Queen of Tauride Chersonis - this is how Catherine II began to be called after Crimea became part of Russia. Subsequently, the state emblem of the Russian Empire also underwent changes. All these innovations had a deep symbolic meaning

Coat of arms of the Tauride province, approved in 1856 by Emperor Alexander II. Provided by M. Zolotarev

The title of the monarch and the state emblem were among the most important symbols of Russian state power. Ivan III was the first to be titled “sovereign [that is, sovereign] of all Rus'.” Territorial names also appeared in his title, denoting those lands that came under the rule of the Grand Duke. Subsequently, the title grew and became more complex. This, of course, was facilitated by the expansion of the borders of the Russian state: the annexation of new territories was accompanied by the inclusion of their names in the royal and later imperial title. Also, under Ivan III, the first emblematic images that had the character of state symbols appeared on the seals of the Grand Duke.

The state emblem also became more complex and modified over time. And these changes occurred in accordance with the title changes. True, heraldry was lagging behind the title, but nevertheless, every new significant element of the royal title, including the names of territories, was reflected in the state emblem. The history of the title and coat of arms shows that they developed as clear and well-thought-out symbolic systems. And naturally, the annexation of Crimea to Russia under Catherine II could not help but be reflected in the imperial title, and subsequently in the state emblem.

NEW EMPRESS TITLE

By the manifesto of Catherine II of April 8 (old style), 1783, “the Crimean peninsula, Taman island and the entire Kuban side” were accepted under the Russian state, and on December 28 of the same year the Russian-Turkish act “On peace, trade and borders of both states,” according to which the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize this annexation.

The port city of Odessa in the first half of the 19th century. Provided by M. Zolotarev

From this moment on, Catherine the Great could rightfully reflect the new expansion of her power both in the imperial title and in Russian heraldry. A month later, on February 2, 1784, a new form of the full title of the empress was established, to which the words “Queen of Tauride Chersonis” were added. On the same day, by a personal decree given to the Senate, the Tauride region was established on the newly annexed lands.

Crimea - as a former part of the Byzantine Empire - with its designation in the imperial title marked the symbolic presence of Byzantium itself in it

If we pay attention to the dates when these important documents were adopted, we will see their deep symbolic meaning. April 8 in 1783 was the day before Palm Sunday - the celebration of the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem (Easter that year fell on April 16). And the day before Palm Sunday is Lazarus Saturday, the day when one of the Savior’s miracles is remembered - the resurrection of the righteous Lazarus. This evangelical resurrection was correlated with another resurrection, as it were, the resurrection of Taurida, an ancient Orthodox land liberated from alien Muslim rule.

It is well known that the annexation of Novorossiya and Crimea was understood by Catherine II not as the seizure of some new, foreign territories, the expansion of Russia into lands that never belonged to her, but as the natural return of territories that were originally Greek, Orthodox, that is, her own. On these lands, it was as if historical continuity from Byzantium was being restored, to which both Muscovite Rus' and the Russian Empire were considered the heir. After all, the southern coast of Crimea was once a Byzantine, and before that, an ancient Roman possession.

The admission of Crimea to Russia was an important step towards further advancement to the south, to Constantinople, with the goal of liberating the Byzantine heritage from Muslim stratification and ultimately reviving the Byzantine Empire within the framework of the so-called “Greek Project”. This revival of Byzantium was one of the most vivid ideological and political dreams of Catherine, who even named her second grandson, born in 1779, Constantine in memory of Emperor Constantine the Great. It was Konstantin Pavlovich who, according to the empress, was supposed to become the future emperor of Constantinople, the revived Second Rome.

GREEK TOPONYMY

The fact that the annexation of Crimea was a kind of its return, the revival of the interrupted Byzantine-Greek tradition, was reflected in the new system of Crimean geographical names. Some of them date back to the times of Ancient Greece, when the Crimean coast was dotted with numerous Greek colonies, which together with other overseas settlements made up “Great Greece”. The other part was formed anew, but according to the Greek model. So Crimea itself began to be called Tavria (Tavrida), and the new region was called not Crimean, but Tauride.

On the left is the Coat of Arms of the Tauride Region (1784): a double-headed eagle, in the shield on the chest of which there is a golden eight-pointed cross. In the center is the Tauride coat of arms in the Great State Emblems of the Russian Empire of the second half of the 19th century: the shield was decorated with the Monomakh cap. On the right is the Coat of Arms of the Tauride Province (1856): a black eagle (an image with open, but lowered, rather than raised, wings), crowned with two golden three-pronged crowns, without regalia in its claws. Provided by M. Zolotarev

The cities of Novorossia and Crimea, founded in a new place, and sometimes near old Tatar villages, received names dating back to ancient Greek times, like Kherson and Odessa, or new ones, but in the Greek way - Sevastopol, Simferopol. Catherine revived the ancient principle of names with the formant -pol, just as it is present in the name “Constantinople”.

Surprisingly, this seemingly artificial tradition briefly took root in Russian toponymy and even went beyond the borders of Novorossiya and Crimea, surviving until the time of Alexander I, the symbolic successor of the works of the great empress. And some Greek names were revived when cities with a long history, such as Feodosia, which became Kafa in the Middle Ages, returned their historical names. In fairness, it must be said that for some time - during the reign of Paul I - some of the Greek names of Catherine were abolished, then Sevastopol was briefly called Akhtiar, and Feodosia - again Kafa.

Be that as it may, the empress’s desire to emphasize the revival, resurrection of the Greek-Byzantine Orthodox tradition in the Crimean lands and their liberation from Tatar power could not be better correlated with the gospel resurrection, the resurrection of the righteous Lazarus, the day of whose memory Catherine’s manifesto is dated.

FOURTH KINGDOM

The date February 2 – the day of the Presentation of our Lord Jesus Christ – was no less significant. The Meeting of the Lord symbolizes the meeting of the Old and New Testaments - the embodiment of the Savior's aspirations and hope for the atonement of sins. This is the meeting of Christ, the coming of the Savior, which in the context of Catherine’s policy was perceived as the coming, or rather, the return of Christianity to the lands of Crimea, the inclusion of these territories again in the Christian, Orthodox ecumene, subject to the Orthodox empress.

The form in which Crimea found its embodiment in the imperial title is also extremely symbolic - the Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis.

Prior to this, from the end of the 16th century, the title of Russian sovereigns included the names of only three territorial objects that had the status of kingdoms. These are the kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, which were annexed to Russia back in the 16th century. These kingdoms themselves were former Horde khanates, and their nickname kingdoms goes back to the Russian tradition of naming the Horde khan tsar. The presence in the title of the definitions “Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Siberia” in itself increased the status of the Russian kingdom, which was thus designated not only as the owner of its former “overlords” (more precisely, “fragments” of this overlord), but also as a kind of kingdom of kingdoms - a state of a higher rank, equal in status to the empire. Crimea also received the status of a kingdom in the royal title, but this status turned out to be ambiguous.

Portrait of Emperor Paul I (fragment). Hood. V.L. Borovikovsky. 1796. Courtesy of M. Zolotarev

Firstly, calling Crimea a kingdom fit into the old scheme of naming the Tatar khanates kingdoms. And this corresponded to the real state of affairs, since before the adoption of Crimea by the Russian Empire, the Crimean Khanate was located on the peninsula, which considered itself the heir of the Golden Horde.

Secondly, Crimea received the highest possible status among the titular ranks - the status of a kingdom (as opposed, for example, to the status of a grand duchy) - and took a place in the first row of such titular names next to the kingdoms of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia. Thus, Catherine emphasized the special importance that she attached to the annexation of Crimea and its position within the Russian Empire. This annexation, in fact, turned out to be as significant as the inclusion of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates into Russia - in other words, one of the most important in Russian history.

And finally, thirdly, and this is probably the most important thing, the status of the kingdom referred to the Byzantine heritage. In Rus', not only the Horde khans, but primarily the Byzantine emperors were called tsars, and the very appearance of royal status among Russian sovereigns was also perceived as the embodiment of continuity from Byzantium. Consequently, the understanding of the titular designation “Kingdom” underwent significant changes under Catherine: now it was not so much correlated with the former Horde khanates, but rather served as a reflection of Orthodox, Byzantine, imperial continuity. Crimea - as a former part of the Byzantine Empire - with its designation in the imperial title marked the symbolic presence of Byzantium itself in it.

FROM CHERSONISOS TO CHERSONISOS

The second part of the title – “Chersonis Tauride” – is equally indicative. Catherine did not call the newly acquired state Crimea, the Crimean Kingdom. She designated it using the name Chersonesus, which belonged to the ancient and medieval center of the ancient Greek and Byzantine possessions in Crimea.

It was Chersonesus that was the administrative center of the Byzantine territories on the Crimean Peninsula: in the 9th century it received the status of a theme (military administrative region) of the Byzantine Empire. “The Kingdom of Tauric Chersonis,” thus, again meant a claim to Byzantium, embodied in one of its parts. The very form of “Chersonis” reflected the modern Greek pronunciation of Catherine’s time. In the ancient Greek period, this name sounded like “Chersonesos” (translated from Greek “peninsula”), but later as a result of a linguistic phenomenon called itacism (when the Greek letter “eta” began to be pronounced not as “e”, but as “i” ), acquired the sound “Chersonis” already in the early medieval period.

Portrait of Catherine II as a legislator in the temple of the goddess of justice (fragment). Hood. D.G. Levitsky. Early 1780s. Provided by M. Zolotarev

This form was established in the imperial title, which referred primarily not to ancient history, but to Catherine’s contemporary state of affairs, and correlated with the current political tasks of the “Greek Project”. Accordingly, the very form of the Crimean title of empress was not only a fixation of the revival of the Byzantine heritage that had already occurred, but also contained a program for the future.

