peace party was short-lived; the radical group found a leader in Hyperbola. At the same time, he entered the political scene Alcibiades, brilliantly educated, handsome in appearance, he attracted people to him. An aristocrat, the nephew of Pericles on his mother's side, Alcibiades was a politician of a new type: he often changed his political orientation and put personal interests above public ones. In addition to natural ambition, Alcibiades was influenced by the teachings of the Sophists that were widespread at that time: from the various ideas of these teachers of political wisdom, he fully assimilated only the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe relativity of existing civil norms and the right of a strong personality to power. In addition to the sophists, Alcibiades was greatly influenced by his teacher, sage and philosopher Socrates. At the school of Socrates, Alcibiades acquired the ability to defend his opinion in a dispute, skillfully using dialectics to his advantage, but ignoring the ethical component of the teachings of Socrates. In 420, Alcibiades was first elected strategos, and from then on he continuously influenced Athenian politics, pushing Athens towards war and criticizing the peacemaker Nicias. An anti-Spartan coalition arose in the Peloponnese, which included Argos, Mantinea and Elis, and Alcibiades insisted on providing it with military assistance, which would be a direct violation of the Peace of Nicias. In the end, only volunteers were sent, but this did not help the allies, who were defeated at the Battle of Mantinea (418 BC), after which local oligarchs and supporters of an alliance with Sparta came to power in these cities. This failure aggravated the internal situation in Athens: supporters of radical democracy, at the initiative of Hyperbole, decided to ostracize political leaders.

But danger brought Alcibiades closer to Niknemus, and with the joint votes of all their supporters they ensured that the leader of the demos, Hyperbolus, was expelled. After such unexpected results, the Athenians became disillusioned with ostracism and never used it again.

Nicias and Alcibiades were elected to the college of strategos for 416/415 BC. e., and Alcibiades began to campaign for a campaign to the west, to Sicily. The main target was Syracuse - the richest and most influential city of the island, a colony and ally of the hostile Corinth. Alcibiades was able to captivate the Athenians with tempting plans, especially the youth, the risky inhabitants of Piraeus, etc., although the cautious Nicias was against this adventure. However, the ecclesia decides to send an expedition and appoints Alcibiades, Nicias and the military commander as its leaders Lamaha. On the eve of departure, an incident occurred that cast an ominous shadow over the entire undertaking. In one night, some attackers mutilated everything in Athens herms- stone pillars with the image of the god Hermes, which stood at crossroads and in front of houses. This was seen not just as an act of tipsy young people, but as a challenge posed by the conspirators of democracy. An investigation was immediately launched. Denunciations poured in, which did not provide any information about those who desecrated the herms, but a new blasphemy was discovered: Alcibiades was accused of parodying the Eleusinian Mysteries. The all-powerful strategist insisted on an immediate trial, but the case was postponed, and Alcibiades had to go on a campaign with a stain of grave suspicion. After the fleet departed, a new criminal complaint was filed against the strategist ( isangelia).

Isangelia(Greek eiscmgelia- announcement, report) - in Athenian legal proceedings, a special kind of complaint or denunciation of a state crime that threatened the security of the policy.

The investigation was resumed, and by order of the ecclesia, a trireme was sent after Alcibiades. Fearing a guilty verdict, he fled along the road (in Southern Italy, in the area of ​​Thurii), showing up some time later in Sparta. In Athens, Alcibiades was sentenced to death in absentia, his name was cursed, and his property was confiscated. The recall of Alcibiades, who was the soul of the Sicilian expedition, had a fatal impact on its outcome: Lamachus soon died, and Nicias, who remained the only commander, acted slowly and indecisively.

Meanwhile, Alcibiades, who found shelter in Sparta, gives the Spartans a number of tips that turned out to be very useful for them: he suggests sending help to Syracuse; in Attica, do not limit yourself to individual raids, but to capture Decelea and turn it into your stronghold, depriving the Athenians of income from the Laurian silver mines and completely paralyzing agricultural life in the country

(Thucydides, History, VI, 90-92). The Spartans took advantage of these tips, and in 414 the war resumed. Its second period was called Dekelian War(414-404 BC).

The Spartans sent their detachment to help Syracuse, while Athens sent Nicias a squadron under the command of Demosthenes as reinforcements. Demosthenes, having familiarized himself with the situation on the spot, demanded the evacuation of the expedition, but Nicias, fearing prosecution for the failure of the enterprise, hesitated, and the lunar eclipse that happened (August 27, 413 BC), which he perceived as a bad omen, put an end to on the idea of ​​immediate return. As a result, the Athenian fleet was defeated, the remnants of the expedition retreated deeper into the island, but were surrounded and surrendered. Nicias and Demosthenes were executed, thousands of captured Athenians were sent to work in the quarries. The Sicilian expedition ended in disaster for Athens. The losses in people and ships were so great that they could not be restored in the coming years. The Spartans settled in Dekeleia, the agricultural district was devastated. To top it all off, 20 thousand slaves ran over to the enemy. The collapse of Arche began: Miletus and other cities of Ionia, the islands of Chios, and Lesbos went over to the side of Sparta. Persia, interested in the inter-Greek feud, during which the policies weakened each other, provided financial assistance to Sparta - with this money the Peloponnesians built ships and hired crews.

The military failures of Athens led to the revival of the activities of secret oligarchic heterias, which prepared what happened in 411 BC. e. oligarchic coup. The number of full-fledged citizens was limited to 5,000 wealthy Athenians, power was transferred to the oligarchic Council of 400, payments in the form of salaries to officials were canceled, and supporters of democracy were persecuted. The new government offered peace to the Spartans, but the Spartans, putting forward unacceptable conditions, broke down the negotiations. The Athenian fleet stationed at Samos did not recognize the oligarchic government. Foreign policy failures finally discredited the Council of 400: Euboea fell away, and the Spartans captured Byzantium and Chalcedon, through which Black Sea grain was delivered to Athens. A moderate group came to power Feramena. It was decided to grant an amnesty to Alcibiades, who by that time had quarreled with the Spartans, made friends with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, and became the leader of the Athenian fleet, which did not recognize the oligarchs. Under the leadership of Alcibiades, the Athenians won a number of battles. In the spring of 410 BC. e. The democratic system was completely restored. In 409-408 BC. e. Alcibiades conquers Byzantium and Chalcedon and returns to his homeland (407 BC). His fellow citizens gave him a solemn welcome and awarded him a golden wreath. He was appointed sole commander on land and at sea. At the head of a squadron of 100 triremes, Alcibiades sails from Athens to the shores of Ionia, and the Spartans, led by a new commander, send their fleet there too. Lysander, a skilled military leader, as ambitious as Alcibiades.

In the absence of Alcibiades, the Athenian fleet was defeated at Cape Notium. This, one might say, ordinary episode was blamed on Alcibiades: he was ruined by his own incredible popularity, the Athenians had such boundless faith in his strength and abilities that any failure, even such a minor one as this, was attributed to Alcibiades’ lack of good will. Alcibiades accepted his displacement and retired to Thracian Chersonesus, where he owned two or three fortified points, a gift from the Thracian king, which he turned into real fortresses. Then he moved to Asia Minor, to Phrygia, where he died in 404 BC. e. at the hands of assassins sent by the satrap Pharnabazus at the request of Lysander, who, in turn, acted at the instigation of the leader of the Athenian Thirty Tyrants Kritia.

After the removal of Alcibiades, luck turned away from Athens. They suffered defeats, one after another, but in 406 BC. e. The Athenian fleet off the coast of Asia Minor managed to win a victory at the Arginus Islands. The Spartan navarch (fleet commander) Callicratidas 1 died in the battle. However, due to the increased wind and storm, it was not possible to either save those who were still on the water or pick up the bodies of the fallen. The first reaction in Athens upon receiving news of the victory was enthusiastic. But the joy soon began to be overshadowed by rumors that the dead were not buried. Theramenes, who was trierarch (commander of the trireme ship) in this battle, arriving in Athens, accused the strategists commanding the fleet of not taking timely measures to save the wounded and bury the dead. Six of the eight victorious strategists appeared at trial - the case of accusing them of a state crime (isangelia) was heard in the national assembly, and the Athenian demos, following the lead of unscrupulous demagogues, sentenced all the accused to death. Among those executed was Pericles the Younger, the son of Pericles and Aspasia.

The political and military consequences of the condemnation of the strategists for Athens were the most disastrous. The new strategists feared unpredictable fellow citizens more than the enemy: the Athenian fleet remained completely passive for about a year. But Lysander shows ebullient energy, de facto new commander of the Peloponnesian fleet. In 405 BC. e. The Athenian squadron heads to the Thracian coast. At Aegospotamus, the Spartans suddenly attack and destroy the helpless Athenian ships. Lysander began a raid along Athenian possessions: in all cities he established pro-Spartan oligarchic governments - decarches (committees of ten). In the fall of 405, Lysander with 150 ships appeared near Athens, and at the same time Spartan troops approached the city from both sides. At the beginning of winter, famine began in blockaded Athens. Theramenes was sent to the Spartan camp as a negotiator. The Peace of Theramens (spring 404 BC) was concluded on extremely difficult conditions for Athens: the demolition of the Long Walls and fortifications of Piraeus; release of all remaining ships except 12 (or 10, according to Diodorus); renunciation of all possessions other than one's own land; the return of exiles (i.e. opponents of democracy); joining the allies of the Spartans with recognition of their hegemony. Lysander enters Athens. The Spartans did not fail to celebrate the conclusion of peace with a performance in honor of the victors: The long walls were solemnly torn down to the sounds of aulos.