The new title “Queen of Tauride Chersonis” occupied a special place on a series of silver coins minted in 1787 in connection with Catherine’s trip to Crimea. On their obverse, the Crimean title was a circular legend framed by the empress's monogram. These coins received the name “Tauride” in numismatics. It is important to emphasize that the minting of the coin in this case was also symbolic in nature, since it was carried out at the Tauride Mint in Feodosia and recorded the entry of Taurida into the empire.

JOURNEY TO COMMON SOURCES

The journey itself, which became a grandiose ceremonial performance, was carried out by Catherine like monarchs traveling around new possessions and thereby consolidating their power over them. It is well known that her companion was Joseph II of Habsburg, who is often perceived as exclusively the Austrian emperor. But in fact, Joseph II was not an ordinary European sovereign, but the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, that is, the main ruler of Europe in terms of status. The Holy Roman Emperors were considered the successors of the emperors of Ancient Rome. “Roman Caesar” - that’s what they were called in Rus'. The Russian Empire, through Byzantium, also went back to the ancient Roman Empire. For the Russian queen, it was fundamentally important to achieve legitimation of the annexation of Crimea in the eyes of the European world - for this purpose Joseph II was invited on the trip.

The annexation of Crimea, according to Catherine, was the return of Russia to its ancient beginnings, the rediscovery of the path along which both statehood and the Orthodox faith moved to Rus'

Since Crimea, according to the official ideology of Catherine, was perceived as a revived part of Greece, and Greece itself was under the rule of the Turkish Sultan, this liberated part of it was part of the common European cradle - that same Ancient Greece, to which the cultural tradition of the Ancient One ultimately went back Rome. The second half of the 18th century was a time of revival of enormous interest in ancient cultural heritage. Therefore, Catherine took Emperor Joseph to their common origins - the origins of European civilization and statehood (only the Holy Roman Empire - through the Western Roman Empire, and the Russian Empire - through Byzantium). And of course, the very fact of the revival of this cradle could not leave Joseph II indifferent.

COAT OF ARMS OF TAURIDE REGION

But in addition to the verbal annexation of Crimea to Russia, it also received an emblematic embodiment.

On March 8, 1784, Catherine II approved the Senate report "On the coat of arms of the Tauride Region": “In a golden field there is a two-headed eagle, in the chest of it in a blue field there is a golden eight-pointed cross, meaning that baptism took place in all of Russia through Chersonesus; the cross was placed in the State Emblem so that it was sent from the Greek Emperors to Russia when the Grand Dukes received baptism.”

The Tauride coat of arms was thus a combination of the state coat of arms (in the colors that had been established since the time of Peter the Great - a black double-headed eagle in a golden field) with the Orthodox symbol (a golden eight-pointed cross in a blue field). Both the state emblem with a double-headed eagle, as was rightfully believed during the reign of Catherine, and Orthodoxy, symbolically embodied in an eight-pointed cross, as it actually is, had their source in Byzantium.

At the same time, Russia’s borrowing of the double-headed eagle, which actually took place during the time of Ivan III, was pushed back into the depths of time - to the era of Christianization of Rus', that is, to the reign of St. Vladimir, turning out to be contemporary with the “perception of baptism by the Grand Dukes.” The perception of Orthodoxy and the perception of state symbols (and therefore the state tradition of Byzantium) went hand in hand. Both testified to historical continuity from the Byzantine civilization, and statehood itself was closely linked with the Orthodox faith.

The continuity of this whole was emphasized in the coat of arms, whose ideological content fully corresponded to the state ideology of Catherine’s reign in relation to the Crimea and the Ottoman Empire. Let us note that the eight-pointed Orthodox cross took its place on the chest of the double-headed eagle, that is, in its very “heart”, where in the state emblem of Russia there was a shield with the image of St. George the Victorious - an ancient symbol of the Moscow princes, represented in the coat of arms of Moscow since the 18th century.

This cross visibly denoted the fact that the very baptism of Rus', accepted from Byzantium, had its source in Crimea. And indeed, the baptism of Prince Vladimir, according to the chronicle tradition, took place in Chersonesus (Korsun in Slavic), from where, therefore, the light of Christianity came to Rus'. This gave special meaning to the understanding of Crimea as the Kingdom of Tauric Chersonese, since the significance of Chersonese was not limited to its state “function” as a province of Byzantium, and these lands were presented as a source of Christianization of Rus'.

In this sense, the annexation of Crimea was the return of Russia to its ancient beginnings, the rediscovery of the path along which both statehood and the Orthodox faith moved to Rus', which justified the admission of Crimea to the empire, and the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, and the power’s access to the Black Sea . This vector of foreign policy of Catherine’s reign became historically justified, historically fair and historically necessary. Both the Tauride title and the Tauride coat of arms symbolized the restoration of tradition coming from the Byzantine, Greek origins of Rus', which was characteristic of the entire policy of Catherine the Great in relation to the newly acquired Black Sea lands.

UNDER MONOMACH'S HAT

The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis remained unchanged until the middle of the 19th century. Under Paul I, he, like other titular coats of arms, was placed in the draft of the Full (Large) State Emblem (1800), where he took a place in the shield located under the central shield with the state eagle. Here, in the description of the Tauride coat of arms, the golden cross is called “Greek triple”, and it is presented with three horizontal crossbars (which is incorrect from the point of view of the image of an eight-pointed cross in the church tradition). In addition, the coat of arms was crowned with a crown “of five pointed teeth with a green velvet cover” - this is how the crowns are depicted in the coat of arms of 1800 in the coats of arms of other kingdoms (Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian). Under Nicholas I, in 1832, the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis, among the coats of arms of other titular objects that had the highest status, was placed on one of the wings of the Russian double-headed eagle.

The new version of the coat of arms of the Tauride province was approved by Alexander II on December 8, 1856. Based on the previous one, this coat of arms was created by the outstanding Russian heraldist Baron Boris Vasilyevich Köhne (1817–1886). The image and description of the double-headed eagle has changed dramatically. Now it was a black Byzantine eagle, crowned with two golden three-pronged crowns, without regalia in its paws (the eagle’s beak and claws are golden, and its tongues are scarlet).

Tauride province on one of the geographical maps of the Russian Empire - such a set was released in St. Petersburg in 1856. Provided by M. Zolotarev

The azure shield with a cross received gold edges (essentially, a border), probably to avoid the application of enamel (enamel) on enamel, which was unacceptable in the traditions of classical European heraldry. The Byzantine type of eagle is its image with open, but lowered, rather than raised, wings. Koehne, therefore, strengthened the Byzantine semantics of this symbol, depriving it of the features of the state eagle of Russia, but leaving the imperial coloring unchanged - black and gold (in fact, the Byzantine double-headed eagle was gold in a red field). The “Tauride” eagle was generally similar to the double-headed eagle of the time of Ivan III, whose heads were also crowned with three-part crowns (though their structure was more complex).

To further emphasize the Byzantine-Russian continuity, which was conveyed by the name “Tauric Chersonis,” the coat of arms of this kingdom was given its own crown. In the Great State Emblems of the Russian Empire of 1857 and 1882 (and in others that included the main title coats of arms), the shield with the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis was crowned with the cap of Monomakh. And the shield with the united coats of arms of the ancient Russian capitals (Kyiv, Vladimir and Novgorod) was decorated with the Monomakh cap of the second outfit.

Thus, the heraldry reflected the legend about the gifts of Monomakh - royal regalia, including the famous hat, allegedly once given by the Byzantine emperor Vladimir Monomakh. And the mutual relationship of the two coats of arms and two caps emphasized the idea of ​​​​a successive connection with Byzantium not only of Muscovite Rus', but also of Vladimir, Kyiv and Novgorod - in a word, the entire ancient Russian world.

The idea of ​​the Tauride coat of arms from the time of Catherine received a complete embodiment. Now the Kingdom of Chersonis Tauride was the conductor of not only the Orthodox faith and the main state symbol, but also the main state regalia, that is, religion, statehood, and the monarchical power itself at the same time.

Such an understanding of the significance of Crimea and its annexation to Russia at the level of state ideology remained relevant, as we see, for the second half of the 19th century. The semantics of Byzantine origins even intensified to some extent, which can be associated with the events of the Crimean War of 1853–1856, and with the general orientation of a certain part of Russian culture of that time towards the ancient Russian historical past.

The Tauride province was an administrative-territorial unit of the Russian Empire and existed from 1802 to 1921. The center was the city of Simferopol. After joining Russia and the wise reforms of Catherine the Great, there was a significant rise in all spheres of life. Turkey, seeing the success and prosperity of Crimea, wanted to return the peninsula under its control, but was defeated. As a result of these events, Russia further increased its influence in Crimea, and also strengthened its power not only over the Black and Azov Seas, but also over the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

Crimea goes to Russia

In 1784, on January 8, an act of state was signed between the Turkish and Russian sides. It was This act stated that Crimea would be annexed to Russia. However, this event did not become news. The Crimean fate was predetermined during the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted from 1768 to 1774. According to the peace treaty, Crimea gained independence. Türkiye no longer had influence in these territories. Russia received Kerch and the possibility of movement in the Black and Azov Seas.

By decree of Catherine II, the Crimean Murzas (Tatar aristocrats) acquired the status of Russian nobility. They retained their territories, but did not receive the right to own serfs, who were Russian. Thanks to this decree, most of the nobility went over to the side of Russia. The imperial treasury was replenished with income and lands of the Crimean Khan. All Russian prisoners who were in Crimea received freedom.