Under the conditions of peace, it was stated that Athens should establish a “state system of the fathers”, which in practice meant the abolition of the democratic system of government. A legislative commission was created to revise the constitution, which soon became the government of the Thirty Tyrants. It included members of the oligarchic heterias, a number of former exiles, for example, the sophist Critias. The latter became the de facto head of the Thirty. The rulers drew up a list of three thousand citizens allowed to participate in the administration of the policy, and passed a law that gave them the right to sentence to death any Athenian whose name was not included in the list. The repressions of the tyrants affected many Athenians - not only active supporters of the democratic system, but also ordinary people who fell victim to personal enmity or their wealth, which became the prey of informers and rulers of the city. According to Aristotle (Athenian Polity, 34, 3), during the repressions at least 1,500 people (5% of the population) were killed, several thousand fled. It is no wonder that the Tyrants soon aroused mutual hatred, and a civil war began in Attica. The exiles (supporters of democracy), led by Thrasybulus, occupied the fortress of Philou, where the dissatisfied flocked. Critias died in battle with the rebels, and the other Tyrants and their supporters fled to Eleusis. The war could have continued, but given the terrible losses that Attica had suffered during the Peloponnesian War and the reign of the Thirty, the Athenians had demonstrated the ability and desire to find a way to end the conflict. In 403 BC. e. was announced amnesty- renunciation of mutual hostility, revenge, return of property. Democracy was restored in Athens. The final reconciliation and reunification of Athens and Eleusis occurred in 401/400 BC. e., while both parties swore an oath that they would not remember past evil.

Workshop

Athenian democracy versus Spartan oligarchy: (debate)

In this seminar, students are encouraged to participate in debates. To conduct the debate, the group (about 20 people) is divided into three parts: a team of “supporters” (defenders) of Athenian democracy, a team of “supporters” (defenders) of the Spartan state (5-6 people each) and judges.

The task of the group: to argue in favor of Athenian democracy or Spartan oligarchy, to defend them from the attacks of opponents, to prove greater efficiency, viability, etc., to determine their contribution to Greek civilization. Teams prepare in advance, relying on sources, distribute the roles of speakers, come up with questions for the enemy, preparing for his possible arguments.

To prepare for the debate, you need to independently repeat or study stories on the topics: “Ancient Sparta and Attica in the Archaic Age”, “Athenian Democracy of the 5th century. BC e.", "Peloponnesian War". Please also take note of the themes and themes listed below.

I. The functioning and practice of Athenian democracy.

The main democratic institutions: the people's assembly, the council of 500, the helium (composition, organization of work, functions). Magistrates (docimasia, reporting). Citizen of a democratic state: rights and responsibilities. Isonomia and isegoria are the main democratic achievements in the Athenian polis. "Outsiders": women, metics and slaves.

Literature

• 1. Aristotle. Athenian watered. Ch. 42-59; 61; 63-69 (any edition).
• 2. Buzeskul, V.P. History of Athenian democracy / V. P. Buzeskul. - St. Petersburg, 2003. - P. 203-242.
• 3. Kudryavtseva, T. V. People's Court in Democratic Athens / T. V. Kudryavtseva. - St. Petersburg, 2008. - Ch. I-III.

I. Contemporaries about Athenian democracy and the Spartan system.

Opinions of historians: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon. Self-esteem of Athenian democracy in the “funeral speech” of Pericles. Philosophers and publicists of the late V-IV centuries. about democracy and oligarchy.

Sources and literature

• 1. Herodotus, III, 80-82; Thucydides, II, 35-47; Pseudo-Xenophon. Athenian polity; Xenophon. Lacedaemonian polity; Aristotle. Politics (especially book I, 6-9; book VI, 1, 2-10) (any edition).
• 2. Kudryavtseva, T. V. Thucydides on ancient democracy / T. V. Kudryavtseva // Herzen readings 2010. Current problems of social sciences: collection of scientific works. and educational method, works / resp. ed. V. V. Barabanov; comp. A. B. Nikolaev. Part I. - St. Petersburg, 2011. - pp. 154-158.

Useful quotes and selections from sources for preparation, see: Ancient democracy in the testimony of contemporaries.-M., 1996. - P. 156-165 (section “Main problems of democracy”); 171-188 (“Democratic State”); 190-194 (“Critique of Democracy”).

Order and regulations of debates

In the first speech (7 minutes), the teams present the main arguments in defense of their position. After the speeches, each team responds to the enemy, identifying weak points in his argumentation and defending his position (5 minutes each). Then the teams exchange 2-3 questions (3 minutes each for a meeting to develop an answer). Teams get 5 minutes for the final word. The judges give scores in two tables given to them (see below), according to which the winner is determined, express an opinion on the work of the teams, and justify their decision. The teacher gives a final comment.

Winner:

The amnesty did not apply to members of the College of Thirty and Eleven (who supervised prisons and carried out death sentences).

Athens and Sparta were the two centers around which the two largest political associations of Greece were formed - the Athenian Empire and the Peloponnesian Union. The rivalry between them increased every day and, finally, in the second half of the 5th century. resulted in a Panhellenic internecine war, known in history as Peloponnesian War (431-404).

According to Thucydides, our main source in all matters related to the Peloponnesian War, the true reason for the war was that the Athenians, with their own efforts, began to instill fear in the Spartans and thereby forced them to start a war. The explanation of the Greek historian is thoughtful, but very laconic and, as a result, requires some additions. The war* between Athens and the Peloponnesian League had been prepared for a long time and was the result of a number of reasons, both economic and political. In economics, the central issue since the Persian Wars has been that of the Western market. Its essence was as follows. Before the Persian Wars, the East served as the main market for raw materials and products of Greek crafts. The strength of the cities of Asia Minor was mainly based on intermediary trade with the East.

Since the defeat of the Persians, the eastern market became detached from Greece and the Greeks had to look for new markets. In addition to the eastern markets, the Greeks had markets in the north - in Macedonia and Thrace - and then in the west - in Sicily and Italy. In the 5th century the western market was the most important market in the Mediterranean. All the attention of not only Athens, but also Corinth, Megara and other trade and craft policies of Greece was directed to him.

The interests of Athens clashed especially sharply with the interests of Corinth and Megara on the Isthmus of Corinth. The trade successes of Athens towards the West increasingly expanded and deepened, threatening their trade and craft competitors. Everything indicated that in the near future, Italo-Sicilian exports (grain, livestock, metal) would go exclusively through Piraeus, and this threatened direct competitors of Athens-Corinth and Megara. Of primary importance for both sides was the possession of the harbors of the island of Corfu, located on the route between Greece and Italy. In the north, the interests of these powers collided in Thrace and Macedonia, which at that time were already beginning to play a major role in the Greek economy.

Economic reasons were also added political reasons-hostile relations between Sparta and Athens on the basis of pan-Greek (international) politics. While Athens supported democratic elements in all Hellenic communities, Sparta supported aristocrats and oligarchs. The Spartans willingly supported aristocratic and oligarchic groups in the Greek communities allied with Athens. The Spartans insisted on self-determination for the Greek communities, which in the political parlance of the time meant the end of Athenian hegemony and the undermining of the democratic system of Athens.

Emigrants also played a major role in the aggravation of relations. Athens served as the seat of all elements hostile to Sparta, and Athenian emigrants who agitated against the Athenian constitution and its leaders lived in Sparta.

These main reasons were supplemented by a number of other, additional motives. First of all, the position of the moderate-democratic group of Pericles and Pericles himself was shaken. The number of slaves and declassed elements created by competition grew all the time. The Ecclesia became more nervous and demanding, the village suffered from the influx of cheap imported grain. Opposition arose from all sides, trials and persecution of Pericles' friends (Phidias, Anaxagoras and Pericles's second wife Aspasia) began, and the “first citizen” himself was undermined. Things got to the point that the popular writer Kratin openly in one of his comedies called Pericles “the greatest tyrant,” “the son of the revolution.”

The only way out of the critical situation was war. The democracy of Athens believed in its strength and was convinced of its victory, which is especially clearly seen from the speech of Pericles, transmitted by Thucydides, delivered on the eve of the Peloponnesian War. Pericles said that the Athenians were in all respects stronger and richer than the Peloponnesians. The latter, first of all, have no money, neither from the state nor from private individuals. As a result, they are able to wage only short-term small wars, but they cannot withstand a long war or blockade. In contrast to the Spartans, the Athenians are strong in their treasury and fleet. The Spartans cannot risk attacking the Athenian squadron, for they have absolutely no experience in maritime affairs, and learning maritime affairs is much more difficult than landcraft. The most dangerous thing is if the Peloponnesians, having captured the treasure of the Delphic and Olympian temples, lure foreign sailors from the Athenians, but even then Athens will not will die because they have a sufficient reserve of their own citizens

The weak point of Athens was the village, but the “Olympian”, in the name of the interests of the entire sovereign polis, was ready to sacrifice the interests of the village, which was not inclined to war with the Spartans, just to see the war to a victorious end, that is, to the defeat of the Peloponnesian Union. If, he argued, the Peloponnesians penetrated Attica by land, then the Athenians would go to their land by sea. The devastation of even one part of the Peloponnese will be more significant than the devastation of the whole of Attica, because in return for this region they will not be able to get any other. The Athenians have a lot of land both on the islands and on the mainland. The most dangerous thing in the current international situation is delay, which may be followed by defeat, and in the worst case, the withdrawal of the allies, i.e., the collapse of the entire Athenian state.

The reason for the war was the case of an important seaside town Epidamnus in the Ionian Sea. On Epidamnus. claimed by the Corcyraeans, inhabitants of the island of Corfu, and the Corinthians, who were most closely interested in Western trade. In 435, war broke out between Kerkyra and Corinth, and since the Kerkyra people did not rely on their own strength, they soon joined the Athenian League and concluded a defensive alliance with the Athenians. In the battle that followed, the Corcyraeans defeated the Corinthians at sea and captured Epidamnus, while the Athenians helped the Corcyraeans with a small fleet.

The Epidamnian conflict was joined by a second conflict between the Athenians and Corinthians over the Corinthian colony Lotidei in Chalkidiki, also a very important point in trade between Corinth and Macedonia. After the battle that took place near Potidea, the latter was besieged by the Athenians. Then the Corinthians with great persistence began to encourage Sparta to enter into war with Athens. The Corinthians were supported in their claims against the Athenians by the Megarians, old enemies of Athens. Under the pretext that the Megarians had plowed up the sacred land and accepted the fugitive Athenian slaves, the Athenians closed the Athenian harbors and the harbors of cities allied with Athens to their merchant fleet (Megarian psephism of 432). Among the Peloponnesians, the war did not initially find much sympathy. The fear of the military power of Athens was too great and the internal contradictions in the states of the Peloponnesian League itself were great.