Formation of the Tauride province

The Tauride province was formed as a result of the division of Novorossiysk, which occurred in 1802. Then one of the three separated parts became part of Taurida. The Tauride province was divided into 7 districts:

• Evpatoriya;
• Simferopol;
• Melitopol;
• Dneprovsky;
• Perekopsky;
• Tmutarakansky;
• Feodosia.

In 1820, Tmutarakansky district seceded and became part of the Black Sea Army region. In 1838, the Yalta district was formed, and in 1843, the Berdyansk district. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 city administrations and 8 districts in the Tauride province. According to the 1987 census, the city of Simferopol was the third largest (141,717 people).

Changes in Crimea

In 1784, the city of Sevastopol appeared, which was the base for the Russian fleet. Nikolaev and Kherson are formed. In the latter, the construction of the first ships for the Black Sea Fleet takes place. In order to increase the size, the cities of Kherson, Sevastopol and Feodosia are declared open. Foreigners can freely enter, work and live here. If they wished, they could even become Russian subjects.

The following year, customs duties were abolished in all (for 5 years). This resulted in a significant increase in turnover. The former poor Crimean territory has become a prosperous and developing land. Agriculture and winemaking have increased significantly here. Crimea becomes the largest naval base of the Russian fleet. As a result, the population of Taurida grows significantly.

Turkish requirements

In 1787, the Turkish side demanded the restoration of the vassalage of the peninsula, and also wanted to inspect Russian ships sailing through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. She is supported by Prussia, France and England. Russia refuses these demands. In the same year, Türkiye declares war and is defeated in an attack on Russian ships. At the same time, the attacking side had numerical superiority. The Russian army takes Anapa, Izmail, Ochakov. Suvorov's troops finally defeat the Turks. The attacking country did not expect such a turn of events - it had to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty. Thanks to this document, the Russian Empire secures its rights to Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. The entire Tauride province unconditionally belonged to her. The map shows the boundaries of the region. Its territory captured the modern lands of Ukraine.

Census of Tauride Province 1897

In 1897, a census was carried out in all 10 districts of the province. Crimea has always been a territory with a multinational population. Census data suggests that most of the residents spoke the Little Russian (Ukrainian) language. The second most popular language was the Great Russian language. Further, the spread of Crimean Tatar, Bulgarian, German, Jewish, Greek, as well as other languages ​​was noted. The total number of inhabitants of the province was almost 1.5 million. In 6 districts the Russian population prevailed: in Kerch, Simferopol, Sevastopol, Evpatoria, Dzhankoy, Feodosia. In Balaklava, slightly more than half of the population turned out to be Greek-speaking. Also, many people of this nationality lived in

The Tauride province existed for more than a century; other states wanted to take possession of its territory, but the Russian Empire finally strengthened its influence on these lands.

The manifesto on the annexation of Crimea to Russia was promulgated on April 8, 1783, and already on February 2, 1784, the new official title “Her Imperial Majesty” was adopted: “By God's favor, Empress and Autocrat of All Russia: Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Queen of Kazan, Queen Astrakhan, Queen of Siberia, Queen of Tauride Chersoniss and others.” (PSZ RI. T. 22. No. 15919. P. 17).

The titular “Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis” has a dual nature. On the one hand, under this name, undoubtedly, hides the Crimean Khanate, which brings up the rear in the imperial title of the sequence of khanates - the successors of the Golden Horde (Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Crimean). On the other hand, the emphatically Hellenized form “Kherson AND"sa Tauride" implies Greek and Byzantine heritage. The historical foundation for the mythology of the “Kingdom of Tauric Chersonis” could have been laid by the mention of the “Korsun country” in the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944 and the “Queen Anna of Korsun” in the Russian version of the Life of St. Stefan Sourozhsky.

On the same day, February 2, 1784, the Senate was given a decree on the establishment of the Tauride region. It is significant that the newly annexed Kingdom received only the status of a region “until the increase in population and various necessary institutions makes it convenient to establish it as a Province.” (PSZ RI. T. 22. No. 15920. P. 18).

On March 8, 1784, the coat of arms of the Tauride region was established: “In a golden field there is a double-headed eagle, in the chest of one in a blue field there is a golden eight-pointed cross, meaning that baptism took place in all of Russia through Chersonesus; the cross was placed in the State Emblem so that it was sent from the Greek Emperors to Russia when the Grand Dukes received baptism” (PSZ R. T. 22. No. 15953. P. 69).

The eagle on the coat of arms was imperial - state, with raised wings. The cross as a symbol of Orthodoxy and the eagle as a symbol of the Russian state were linked to the idea of ​​“perception” of them from Byzantium, while the borrowing of the double-headed eagle is linked to the baptism of Rus' in Chersonesus and is moved chronologically almost 500 years ago from the moment of the actual adoption of this symbol in Muscovite Rus'.

During the heraldic reform of the 50s, which took place under the leadership of one of the leading European heraldists B.V. Koehne, replaced the Russian double-headed eagle on the coat of arms of the Tauride province

Thus, the Byzantine semantics of the Tauride coat of arms was strengthened by giving the eagle a resemblance to the Byzantine original. This idea is emphasized in the description of the coat of arms: “In a golden field, black Byzantine, crowned with two golden crowns, an eagle, with golden beaks and claws, and scarlet tongues; on the chest in azure, with golden edges, a shield, a golden eight-pointed cross. The shield is crowned with the Imperial crown and surrounded by golden oak leaves connected by St. Andrew's ribbon."

Coat of arms of the Tauride province. Approved in 1856, with the imperial crown.

On the large coat of arms of the Russian Empire, the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Tauride Chersonis was depicted similarly to the coat of arms of the Tauride province, but was crowned with the “cap of Monomakh”. Monomakh's cap is also crowned with a shield with the united Kyiv, Vladimir and Novgorod coats of arms. This emphasizes the idea of ​​​​translating the main Russian sovereign regalia from Byzantium to Rus' through Taurica (according to a legend created in the 15th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh sent his royal crown to his grandson Vladimir Monomakh).

Coat of arms of the kingdom of Chersonis Tauride with the cap of Monomakh from the large coat of arms of the Russian Empire 1882. Modern reconstruction.

Coat of arms of the kingdom of Chersonis Tauride, palace of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, St. Petersburg. Photo source

PART IV.

TAVRICHESKAYA PROVINCE

It is not only possible, but also necessary to be proud of the glory of your ancestors; not to respect it is shameful cowardice.

A. S. Pushkin

CRIMEA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX century.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

The annexation of Crimea to Russia led to fundamental changes in the economy, culture, and social processes.

In 1784 the Tauride region was formed, which included Crimea, Taman, and lands north of Perekop. In 1802, the Tauride region was transformed into a province. Instead of the previous governorships, seven districts were created, of which five (Simferopol, Levkopol, and since 1787 Feodosia, Evpatoria and Perekop) districts were located within the peninsula itself. In 1837, a new one emerged from the Simferopol district - the Yalta district, after which the administrative division of the region remained almost unchanged until the 20s. XX century.

At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 100 thousand inhabitants in Crimea.

Considering the important military-strategic importance of Crimea and the great influence of Turkey on the Tatar population of the peninsula, the tsarist government sought to win over new subjects.

On September 18, 1796, the Crimean Tatars were freed from conscription and military duties, they were given the right to resolve mutual disputes with the ulema (authoritative theologians, lawyers). The Muslim clergy were forever exempt from paying taxes. At the beginning of the 19th century, the personal freedom of the Crimean Tatar peasantry was confirmed. According to the decree of 1827, the Crimean Tatar population had by law the right of ownership of movable and immovable property.

But all these measures could not prevent the emigration of part of the population to Turkey. The number of residents who left Crimea is difficult to determine.

One of the reasons for the emigration of the Crimean Tatars was their landlessness, which was carried out by both Russian and Tatar landowners with the active assistance of tsarist officials. An important reason for emigration was the preserved centuries-old ties between Crimea and Turkey (economic, cultural and especially religious). As a result of emigration, the rural and urban population of the peninsula sharply decreased, which negatively affected the economy.

In this regard, the tsarist government is taking a number of measures in order to populate Crimea. Retired soldiers, Russian and Ukrainian peasants, immigrants from Moldova and residents of Poland, immigrants from Estonia, modern Greeks, Bulgarians, German colonists, etc. are sent here. The settlement of state peasants from the internal provinces of Russia played a significant role in changing the ethnic composition of the population of Crimea. Of the 92,242 settlers who arrived in the Tauride province from 1783 to 1854, 45,702 (50.55%) were state peasants. By nationality, these were, as a rule, Russians and Ukrainians.

The ongoing reforms of the Russian government, the emigration of the Crimean Tatar population, and the settlement of Crimea by settlers left a big imprint on the socio-economic and cultural development of the region throughout the 19th century.

Questions and tasks

1. What administrative and territorial transformations were carried out after the annexation of Crimea to Russia?

2. What measures did the Russian government take in relation to the Crimean Tatar population? Describe them.

3. Indicate the reasons and consequences of the emigration of the Crimean Tatar population to Turkey. Was it possible to prevent it?

4. Tell us how the issue of settling Crimea was resolved. What changes did this lead to?

5. What changes do you think the events that took place in Crimea at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries should have led to?

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The development of agriculture in Crimea differed in many ways from the central provinces of Russia. This was manifested in a number of factors. In agriculture in the first half of the 19th century there was a noticeable increase in productive forces. This was facilitated by the increased settlement and development of Crimea, which occurred throughout the 19th century.

The development of agriculture in Crimea was greatly influenced by climatic, geographical and historical conditions.

From the beginning of the 19th century, a process of specialization began in Crimean agriculture. The regions of the peninsula specialize in one industry or another, one or another type of product.

The great demand for wool in the domestic and world markets led to the development of large industrial sheep farms in the steppe part of the peninsula. This was facilitated by the very low population density of the steppe part.

One of the founders of sheep farming was the large French entrepreneurs Rouvier and Gene Vasal. Taking advantage of the “favorable” situation, they bought large plots of land at fairly low prices, on which they founded their sheep farms. In such farms in the first half of the 19th century, flocks of fine-wool sheep numbered several tens of thousands of heads.

The development of sheep farming was also facilitated by the policy of the Russian government, which provided a number of benefits to people engaged in sheep farming in the southern provinces. They were provided with large plots of land, cash loans on preferential terms and at a cheap price, and taxes were reduced. Large sheep farms were united into joint-stock companies and partnerships.

The following data is indicative:

Years Number of goals

The data presented show that in the first half of the 19th century, fine-wool sheep breeding in the Tauride province developed quite successfully - in less than half a century, the number of sheep in the province increased by more than 21 times.

However, the expansion of acreage since the mid-19th century and the improvement of the farming system were accompanied by the gradual displacement of sheep farming.

Since ancient times, grapes have been grown in the mountainous Crimea; at the beginning of the 19th century, this area mainly specialized in viticulture.

As already mentioned, after the annexation of Crimea to Russia, Grigory Potemkin, the closest associate of Catherine II, made a great contribution to the development of viticulture. He actively invites specialists in this crop from different countries to Crimea, prescribes the best varieties of grapevines and in every possible way encourages landowners and entrepreneurs involved in viticulture.

The successful development of viticulture and winemaking in Crimea was facilitated by the opening of the state school of winemaking and viticulture in Sudak in 1804, and the founding of the Magarach School of Winemaking in 1812. These educational institutions trained domestic specialists - winegrowers, winemakers, and gardeners. At the same time, these educational institutions have become experimental laboratories for breeding excellent varieties of grapes and other special crops.

The successful development of viticulture in Crimea in the first half of the 19th century is evidenced by the following data:

at the end of the 20s - about 5,800,000 bushes,

in the late 30s - about 12,000,000 bushes,

in the late 40s - about 35,000,000 bushes.

From the data presented it is clear that over two decades the number of grape bushes on the peninsula has increased more than 6 times. This figure would have been significantly higher, but more intensive development of viticulture was hampered by the lack of good communication routes between Crimea and the central provinces of Russia. This led to the fact that essentially the entire grape harvest remained in Crimea and was processed into wine. Before the construction of the railway connecting Crimea with mainland Russia, grapes were not exported outside the region.

In general, we must pay tribute to the Russian government, which appreciated the favorable conditions of Crimea and pursued a far-sighted policy.

Preferential conditions were provided not only to those involved in viticulture and sheep breeding, but also to those involved in gardening. In particular, on July 7, 1803, a special government decree was issued on benefits for people involved in growing gardens. Similar decrees were issued in 1828 and 1830.

Those involved in gardening and viticulture were given state-owned lands for free use and even for personal “hereditary” ownership. In 1830, the governor of Novorossiya, Vorontsov, distributed about 200 acres of land on the South Bank for free use to private individuals who pledged to engage in gardening on these plots.

The benefits provided contributed to the development of horticulture.

The main horticultural areas were the valleys: Salgirskaya, Kachinskaya, Alminskaya, Belbekskaya, Bulganakskaya. The area occupied by orchards was constantly increasing. By the middle of the 19th century, there were 959 dessiatines in the Kachin valley, 700 dessiatines in the Alma valley, 580 dessiatines in the Belbek valley, about 330 dessiatines in the Salgir valley, and about 170 dessiatines in the Bulganak valley, occupied by gardens.

Landowners were willing to engage in gardening, as it provided significant profits. The former governor-general of New Russia, Richelieu, planted fruit trees over large areas on his Gurzuf estate. Tauride Governor Borozdin was engaged in growing gardens and vineyards on his estates from Artek to Kuchuk-Lambat.

In suburban areas, market gardening successfully developed. Thus, in the Evpatoria region in the first half of the 19th century, onions were grown on large areas, which were sold not only in Crimea, but were exported to Odessa and even Constantinople.

In the first half of the 19th century, tobacco growing began to develop in Crimea. In the pre-war years, the area of ​​tobacco plantations was 336 acres. Vegetable gardening and tobacco growing were mainly carried out by tenants.

The “weak” point in Crimean agriculture was field cultivation. This led to the fact that the region could not even provide itself with enough bread and other agricultural products. All these products had to be imported. P. Sumarokov, who lived in Crimea during this period, wrote: “The reader will, of course, be indignant when he hears that bread is brought to this country, inhabited only by farmers, from the Zaperekopsk steppes, from Little Russia, and even from great Russia: cow’s butter, lean butter, honey, wheat, cereals...” In his notes, Sumarokov reports on the size of the import of agricultural products to Crimea. In particular, he notes that 20,000 quarters of wheat were imported through the Evpatoria port alone in 1801.

The low level of field cultivation was caused by the fact that the settlers had not yet mastered the region and did not have the necessary modern equipment. Because of this, the land was cultivated in a primitive way, resulting in very low yields.

In addition, natural disasters often occurred on the peninsula: there were floods in river valleys, steppe regions suffered from drought, lean years often occurred, and as a result, famine. Agricultural pests caused great damage, especially locusts, which destroyed crops over large areas. “The locust has already become a native insect,” it was noted with bitterness in the Memorial Book of the Tauride Province in 1821. The famous historian of the Novorossiysk region, Skalkovsky, wrote: “For the second year now, crop failure and locusts have ravaged the region...” In the Crimean steppe, the shortage of crops was “so great that the government found itself in need, similar to 1794, 1799, 1800.” a large number of residents are fed with bread from government government stores.”

The most severe consequences accompanied the lean years of 1833 and 1837. On this occasion the following was reported: “This is a particularly memorable year of famine. All local reserves of the province were completely depleted; the government did not have time to deliver grain from other provinces. Tens of thousands of people died... Draft cattle, horses, sheep partly died from lack of food, partly from a lack of people for the necessary supervision. Some villages were completely deserted, the population of others decreased by half or more. The area between Feodosia and Kerch suffered the most..."

By the end of the first half of the 19th century, the situation in field farming also stabilized. The area under cultivation is gradually increasing, soil cultivation is improving, and modern agricultural equipment is being imported. All this leads to a sharp increase in productivity, and gradually the field farming of Crimea provides the population with all the necessary agricultural products, and there is even a surplus of marketable grain for export to foreign markets. By the end of the first half of the 19th century, field cultivation became one of the leading branches of agriculture.

The peculiarities of the development of Crimean agriculture, especially its specialization, led to the rapid development of domestic and foreign trade, and to the development of commodity-money relations.

Quite narrowly specialized farms could not exist without a market; they had a pronounced commercial character. The products of these farms - grapes, apples and other fruits, vegetables, tobacco, wool - were entirely intended for sale. At the same time, these farms needed products that they themselves did not produce.

The development of commodity-money relations was also facilitated by the fact that hired labor was widely used in the region's agriculture.

All these features led to the fact that the agriculture of Crimea took the capitalist path of development, significantly ahead of the central provinces of the state.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the differences in the development of agriculture in Crimea at the beginning of the 19th century? from the central provinces of Russia?

2. What was the territorial specialization of Crimean agriculture?

3. Tell us about the development of sheep farming. What contributed to its development?

4. Tell us about the development of viticulture.

5. Prove that gardening successfully developed in Crimea.

6. What products were imported to Crimea? What was this connected with?

7. What are the results of the development of field farming in Crimea by the middle of the century?

8. Prove that agriculture in Crimea already at the beginning of the 19th century. developed along the capitalist path.

INDUSTRY

In the first half of the 19th century in Crimea, despite the predominance of agricultural production, industry, primarily manufacturing, developed relatively quickly. A number of factors contributed to this.

Before the annexation of Crimea to Russia, there was no industrial production in it, but there were handicrafts, a guild association of artisans that produced various products. Morocco and leather handicrafts developed in Bakhchisarai, saddlery in Karasubazar, and felt in Evpatoria. Although these were small workshops, they were already working for the market. Their products were mainly sold on the domestic market.

By the time Crimea was annexed by Russia, most of these industries had fallen into decline as a result of the events that took place on the peninsula - the war, which then began emigration.

After the situation in Crimea has stabilized, the rise of crafts begins. In the first half of the 19th century, the industrial development of the region took a significant step forward.

The development of industrial production was greatly influenced by the resettlement of a significant number of people from the central provinces of Russia and other places to Crimea, the ongoing construction and emergence of new cities. The development of industry was influenced by such factors as the development of domestic and foreign trade, the establishment of connections with the central provinces of Russia.

The construction that took place in Crimea required a large amount of building materials, and therefore small enterprises for the production of building materials - bricks, tiles, lime, etc. - appeared in many places. In the 40s, there were up to 15 small brick and tile factories on the peninsula.

Successfully developing agriculture played an important role in the development of the processing industry. The manufacturing industry was closely connected with agriculture and the development of one or another branch of it in a certain area.

The development of field farming contributed to the development of the flour-milling industry.

The enterprises that emerged were mostly small and in many ways resembled handicraft workshops.

The lack of good communications with the provinces of Russia led to the fact that all enterprises worked on local raw materials.

Attempts by individual entrepreneurs to build factories and plants using imported raw materials mostly failed. For example, the landowner A. Borozdin in 1806-1807 set up a chemical factory for the production of paints on his estate Sably, near Simferopol. He was supported by the government, which encouraged the development of entrepreneurship among the nobility, by providing a loan of 30,000 rubles, but despite this, interruptions in the supply of necessary raw materials led to the closure of the factory in 1809. Previously, the same fate befell the mint, created by order of Grigory Potemkin in Feodosia.