In the autumn of 432 it opened in Sparta meeting of delegates from the states that were part of the Peloponnesian League. The Corinthians at this congress made harsh accusations against the Athenians. However, despite all the fervor of the Corinthians, the majority of the allies did not want to go to war over the interests of Corinth, believing that the real conflict concerned only the coastal cities. In response to this, Corinth pointed out that the defeat of the coastal cities would have a devastating effect on the continental policies, depriving them of their most important sales markets and the grain market. At the same time, the Corinthians pointed out the danger of the growth of the Athenian arche, which threatened to absorb all other policies, including Sparta, reducing them to the position of its subjects.

Understand, allies, - this was approximately the meaning of the speeches of the Corinthian ambassadors, - that an extreme need has come, that we give the best advice: decide for the warrior, without fearing the dangers of the present moment, in the interests of a longer peace that will follow the war. War makes peace more durable, and, moreover, it is not safe to abstain from war for the sake of a moment's peace. Rest assured that the tyrannical state that has formed in Hellas threatens us all equally. It already rules over some, and plans to rule over others. Therefore, it is fair to tame him. After the defeat of the predator, we ourselves will live without danger, and we will grant freedom to the now enslaved Hellenes.

Delegates from Athens who happened to be in Sparta tried to refute the accusations leveled against them, but were unsuccessful. Influential ephors took the side of the Corinthians, and under their influence the appella loudly spoke out against Athens.

This resolution was also joined by another congress of Lacedaemonian allies, gathered on the Isthmus of Corinth in connection with Corinth’s agitation for war with Athens.

Following this, an embassy was sent from Sparta to Athens, presenting ultimatum demands to Athens. Only with their unconditional implementation was it possible to maintain peace and good neighborly relations between the Hellenic cities. The Spartans, relying on the sympathy of their supporters (oligarchs) in Athens, demanded the immediate expulsion of the Alcmeonids from Attica, including, therefore, Pericles, since his mother came from this family. The Alcmaeonids were blamed for the fact that they had not yet washed away the curse of the “kilonov murder” that weighed on them. At the same time, the Spartan delegates demanded autonomy for all members of the Athenian arche, which would practically mean the dissolution of the maritime union.

The Athenian ecclesia, under the influence of Pericles, categorically rejected the ultimatum demands of Sparta. Then the principled and personal enemies of Pericles, dissatisfied with this decision, launched an open slanderous campaign against him and his friends. The mood of Athenian society became increasingly tense and anxious. Such was the state of Athens on the eve of the opening of hostilities.

After Pericles refused to accept the Spartan terms, both sides began to prepare for war. The enemy forces were approximately equal in size. Athens had the advantage in its navy and finances, while Sparta had the advantage in infantry. The main allies of the Spartans, the Thebans, opened hostilities with a night raid on the Boeotian city allied with Athens. Plataea(431). The attack failed. The Thebans were partly killed, partly captured and then executed. The Athenians sent a garrison to protect Plataea from another similar attack in the future.

Archives II. Marble. Around 400 BC uh Naples. National Museum.

Two months later the Spartan king Lrhidam with a detachment of hoplites, he invaded Attica and devastated the plain adjacent to Athens, cutting down and trampling gardening and fruit plantings. The rural population gathered in Athens, located in temples, squares and streets. Meanwhile, the Athenian fleet headed towards the Peloponnese and, devastating the shores, circled the entire peninsula, reaching the western regions of Elis and Acarnania. In the fall, Archidamus cleared Attica and returned to Sparta.

The Athenians took advantage of this and carried out brutal reprisals against Aegina and Megaramp, Spartan allies and trade competitors of Athens. This is how the first year of the war passed.

The following year, 430, the Peloponnesians again invaded Attica.

This time they caused much greater devastation than in the first year of the war. Fleeing from the enemy, the mass of the village population poured into the city, huddling in a small space completely unsuitable for so many people. People lived in the most terrible conditions, sleeping on the streets and in bathhouses, lying on the steps of temples and porticos, settling on the roofs of houses, etc. Due to the lack of food, a terrible famine began, and with it a plague epidemic spread, claiming a lot of human lives.

A classic description of the plague in its truthfulness, depth and artistic skill is given in the second book of Thucydides' History. According to Thucydides, such a fierce plague and such a high mortality rate have never happened anywhere in people’s memory. The doctors were completely powerless. The first war they treated and... not knowing the nature of the disease, they died themselves. Later, as we had more contact with the sick, we became convinced that all human art was completely powerless against this disease.

No matter how much people prayed in temples, no matter how much they turned to oracles and similar means, everything was useless. Finally, overcome by disasters, people abandoned this too. It was believed that the disease was brought from Egypt, where it entered from Ethiopia. The epidemic primarily struck the inhabitants of Piraeus, which is why the Athenians claimed that the Peloponnesians poisoned the water tanks there.

The spread of the infection was most facilitated by the terrible crowding of people who poured into Athens from the villages. Due to the lack of houses, people, especially newcomers, lived in stuffy huts and many died. The dying lay one on top of the other like corpses, or crawled half-dead through the streets, near all the springs, tormented by thirst. The temples and altars where the aliens camped were full of corpses. “Due to the fact that the disease was too rampant, people, not knowing what would happen to them, ceased to respect divine and human institutions. All the rituals that were previously observed during burial were trampled upon, and everyone performed the funeral as best he could.”