This mint managed to mint only one coin - the “80-kopeck silver 1787 with the letters T.M., i.e. Tauride coin."

The largest industries in Crimea in the first half of the century were salt and fisheries, as well as winemaking.

Known since ancient times, Crimean salt was the main item of trade in the second half of the 18th century. Until 1803, all the salt lakes in the region were farmed out by the treasury, among tax farmers the banker Stieglitz and the merchant Peretz occupied the first place. How profitable the salt mines were can be judged from the report of the Tauride governor for 1803. The report shows that the merchant Peretz, who took over the Perekop salt lakes, sold 382,288 pounds of salt for the amount of 516,087 rubles for the period from April 1 to November 1. In 1903, all salt lakes began to be exploited directly by the treasury. A special salt department was created, located in the city of Perekop.

Salt was mined from the Perekop, Evpatoria, Kerch, Feodosia, and Sevastopol lakes. It was exported from Crimea by land and through seaports. The size of salt production in Crimea can be judged from the following data: in 1825, 437,142 pounds were exported by sea, and in 1861, export by sea was 3,257,909 pounds. The bulk was exported by land. Crimean salt was exported to many provinces of Russia.

The salt industry brought significant income to the state. So, in 1815, income amounted to 1,200,000 rubles; in 1840 - 2,108,831 rubles, and in 1846 - 2,221,647 rubles.

Winemaking developed successfully. According to P. Sumarokov, at the beginning of the 19th century, up to 360 thousand buckets of grape wine were produced per year. From year to year the size of this development increased.

Winemaking was mainly carried out by landowners whose estates were located on the South Coast. The main wine-growing region was the Sudak Valley, which accounted for half of all production. Crimean wines were competitive and successfully conquered markets, despite high competition from imported wines.

Fisheries also developed successfully, despite the fact that they suffered a serious blow when, by order of the Russian government, all Christians, including the Greeks, who were mainly engaged in this fishery, were evicted from Crimea. We had to recruit specialist fishermen from other lands. Fishing cooperatives and processing enterprises began to be created. The center of this fishery became Kerch, where in 1841 there were already 53 fishing artels. Kerch herring had excellent taste and soon gained fame.

In the first half of the 19th century, the development of iron ore on the Kerch Peninsula began to develop. In 1846, a small iron foundry was built in Kerch.

Thus, in the first half of the 19th century, the industry of Crimea took a significant step forward in its development. This was manifested both in the emergence of new industries and in the technical transformation of a number of enterprises, their gradual transformation into factories. At the same time, the vast majority of enterprises were based on the use of hired labor.

CRAFTS

Along with new enterprises and new industries, there were also a significant number of craft workshops that supplied the local market with traditional goods. In 1825, Tauride governor D.V. Naryshkin reported to St. Petersburg: “There are craft establishments, such as tanneries, saddle shops and others, where the owners themselves correct the work with the help of their children and a small number of workers.”

Leather and morocco products occupied a special place in the economic life of the province. Despite the most primitive medieval technology, where all operations were performed manually, the quality of the products was high. Morocco was especially valued, being distinguished by its softness and elasticity with comparative strength.

At the beginning of the century, there were thirteen tanneries in Bakhchisarai. On the eve of the Crimean War, there were factories in Bakhchisarai where the Tatars produced, according to V.I. Pestel, “good things of different colors from sheep and goat skins, sent to the internal provinces. These are issued per year in the amount of up to 20 thousand rubles in silver.”

In addition, in the province there were factories where leather was tanned only for local use: for saddles, harnesses and posts.

An ancient craft was the making of felts with patterns (used instead of carpets). In the middle of the century, the crafts produced products worth over 30 thousand rubles in silver per year. At that time, up to 220 people worked in the Bakhchisarai workshops, in Karasubazar - 276 masters, 185 workers and 53 students.

Morocco leather goods, felts and burkas were exported in significant quantities to the central provinces and the North Caucasus. Products from copperware and filigree crafts were in great and steady demand. (Filigree- This is hand-made silver and gold of various small jewelry. These products are made with an elegant lace-type pattern, through-work, and sometimes decorated with enamel.)

Evpatoria was a major center of handicraft production, where in 1845 about five thousand people were engaged in handicrafts and crafts. In Simferopol in 1847, jewelers, carriage makers, carpenters, shoemakers, blacksmiths, etc. were united into twelve workshops. The workshops were governed by a craft council, for which a craft head was elected.

The wool weaving industry was developed among the Bulgarian population of Old Crimea and surrounding villages. They produced coarse, extremely durable and warm cloth, which was in great demand, and were engaged in carpet weaving.

But gradually the importance of handicrafts declined, unable to withstand competition with industrial production.

TRADE

The development of productive forces, the commodification of agriculture and industry led to a further deepening of the social division of labor and economic specialization of certain regions of the region. All this, in turn, contributed to the expansion of the domestic market and the development of foreign and domestic trade.

In the first half of the century, a significant part of the population was already associated with the market. Entrepreneurs were interested in selling their products and at the same time needed to purchase the products of others. Both townspeople and peasants were associated with the market.

In the first half of the century, the region’s ties with Russia strengthened and expanded. The export of salt, fish, wine, dried fruit and other goods from Crimea is sharply increasing. In turn, linen, canvas, metal products, and equipment are imported from Russia to the peninsula. In 1801, goods worth 244,000 rubles were imported into Crimea through the Evpatoria port alone. The volume of domestic trade was constantly increasing. Thus, in 1839, goods worth 1,110,539 rubles were exported from the Crimean ports. A significant amount of goods was exported by land.

The first half of the 19th century saw great changes in foreign trade. The import of such goods began to decline, which, due to the economic development of the region, began to be manufactured locally or imported from neighboring or central provinces. The turnover of Crimean ports in foreign trade increased every decade. Wool, felt, salt were exported from Crimea abroad, and in the second quarter of the century, with the development of field farming, significant quantities of wheat were exported. Credit settlement institutions played an important role in economic life. Since 1806, a branch of the St. Petersburg discount office operated in Feodosia. The main limiting factors in the development of trade were the lack of good land communications and the poor situation with transport.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the development of handicraft production in Crimea by the beginning of the 19th century.

2. What factors contributed to the development of industrial production in the first half of the 19th century. ?

3. What place did crafts occupy in the economy? How did it develop?

4. Tell us about the development of industrial production in the first half of the 19th century.

5. What factors contributed to the development of trade?

6. Tell us about the development of domestic and foreign trade.

7. What hindered the development of trade?

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

In the first half of the 19th century, urban planning developed at a fairly rapid pace on the peninsula, old cities expanded, and new ones began to emerge.

A characteristic feature of Crimea was the relatively high proportion of townspeople and the relatively rapid development of seaports.

Simferopol. According to the office description of Crimea, compiled in 1783, there were 331 houses and 7 mosques in Ak-Mosque at that time. This was the city - the predecessor of Simferopol. The founding date of Simferopol should be considered February 8 (19), 1784 - the day Catherine II signed the decree “On the administrative structure of the Tauride region”. The new city was to become the center of the region and, at the suggestion of the scientist and public figure Evgeniy Bulgaris, was named Simferopol: “This name means a city of benefit, and therefore the coat of arms is a hive with bees with the inscription useful at the top” (later the coat of arms of the city changed).

Grigory Potemkin looked for some time for the most convenient place for Simferopol, and then chose the area near Ak-Mosque. According to the decrees of Catherine II, G. A. Potemkin was allocated 99,181 rubles annually for the costs of managing the region, 12 thousand rubles “for buildings needed in regional and district cities,” and 20 thousand rubles each, starting in 1784, “ for the production of public buildings in regional and district cities.”

The first buildings of Simferopol were apparently founded in June 1784. Soldiers discharged from the Russian army were sent for construction work. Gradually the new city grew and was populated by people from the provinces of Russia. Soldiers discharged from the Russian army and peasants brought here by landowners were the first settlers. The surrounding areas of the city were also populated. Already in 1803, the city had 197 shops, 12 coffee houses, 13 inns, 16 taverns, 11 blacksmiths and 20 bakeries. The city was still quite small: by the end of the 30s it was located mainly in the square of the current streets of Pushkin, Gorky, Tolstoy and the Salgir River. One of the best houses in the city during this period was the governor's house (now Lenin Street, 15).

The development of Simferopol was facilitated by the status of the “capital” and road construction: a highway to Alushta (1824-1826), and then to Yalta. Gradually the city became an administrative, craft and trade center. In 1836 there were already 1014 houses in Simferopol. The population of the city also increased quite quickly. So, in 1792, 1,600 people lived in Simferopol, and in 1849 there were already 13,768 souls of both sexes.

Yalta. Yalta is one of the new cities that have emerged in Crimea. By the beginning of the century it was a small village of 13 houses, one mosque and a church. The main obstacle to the development of the future city was inaccessibility and lack of roads.

The situation began to change with the appointment of Count M. S. Vorontsov as Governor-General of Novorossiya in 1823. On his initiative, the construction of a road to the South Bank, the construction of a pier and a port in Yalta began. The small village gradually turned into the center of the entire coast. Highways connected the village with Simferopol and Sevastopol, and its own seaport appeared. By decree of April 15, 1838, Yalta received city status.

Sevastopol. By decree of 1783, the construction of the city of Sevastopol - a fortress and base of the Russian military Black Sea Fleet - began. Significant forces were sent to the city for construction. By 1829, Sevastopol was already a large city, with about 30,000 inhabitants, including the military.