The epidemic completely unsettled the Athenians and shook the foundations of statehood and order.

“Now,” Thucydides ends his sad chronicle, “everyone more easily dared to do things that were previously hidden in order to avoid criticism of unbridledness. People saw how quickly fate changed, how suddenly the rich died and how people who had nothing before immediately took possession of the property of the dead.

Now people were not at all restrained by either fear of the gods or human laws, for they saw that everyone was dying equally and therefore considered it indifferent whether they would honor the gods or not. On the other hand, no one hoped to live to see the time when they would be punished in court for their crimes. The horror of the present was overshadowed by the fear of the future. And therefore everyone tried to use the moment, to take at least something from life before death befalls” 1.

For 300 years, the mere sight of scarlet cloaks and bronze shields sent Sparta's enemies fleeing or forcing them to capitulate. What exactly was it in the heart of this great society that allowed it to triumph even in the most unfavorable conditions?

Trying to look into the soul of a Spartan warrior, you can turn to what little remains of Spartan society - its poetry.

Cimon respected the Spartans, admired their sense of discipline and ability to obey. But the Athenian aristocrats who ruled the city did not believe that in the event of a new Persian attack they could count on Sparta.

There was a feeling that Sparta could become dangerous, and the Spartans had also long felt threatened in Athens– their independence and their allies. Therefore, Athens set about creating its own powerful association, named after the sacred city where the treasures of the union were kept.

The union included city-states in the north - mostly on the Aegean islands and policies on the west coast, formerly subject to Persia.

The Athenians demanded loyalty from their allies and forced pay a large tribute for the maintenance of the fleet. Some states had to be annexed by force. They were made to understand: we freed you from Persia, we maintain freedom of the seas, which allows you to get rich, so we expect help from you.

Tight Athenian patrols of Greek waters eliminated the Persian threat.

But several members of the Delian League wanted to leave it. The Athenians and their allies did the same as the North did with the South, saying: no, it won’t work. They resorted to force to suppress the rebellion.

Gradually, the Athenian fleet became stronger and its allies weaker. And it all turned into Athenian Empire. By 465 BC. Athens equaled Sparta in power and influence. Athens ruled by sea, while the famous army of Sparta was considered invincible on land.

There were two powerful blocks with completely different ideologies. Sparta demanded that the city-states of the Peloponnesian League be led by a select few. The Delian League was a supporter of democratic relations. Two Greek giants clearly headed for war. When the unexpected happened...

On Spartan territory occurs earthquake, a large number of people die. The helots of Messenia, deciding to take advantage of this natural disaster,...

As a result of the earthquake more than a thousand Spartans died. To suppress the uprising, Sparta had only 9 thousand at its disposal. Once in desperate situation, they turned to their friend Kimon for help. He managed to convince the Athenian assembly send troops to Sparta.

The Athenians send a large army to help the Spartans cope. The Athenians arrive and the Spartans say: we have changed our minds. The Spartans react in an absolutely amazing way, causing terrible insult, sending the Athenian army back home.

They did this because they were outraged and scared by what they saw. The Athenians appeared before them in all their democratic freedom. And the Athenians asked: how did it happen that you enslaved the helots? Don't you know that they are just as Greek? At this moment it finally becomes clear: they can't be friends.

The insulting refusal of the Spartans to help infuriated the Athenian assembly, almost nullifying the influence of the old-school aristocrats. Kimon was made a scapegoat and as punishment expelled from Athens for 10 years.

And in Sparta, the Messenian revolt continued for another 2 years. Finally, in 462 the helots were pacified.

But the North became an even greater source of anxiety. There, Athens rapidly expanded the alliance, concluding agreements with and. This greatly worried the Spartans: their old rival Argos was now democratic. A democracy worries the Spartans for two reasons: firstly, it is unknown what these ideas can do to their society if they penetrate it, and secondly, their foreign policy may suffer, because Democrats cling to Democrats.

In 459 BC. Athens and Sparta, finally met with a fight. However, the so-called quickly turned into periodic attacks from both sides. Sometimes it is a “hot” war, and indeed one battle follows another. Sometimes it's a cold war and it all boils down to simple skirmishes. Those. there was never a real war.

The rise of Greek culture

Meanwhile, Cimon was replaced by a rich Athenian named Pericles. He was a born politician and became the dominant force in Athens for the next 30 years.

Pericles really wanted to get his hands on Treasures of the Delian League, which from the very beginning were under the control of its members.

In the mid-5th century, the Athenians transported these treasures from Delos to Athens. This was the most important moment when we see the undeniable power of Athens.

The wealth in his hands allowed Pericles to begin a building program unprecedented in scale, cost and magnificence. Begins heyday of Athenian culture, known as the golden age.

The first stage of an extensive construction program was the construction of walls from Athens to the port in case of a possible future blockade. Soon Athens was already surrounded by invulnerable fortifications. Food and various goods came from here and there. The powerful Athenian fleet was ready to repel Sparta at any moment.