Sevastopol was built and strengthened especially quickly under Admiral M.P. Lazarev, who was appointed commander of the Black Sea Fleet in 1834. Under it, fortress batteries, docks, and port facilities were built. The total volume of construction work was determined at 15 million rubles. By the middle of the century, the city had several thousand stone houses, many military department buildings, a large military hospital and a number of other institutions.

The already existing cities developed at a rapid pace, with the possible exception of Bakhchisarai and Karasubazar, which retained their medieval appearance.

Kerch. By the beginning of the century, Kerch was a very small village, but the establishment of “Full Quarantine” there in 1821 (all ships heading from the Black Sea to the Sea of ​​Azov underwent mandatory quarantine in Kerch) stimulated the development of the city. Kerch is becoming a kind of transshipment point for goods going abroad and from abroad. The number of residents was gradually growing, and in 1839 there were already 7,498, and in 1849 - 12,000. The share of the Kerch port in foreign trade increased. Five enterprises appeared in the city: a pasta factory, a sugar factory, a brick factory, a river factory and a soap factory. The craft developed rapidly.

Feodosia. One of the oldest cities in Crimea, Feodosia, is being restored and developed. This is primarily facilitated by a convenient port and trade. By 1849, the city already had 971 houses with 8,215 residents.

In the first half of the 19th century, urban planning in Crimea developed successfully, the urban population increased rapidly and by 1851 it amounted to about 85,000 people, an increase of 6 times compared to the beginning of the century. This led to the fact that the proportion of urban residents was high - 27%.

Questions and tasks

1. What contributed to the development of urban planning?

2. Tell us about the construction and development of Simferopol, Sevastopol, Yalta, Kerch and Feodosia.

THE SCIENCE

After the annexation of Crimea, the Russian government paid great attention to a comprehensive study of the region, sending prominent scientists and public figures here. Interest in Crimea was also high in other sectors of Russian society.

Geographer Karl-Ludwig Tablitz (1752-1821) was appointed assistant to the first ruler of the Tauride region V.V. Kakhovsky. This appointment was obviously dictated by the need for deep and complete information about the natural resources of the newly formed region. In the work “Physical description of the Tauride region according to its location and all three kingdoms of nature,” for the first time the relief of Crimea is divided into three parts. The book also contains a botanical description of the region. A special chapter describes 511 plant species.

Russian scientist academician Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811) lived in Simferopol from 1795 to 1810. The house of P.S. Pallas was located on the bank of Salgir (at the beginning of modern Yalta Street). During this time, P. S. Pallas wrote six scientific works. The earliest of them - “List of wild plants of Crimea” (1797) contains a description of 969 species of local flora. The scientist’s most famous work is “Travel to the Southern Provinces of the Russian State.” The second volume of this work, entitled “Travel to the Crimea of ​​Academician Pallas in 1793 and 1794,” is devoted to the geographical location and natural resources of the region, its geological characteristics. He was also the first to examine some archaeological monuments.

“In the versatility of his mind,” wrote A.I. Markevich, “Pallas resembles encyclopedist scientists..., and in terms of the previously unheard-of accuracy and positivity in research and conclusions, Pallas is a modern scientist. And no one has yet surpassed Pallas in the scientific study of our region...”

On June 10, 1811, with the active participation of the famous botanist and sericulture inspector of the south of Russia M. Biberstein, the “Decree on the establishment of the Imperial State Botanical Garden in Crimea” was signed in St. Petersburg. In the same year, near the village of Nikita, 375 acres of land were purchased from the local landowner Smirnov.

M. Biberstein offered the post of director of the garden to his assistant, the 30-year-old scientist X. X. Steven. Already in September 1812, the first plantings were made. This was the beginning of the current State Nikitsky Botanical Garden. Over 14 years of tireless activity, X. X. Steven, later nicknamed “Nestor of Russian botanists,” collected about 450 species of exotic plants.

The first outstanding work on the antiquities of the peninsula can rightfully be called the “Crimean Collection”, published in 1837 by one of the first explorers of Crimea, Pyotr Ivanovich Keppen (1793-1864). Since 1819, the scientist lived constantly near Alushta. He examined and described in detail many monuments of material culture from the time of the Tauri, the ancient era and the Middle Ages, greatly facilitating the search and study of many Crimean fortifications, fortifications and settlements in subsequent years.

In 1821, the famous doctor F.K. Milgauzen (1775-1853) founded the Simferopol meteorological station. Subsequently, meteorological observations continued on behalf of the Main Physical Observatory.

F, K. Milhausen (a distorted version is often found in literature - Mulhausen) was known as an excellent doctor and public figure. In the “News of the Tauride Scientific Archival Commission” they wrote about him like this: “Every day we see a venerable gray-haired old man walking with measured steps from his manor to the city at a distance of two miles. Here he moves from house to house, visiting sick friends, officials, artisans - Russians, Armenians, Karaites, Jews. For his always gratuitous healing there was no difference...”

F. K. Milgauzen was one of the main medical specialists of the Russian army (and in addition, a member of the Committee for the Scientific Medical Unit, a member of the medical council of the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education, a corresponding member of the Medical-Surgical Academy). He ended up in the Crimea due to illness and soon became an official of special assignments for the medical unit under the Tauride governor. He led a very dangerous fight against epidemics, traveled to the North Caucasus, examined quarantines in Feodosia, Sevastopol, Evpatoria, a military hospital in Simferopol, inspected Crimean pharmacies, and inspected plague barracks in Sevastopol. Fyodor Karlovich’s work as a trustee of the Simferopol provincial state-owned men’s gymnasium was fruitful, to which he donated 570 volumes of books, atlases, and instruments for the physics classroom.

Gradually, historical research of Crimea begins, archaeological excavations begin, museums are created and the first monographs are written.

In 1803-1805 P. Sumarokov’s monograph “Leisures of a Crimean Judge” was published, which contains a detailed description of the region, its nature, economy, and history. This work is still of considerable interest.

In the summer of 1827, Simferopol lover of antiquities Alexander Ivanovich Sultan-Krym-Girey quite by accident discovered stones that were brought from Scythian Naples for construction needs - one with a bas-relief of a warrior on a horse and two with inscriptions. He transferred the finds to the Odessa Museum of Antiquities, and they interested its director, archaeologist I. P. Blaramberg (1772-1830). Where these stones were discovered - on the Petrovsky rocks - Blaramberg found other slabs with inscriptions, a pedestal from a statue, as well as a fragment of a marble relief with an image (presumably of the Scythian kings Skilur and Palak). Thus began the study of Scythian Naples. Excavations in Scythian Naples were continued by A. S. Uvarov, N. I. Veselovsky, Yu. A. Kulakovsky and other researchers.

One of the first museums on the territory of Crimea was opened on June 2 (15), 1826 in Kerch - the Kerch Museum of Antiquities. The basis of the museum collection is the collection of Paul Dubrux (1774-1835), the founder of Kerch archeology. The museum carried out surveys, descriptions and excavations of ancient settlements and necropolises.

The discovery of the crypt of the Kul-Oba mound in 1830 prompted the government to focus the museum on excavating mounds in order to extract art objects for the Hermitage. With the beginning of the work of archaeologist A.E. Lyutsenko (1853), these works acquired scientific significance. In 1835, according to the design of the Odessa architect Giorgio Toricelli, a museum building was built on Mount Mithridates, reproducing the appearance of the Athenian Temple of Theseus. During the Crimean War, the museum building and exhibits were destroyed and looted by the enemy.

One of the oldest museums is Feodosia, founded on May 13 (25), 1811 by mayor S. M. Bronevsky as the Museum of Antiquities. The formation of the museum's collection of antiquities began in the first decade of the 19th century. To date, this is the most significant part of the museum's collections. It included 12 thousand items, including unique ancient and medieval epigraphic monuments, archaeological complexes from excavations in Feodosia and other ancient cities and settlements of south-eastern Crimea.

LITERATURE AND THEATER

The first singer of Taurida was Vasily Vasilyevich Kapnist. The poem “To a Friend of the Heart” contains lines written under the impression of his first trip to Crimea in

1803. The poet made his second trip to Taurida in 1819. Carefully studying the remains of ancient cities and fortifications, he compiled a memorandum addressed to the Minister of Public Education, in which he was the first among scientists and figures of Russian culture to urgently propose to ensure the protection and study of “the monuments and antiquities of Taurida.”

His visit to Taurida left a big mark on the work of A.S. Pushkin. On August 15, 1820, he and the family of General N.N. Raevsky arrived from Taman to Kerch. Next on the way was Feodosia, and then by ship they headed to Gurzuf. The coastline immersed in darkness, the premonition of something fabulous, still unknown, aroused the poetic imagination of A. S. Pushkin. On board the ship the poet wrote his famous elegy:

The daylight has gone out:
The evening fog fell on the blue sea.
Make noise, make noise, obedient sail,
Worry beneath me, gloomy ocean...

The poet called the three weeks spent in Gurzuf the happiest of his life. “I loved,” he wrote to St. Petersburg, “waking up at night, listening to the sound of the sea - and I listened to it for hours. A young cypress tree grew two steps from the house: every morning I visited it and became attached to it with a feeling similar to friendship.” More than once later, A.S. Pushkin addressed the “midday land” in his memoirs. For example, in Onegin's Travels:

You are beautiful, shores of Taurida,
When seen from a ship
In the light of morning Cypris,
When I first saw you...

From the Southern Bank, the poet’s path led to Bakhchisarai, where he examined the Khan’s palace. On September 8, 1820, A.S. Pushkin arrived in Simferopol and soon left Crimea. Five years later, Bakhchisarai impressions resulted in beautiful lines:

Fountain of love, living fountain!
I brought you two roses as a gift.
I love your silent conversation
And poetic tears...

At any time of the year, you will see two fresh roses at the Fountain of Tears: red and white. They are changed every morning. This is how the employees of the Bakhchisarai Museum preserve the memory of the great poet’s stay in Crimea.

A. S. Griboedov, Adam Mickiewicz (who wrote the wonderful lyrical cycle “Crimean Sonnets”), N. V. Gogol, V. A. Zhukovsky and others visited Crimea.

As cities and their populations grew, so did the need for cultural centers and the publication of newspapers and other periodicals.

The Moscow merchant Volkov, who settled in Simferopol, founded the first theater in Crimea in 1826. He built the stage and hall in a long stone barn. The troupe that played here did not shine with special talents, but sometimes there were real holidays in the theater. This was the case in 1846, when the great M. S. Shchepkin performed on the Simferopol stage, visiting the Crimea, accompanied by V. G. Belinsky.

In 1840, Zhurakhovsky’s troupe came to Sevastopol, and from that moment the history of Russian theater in the city began. The theater was then located in the barn of the Artillery Settlement, then in 1841, under Admiral M.P. Lazarev, a new building was built. Stage luminaries M. S. Shchepkin, M. G. Savina, G. N. Fedotova, M. K. Sadovsky and others performed here.

The foundation of the first periodical, “Tauride Provincial News,” dates back to 1838. Obviously, the newspaper was published first as a collection of official messages and instructions, then it became “secular”, reporting a wide variety of information. Subsequently, newspapers were published: “Krymsky Listok”, “Tavrida”, “Crimea”, “Krymsky Vestnik”, “Yuzhnye Vedomosti” and others.

ARCHITECTURE

In 1807, according to the drawings and under the leadership of the architect S. Babovich, it was erected in Evpatoria Big kenassa. From the outside, the building has simple and clear forms that match the internal layout: a double-height hall with large windows at the bottom and top, as well as an entrance gallery, stand out. Kenassa, rectangular in outline, is oriented to the south. According to tradition, its internal space is divided into three parts. This temple was used only on holidays, and on weekdays believers prayed in Malaya Kenasse, built by the same architect in 1815.

During its existence, the Small Kenassa was remade many times. The entrance gallery remained almost unchanged. Noteworthy are the six marble columns of excellent workmanship that support the arches, the massive wall of the temple and the roof.

The Evpatoria kenasses with their courtyards are unique examples of the architecture of the now small Karaite people, monuments of the early 19th century. Their architecture reflects the traditions of that transitional time, when Russian classicism matured and gained strength, leaving a number of significant and interesting buildings in Crimea. In the style of Russian classicism, shops with a colonnade were built in Simferopol (early 19th century), the former country estate of the doctor Milhausen(October 1811), "hospital" house of Taranov-Belozerov(1825), Vorontsov's country house in the Salgirka park.

"Vorontsov's House" was built in 1826-1827. architect F. Elson. The building has a clear plan and a very impressive eastern facade with a colonnade and a wide staircase descending from the terrace to the park. However, in this building the “purity” of the style was immediately and quite deliberately violated. Oriental motifs are woven into the style of Russian classicism. Thus, the veranda on the western facade of the house and the kitchen building opposite are made in the spirit of the pavilion structures of the Bakhchisarai Palace.

The architects showed high skill during construction Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, the main Orthodox church of the province, built in Simferopol. The site chosen for the church was consecrated in May 1810. But the construction was very difficult, serious miscalculations were made, and the almost erected building had to be dismantled in 1822: The new cathedral began to be built according to the design of a native of France I. Charlemagne, on the first square of Simferopol (now Victory Square). The supervision of the construction was entrusted to the architect Yakov Ivanovich Kolodin. The temple was erected in 1828, and on June 3, 1829 it was consecrated. The cathedral was very beautiful both externally and internally: a rich iconostasis, blue domes, gilded crosses, crimson ringing bells, and an openwork lattice fence. In 1931, the cathedral was barbarically destroyed.

Around the middle of the 19th century, Russian classicism gave way to Gothic, Byzantine architecture, and the architecture of the Muslim East.

The classical style was observed in the construction of official buildings, and palaces and private mansions were erected in the Gothic, Renaissance or oriental “taste” style. Buildings in the traditions of Russian classicism include colonnade of the Count's pier(1846) and Peter and Paul Cathedral(1848) in Sevastopol. Of the buildings deviating from this style, the most famous are Alupkinsky, Gasprinsky And Livadia palaces.

In the architecture of the Alupka Palace, the residence of the Governor-General of Novorossiya, Count M. S. Vorontsov, the diversity of the palace facades is striking. The palace complex, consisting of the main, library, dining and service buildings, seems to have been built by three different architects over several centuries. From the west rise two different-high round towers, reminiscent of 14th-century architecture. A pointed arch leads into a narrow medieval street with high fortress walls. This is followed by a courtyard in the English style of the 18th century. The northern facade of the palace: large rectangular windows, strict edges of bay windows - glazed balconies, an abundance of Gothic finishes - battlements and spiers, a turret. The southern façade has a distinct oriental style. The portal with a majestic, artistically perfect niche decorated with carved lace has a monumental appearance. All construction and finishing work was carried out with great taste and grace.

The Alupka palace ensemble is the brainchild of really three architects: it was built over the course of 20 years (1828-1848) by the Englishmen Edward Blore, Gayton and William Gunt. The facades of the main building, the general plan, and the layout of the main volumes belonged to Blore, the court architect of the English kings. The construction was first carried out by Gayton, and completed by William Gunt. It was Gunt who was interested in the forms of fortress architecture. This is evidenced by his independent work - the Gasprinsky Palace (now one of the buildings of the Yasnaya Polyana sanatorium), whose appearance resembles a small Gothic castle.

Simultaneously with the palace complex, a park with an area of ​​40 hectares was created. Its layout achieves a combination of regular (strictly planned) and landscape parts. The architecture of the palace and high park art at one time set the tone for similar construction throughout the southern coast of Crimea.

LIFE

Tauride cities (not to mention towns) were modest provincial towns. Perhaps the busiest places in cities were markets, bazaars and “bazaars”. They were a kind of attraction. The first guide to Crimea by M. A. Sosnogorova describes the provincial market, which was located in one of the wastelands of Simferopol (the area of ​​​​the current square of K. A. Trenev): “The only place that can occupy a traveler... is Market Square on market day. A huge place with a fountain in the middle; built up with wooden booths, it is jam-packed with people of different tribes... On the ground... there are mountains of watermelons, melons, pumpkins, apples, pears, onions, garlic, different varieties of nuts, green and red peppers, tomatoes, blue eggplants, etc. tables sell all sorts of things...”

In each city, several recreational parks were laid out, “boulevards in the English spirit,” and on summer evenings the public strolled there, delighted by military musical bands. Various trees and shrubs, including exotic ones, were planted in the parks. Gradually, the trees grew, decorating the city with greenery and creating a beneficial shadow. There have been cases when the space allocated for a park was immediately used by townspeople as a dump and “passers-by were forced to hold their noses from the bad smell.” But, to the credit of the city administration, this place was cleared again, and soon a new park appeared in the city.

Some scientists set up a park near their homes not only for recreation, but also for scientific purposes. Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century, academician P. S. Pallas founded a garden on the left bank of the Salgir in Simferopol (a few miles from the city) called Salgirka. Later there was a fruit nursery and a gardening school.

The big problem for the townspeople was water, or rather the lack of it. City authorities made desperate attempts to solve this painful problem. Wells were dug, fountains were created in place of springs, but the urban population increased rapidly, and the problem with water remained. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the lands on which there were water sources had already been purchased by private individuals, so the city first had to buy these land plots and then begin building a water supply system. All this required significant funds. True, there were cases when the owners of such land plots donated them to the city.

The building material, like the buildings of cities and towns, was very diverse - from clay (for the construction of huts) to diabase (Vorontsov's palace). Stone, sand, and boards were carried on carts from everywhere. Very often, old ones were dismantled for new buildings, stone and other building materials were removed from dilapidated ancient fortresses, settlements, “cave cities,” without really thinking about the historical value of the dismantled monuments. By the middle of the century, the production of local building materials was established.

Initially, there were no uniform development plans. Working people, retired soldiers built their huts in settlements, which very soon found themselves within the city limits. Dignitaries, “officials” and people with “capital” built their houses in their favorite places - some near the river, others in the “wilderness”, where there was a lot of free space and therefore it was possible to plant a garden or create a park; the third - next to the “public” places, in the center.

By the end of the first half of the century, master construction plans appeared. In almost all cities, both “new” and “old,” the streets did not have names. “Folk” toponymy was practiced - Petrovskaya Sloboda, “the road to Perekop”, Bazarnaya, Greek and even... Cemetery. But by the forties of the 19th century, this issue was also resolved - “for better order in the city...”. When naming streets, they did not “spend their wisdom”, and very often names that already existed in everyday life were simply legitimized. They also gave new, very expressive ones: Uzky, Gryazny lanes, etc., according to the location of the churches: Alexander Nevskaya, Spasskaya, Troitskaya; by nationality: Estonian, Karaite, Tatar, Russian; names of kings, rulers, scientists, etc.

Extensive construction required significant funds, which were constantly insufficient for improvement. At first the streets had a pound surface, and therefore in the summer they were overgrown with grass, and in bad weather they were difficult to pass. In the first half of the 19th century, the issue of “street paving” was resolved with great difficulty. Cities that suffered from unsanitary conditions were often hit by waves of severe epidemics - cholera, smallpox, typhus and other diseases called “fevers.”