Pericles also ordered the beginning of construction, destroyed 30 years earlier Persians.

The optimism of 5th century Athenian culture was largely due to the victory over the Persians. This is the classical period of Greek culture, the period of heroic sculpture, tragedies, comedies, historical works, etc. This time gave birth to great philosophers - and.

But perhaps the most impressive creation was the temple of the virgin goddess. The interior of this magnificent marble structure was made of ivory and gold. She was considered divine assistance of Athenian military power. If the Parthenon were built today, this masterpiece of Greek architecture would cost half a billion dollars.

Under Pericles, Athens became center of intellectual and cultural life Aegean This shining city of 60 thousand inhabitants was strikingly different from the gloomy Sparta. There, the growing influence of its neighbor to the northeast was causing serious concern.

The Spartans have always been very arrogant. It was very important for them, beating themselves in the chest, to repeat: I am number one, I am the leader in the pack, there cannot be other leaders.

Beginning of the Peloponnesian War

By the middle of the 5th century BC. Athens and Sparta, two of the most powerful Greek city-states, were on the brink full scale war.

To establish yourself as a leader, Sparta in 446 BC invaded Attica, and very soon the Athenians started talking about a truce. The following year, both sides concluded a 30-year peace, and this The First Peloponnesian War ended.

Sparta was satisfied with a return to internal concerns, just as after. However, in the next 10 years the Athenians continued to haunt the members Peloponnesian League, essentially pulling Sparta out of it.

Athens expanded its influence to Aegean Islands. They crushed small cities and settlements friendly to Sparta.

The Spartans are very puzzled, they don’t know what to do, they only know this system: we invade your territory, you come out to meet us, we destroy you.

The discouraged Spartans continued to dominate the fields of Attica. But Sparta was unable to supply such a large army. Waiting for the Athenians to come out and start fighting was simply impossible. A month after arrival, depressed by failure, the Spartans went home.

The first year Pericles seems like a genius. But he did not take into account that the city, designed for 75-125 thousand inhabitants, would turn out to be an unsuitable home for 250-300 thousand people in the summer months. The city does not have the necessary sewage system, there is no water supply, and there is not enough housing.

However, Pericles' main mistake had nothing to do with sanitation or overpopulation. He made a mistake in that he did not take into account how much it would affect the state of mind of people inactivity with a hint of cowardice. Staying behind the walls, watching the Spartans, doing nothing is went against the Greek hoplite code.

When next summer The Spartans re-entered Attica, Pericles’ strategy no longer suited anyone. Nobody knew what would happen next.

The following year 427 BC. Athenian strategist led the Athenians to victory at Minoe. Sparta responded to this with a victory at. And so the Peloponnesian War went on: from city to port, to island throughout the Aegeans, strike, counterstrike, rebellion, suppression. Both Athens and the first few years of the war are in the unenviable position of neither being able to gain the upper hand.

Despite their determination, the Athenians could not help but feel the hardships of the war: the population was devastated, the lands were devastated, the treasury was almost exhausted. And yet as we approach campaigns of 425 Athens energetically prepared for the battle.

Nikiev world

Return of Alcibiades to Athens

Alcibiades is extremely talented. This is a man who received an excellent education, he is fabulously rich. Everything he touches turns to gold, at least temporarily.

Alcibiades reappears in Athens- in the very state from which he had been expelled four years earlier. In 411 BC. Several of his still loyal supporters re-appoint him commander-in-chief of Athens. U Aristophanes There is a line that directly correlates with Alcibiades: “They adore him, they hate him, they cannot live without him.”

At the beginning of his second tenure in power, Alcibiades seemed led Athens to victory. Although Sparta now had a powerful navy, Athens stubbornly refused to give up its imperial position. He defeat Sparta time after time.

Only in 407 BC. Sparta, under the leadership of a commander, won the battle, destroying a huge number of Athenian ships. But the real significance of this battle is that it was something more valuable was destroyed: Alcibiades' alliance with Athens.

IN Battle of Notia Alcibiades is in command of the fleet, and for reasons we simply don't know, he leaves the fleet. Leaves it not to some other commander, but to the navigator of his personal vessel. This navigator engages Lysander in battle contrary to Alcibiades' orders.

The Athenians tolerate crushing defeat. After this Alcibiades already can never return to Athens.

In 405 BC. Sparta decided to destroy what was left of the once great Athenian fleet. Lysander intended to give a final stand to the Athenian troops.

Alcibiades, who was in exile, having learned about Lysander’s plan, went to his former Athenian friends to warn them. The Athenians were literally on their last legs. He returned to them with advice that could have saved them, but they did not heed him: they refused to listen to him. The Athenians lost.

Luck finally left. After the defeat of Athens he had to hide. At the same time, most of his money was stolen from him. A shameful death awaits him, apparently as a result of another love scam: he was killed by the girl's angry relatives.

He was extremely fond of leaving people "out of their depth" and in the end he outwitted himself. But the path he took was truly fantastic. There is no more striking and interesting figure in Greek history, which probably turned out to be fatal for him.

Pyrrhic victory in the Peloponnesian War

After the defeat at Aegospotami, the Athenians took refuge behind the city walls. Piraeus. Lysander blocked the entrance to the city's port. The Athenians lost the remnants of their fleet, they stopped receiving supplies, we are only talking about how many months they can survive without food.

Athens fell in March 404 BC. Lysander entered the city and became its sovereign ruler. The 27-year Peloponnesian War ended.

The Athenians were afraid that the same thing that they did to other cities during the war - they killed all the men, turned women and children into slaves - would now be done to them. and - the most powerful allies of Sparta, demanded to raze Athens to the ground and make slaves of the population.

But Sparta chose a different fate for Athens. The most significant outcome of the Peloponnesian War it was not that the Spartans defeated the Athenians, but that the Spartans decided not to destroy the Athenians. In Sparta, of course, there were people who wanted to destroy Athens, and there were many Athenians who believed that this would happen.

However, Sparta spared Athens not for the sake of mercy, but out of political necessity. Sparta's allies wanted Athens gone, but Lysander and Sparta understood that by destroying Athens, they will create a power vacuum, which will fill Thebes, in which Sparta already had friction.

For Sparta, the question was: if we do not destroy Athens, what will we do with it? The beginning of a new era in foreign policy will be the beginning of the end for Sparta.

404 BC The 27-year Peloponnesian War ended, and with it The golden age of Athens ended. The result of the Peloponnesian War was that a whole generation knew nothing but war. This generation was not able to use their creative abilities in architecture, literature, and urban planning. Therefore, we see a huge unfinished structure, we see the end of a great tragedy, and soon there will be no great historians.

And the Athenians saw that their once great empire ruled by Sparta. They have taken away the fleet, they are ordering breaches to be made in the walls so that they will no longer be invulnerable. No empire, no money, no fleet - the Athenians must become members of the Spartan alliance. They must have the same friends and enemies as the Spartans, and they must be submissive.

A new government was operating in Athens, which was supposed to turn the democratic polis into a mini-Sparta. Sparta took up the fact that everywhere replaced democracy with oligarchy.

The Spartans believed that the democratic regime is too explosive, liberates people too much, introduces chaos and provokes the introduction of foreign ideas.

Under the terms of the peace imposed by Sparta on Athens, it was necessary to create an oligarchic government of 30 pro-Spartan Athenians. It became known as .

The enslavement of Athens was Sparta's first attempt at nation building, and it turned out to be extremely unsuccessful. Under the leadership of , who as a diplomat was significantly inferior to a warrior, the so-called Thirty Tyrants began company of terror against anti-Spartan forces in Athens. They are doing terrible things, this is the worst civil war Athens has ever seen: they kill about 1500 Athenians. This is a monstrous figure, considering that at that time the adult male population of Athens was approximately 20-25 thousand people.

As a result, when the exiled Athenian democrats returned to Athens to retake the city, they received support from the king of Sparta.

Tsar Pausanias, one of the kings of Sparta, traditionalist, opposed to Lysander, against everything that happens in . It will not be an exaggeration to say that conflict is brewing between the kings.

The victory over Athens a few months ago divided Sparta, leading to mass murder those Greeks who never joined either side. The Peloponnesian War taught people: be either with the oligarchs or with the democrats, because people of moderate views who try to smooth out political and economic differences are doomed to death.

It was in the full sense of the word: in this war no one won. Athens lost the war and lost the empire, they would never be as powerful as they were before the Peloponnesian War. But oddly enough, Sparta, which won the war, was also exhausted. Ironically, having won the victory, the Spartans simultaneously began lay the foundation for your own collapse.

After establishing an oligarchy in Athens, Lysander decided to take control of as many city-states of the former Athenian Empire as possible. In each of the allied Athenian states, Sparta quickly put 10 oligarchs in power. Instead of the promised freedom, a rigid system was imposed on the people, which made them wonder: were they too hasty in rejecting the Athenian order?

Do you want to exchange the Acropolis and Athenian democracy for Spartan barley bread and ? Nobody wants this. Do you want to exchange the Athenian for a piece of Spartan lead? Nobody wants this.

And unlike the Athenians, they weren't good speakers, they did not know how to express their ideals in such a way that other Greeks would listen to them. Spartan leaders, in order to be able to persuade, needed charisma, and this quality was lacking in Spartan culture.

The main weakness of Spartan culture was lack of imagination. It was not valued in. They lack sass and they lack charm. They treat other people like dogs and they do it because consider themselves a special race, something higher than others.

Many Spartan commanders and leaders, going to conquer other territories, behave extremely cruelly. The Greek world received, in return for enlightened imperial rulers, a ruthless pack of Spartan commanders.

The discipline that they introduced in their troops was, as it were, understandable. But when they began to impose it on other people, say, forcing sailors to stand all day with an iron anchor on their shoulders, it could not lead to anything good. It is not surprising that very quickly their allies turned into their enemies.

The Allies fought for 27 years Peloponnesian War not so that the rude and cruel Sparta would now rule over the Greek world.

Sparta is determined to become the next great imperial power. Her allies are shocked. They assumed that Sparta would become a liberator and create new Aegean, free from the imperial oppression of Athens. The Spartans reason differently: they simply see this as an opportunity to get what they need.