The development of the Crimean Peninsula was suspended by the Crimean (Eastern) War.

Questions and tasks

1. What contributed to the development of science in the Tauride province?

2. Tell us about the development of science.

3. Which scientist do you remember most and why?

4. Tell us about the development of literature and theater.

5. What styles were characteristic of the architecture of the Tauride province?

6. Which of the buildings did you like best? Why?

7. Tell us about life in the first half of the 19th century.

CRIMINAL WAR 1853-1856

MILITARY ACTIONS IN CRIMEA

In the fall of 1854, the Allies began to prepare their main forces for landing in the Crimea with the aim of capturing the Main Base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol. “As soon as I land in Crimea and God will send us a few hours of calm, of course: I own Sevastopol and Crimea,” declared the French commander-in-chief. The Russian government entrusted the defense of Crimea to a 37,000-strong army under the command of A. S. Menshikov.

On September 2-5 (14-17), the Anglo-French fleet landed a 62,000-strong army in Yevpatoria, which moved towards Sevastopol. On September 8 (20), on the Alma River, Russian troops made an unsuccessful attempt to stop the enemy. Both sides suffered heavy losses (the allies - up to 4.3 thousand people, the Russian army - about 6 thousand). The battle revealed the courage and heroism of the Russian soldiers, the mediocrity and cowardice of the high command. “Another such victory, and England will have no army,” exclaimed the Duke of Cambridge, who was watching the battle. The Russian army retreated to the Bakhchisarai area. The road to Sevastopol was open to the united troops of the French, British and Turks.

Sevastopol was poorly defended from land. Situated along the shores of a large bay over 7 km long, the city consisted of two separate parts: Northern and Southern. On the South side there were old and unfinished fortifications with 145 guns. The northern side of the city was protected from the sea by one fortification, built at the beginning of the 19th century, with 30 guns. Sevastopol was much better prepared for defense from the sea. The entrance to the bay was covered by 8 coastal batteries with 610 guns. The city did not have sufficient supplies of weapons, ammunition, medicine and even food.

The Allied troops, approaching Sevastopol on September 13 (25), concentrated their main forces on the approaches to the South Side. The Russian command decided to scuttle some of the ships of the Black Sea Fleet at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay in order to prevent the enemy fleet from breaking through to the port. On the night of September 11 (23), five old battleships and two frigates were sunk here, from which the guns had previously been removed, and the crews were transferred to the ranks of the city’s defenders.

"THE TWELVE APOSTLES"

(Legend)

When the steam fleet of the British and French approached Sevastopol in the summer of 1853, it became clear: the last hour of sailing ships had struck. They decided to scuttle them at the entrance to the bay, so that the ships would close the approaches to the city to the enemy squadron.

Oh, how the sailors’ wives gathered on the shore howled! Meanwhile, guns, cannonballs, gunpowder, provisions, canvas were being unloaded from the ships... There was no time to indulge in despondency at work, but every now and then one of the sailors would wipe away a small, quick, angry tear from his weathered cheek. And for others, a sob blocked his throat, and he stopped in a hurry, trying in vain to grab the air with his pain-gasped mouth. The young officers' hands were shaking, and they gave commands without looking the sailors in the eyes...

Admiral Kornilov himself, the commander of the fleet, stood on the shore with his head uncovered. Great grief was in his eyes, and his noble face became even paler than usual. The admiral was handsome with the kind of spiritual beauty that is passed down from generation to generation along with the order to preserve honor and serve the throne and the Fatherland.

At that terrible hour, many people looked at the slender silhouettes of ships slowly lowering their snow-white sails with the figures of admirals standing on the shore. A spasm of suffering passed across the round face of the youngest of them, Istomin. Nakhimov was gloomy, blacker than a cloud.

The ships sank to the bottom in different ways. Some lay on their sides, the waves splashed in the holds for a long time, hitting the side. Others raised their sterns and sank, accompanied by the roar and groan of the water, which swirled like a funnel after the plunging mass.

Look, how! - they said on the shore. - It’s as if I went on a hunt to visit the old man of the sea!

But this soulful one doesn’t want to part with the white light!

It's hard for him. I used it near Sinop... Then they fought off three Turkish ones. How's that for you?

What can I say, we tried our best for Russia.

We tried...

But now it’s the turn of the Twelve Apostles. Until recently, Admiral Nakhimov flew his flag on this ship. On it he broke into the Sinop harbor, he loved it as lonely people love their brainchild. When the turn of the “Twelve Apostles” came, Nakhimov could not stand it and left the embankment. Meanwhile, the sailors continued their sad work. As in other cases, they drilled several holes in the bottom of the ship, but it did nothing: it stood on the water, showing off. The wave gently splashes against the steep sides - as if there was no war. It’s as if they’re about to lower the main gangplank, the boat will fly away from the ship, Nakhimov himself will board it, and everyone will wake up from a terrible dream...

But God, apparently, judged differently. And they began to drill new holes in the bottom of the ship. For others, two or three were enough. And here it is already fourteen, but the ship is standing, the masts are at the very zenith, and is not heeling.

But time does not endure, time pushes on.

Then they gave the command: “Vladimir” to shoot at the “Twelve Apostles”. So he started. What then rose on the shore! The women who came running from Korabelnaya fall on each other's chests, roaring, the sailors - some bit their lips so as not to howl, some wiped themselves with their sleeves, some went completely limp.

The admirals stare intently, their eyes narrowed. But all the same, a tear betrayed them: it ran down their pale cheeks, their faces became distorted.

And the shells hit and tear the sides. But no result. The ship still stands in the middle of the bay. And they stand on the shore, talking:

And why does he have such a fate? Accept death from your own?

And don’t say, there’s nothing worse than how you look at it.

How many times have I left the Turks? And here - on!

And at this time one sailor will shout:

The icon keeps him on the water! The icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, our intercessor, has been forgotten by the children of the enemy! They didn't take it off. Eh-ma!

He said and hit the ground with his cap and shouted so loudly that everyone turned their heads towards him. And he ran to the shore, crossed himself and - into the water!

He swam to the ship, climbed on board, carried out the icon and swam back. He scoops it up with one hand and holds the icon high above the water with the other.

And as soon as he stepped ashore, the ship swayed, as if saying goodbye to his native harbor, bowing to her and those who stood crying over his fate. There was a sigh. No, not on the shore - on the ship itself it sighed, bitterly, with heaviness. And he went to the bottom...

On September 14 (26), British troops occupied Balaklava, and French troops occupied positions on the Fedyukhin Heights. Gradually, the allied army came close to the city, the garrison of which at that time consisted of 22 thousand soldiers, sailors and officers. The 349-day heroic defense of Sevastopol began. The city, over which mortal danger loomed, was actively preparing for defense. Its inspirers and organizers were the Chief of Staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov and Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov. The entire working population came out to build fortifications. The direct supervision of defense work was carried out by the talented fortification engineer E. I. Totleben.

Thanks to the selfless work of tens of thousands of soldiers, sailors and residents of the city, Sevastopol was very soon surrounded by bastions, on which guns removed from ships were installed. By the beginning of 1854, 7 bastions and other fortifications with 341 guns were built on the southern side of the city. As a result, even before the Allied siege artillery was brought up, the city turned into a strong fortress. The entire line of fortifications consisted of four distances, the direct defense of which was headed by Major General A. O. Aslanovich, Vice Admiral F. I. Novosilsky, Rear Admirals A. I. Panfilov and V. I. Istomin. The northern side remained unsieged by the enemy, which allowed the city garrison to maintain contact with the rear, receive reinforcements, food, ammunition, and remove the wounded.

HEROIC DEFENSE OF SEVASTOPOL

On October 5 (17), the Allies began bombarding the city from land and sea. Intense shelling continued all day, over 50 thousand cannonballs were thrown at the city. On that day, Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov was mortally wounded. His last words are filled with patriotism: “I am happy that I am dying for the Fatherland.” The garrison and population of the city suffered significantly from the bombing. However, the enemy failed to inflict serious damage to the fortifications and coastal forts. Having suffered significant losses, the Allied fleet was forced to retreat; the enemy moved on to a long siege of Sevastopol.

The Russian army under the command of A. S. Menshikov tried to provide assistance to the residents of Sevastopol, periodically attacking enemy troops. On October 13 (25), a battle took place in the valley between Sevastopol and Balaklava. In this battle, the English light cavalry, in which representatives of the most aristocratic families of England served, lost about 1.5 thousand people. But the success of the Russian soldiers was not developed due to Menshikov's indecisiveness. The Balaklava operation did not change the position of the besieged city.

Meanwhile, the situation in the Sevastopol region became increasingly tense. After the death of V. A. Kornilov, the defense was headed by P. S. Nakhimov, the hero of Sinop, the favorite of the entire Black Sea Fleet.

The Allies were preparing for a new assault on the city. The Russian command tried to get ahead of the enemy and on October 24 (November 5) ordered the troops near Inkerman to unexpectedly attack the enemy. Russian soldiers showed steadfastness and courage in battle, but the indecisiveness of the Allied command and the inconsistency of his orders to the troops saved the enemy troops from defeat that day.

Contemporaries rightly noted that the soldiers won the Battle of Inkerman and the generals lost. The Russian army has not had such a failure for a long time. But for the Allied army, Inkerman, as the French generals said, was “more of a successful battle than a victory.” The enemy's losses amounted to more than 5 thousand soldiers, 270 officers and 9 generals. The allied troops were forced to abandon the planned assault on Sevastopol and continued the siege of the city. The war became protracted.

The storm on November 2 dealt a significant blow to the Allies, as a result of which part of their fleet was lost, as well as an epidemic of cholera and dysentery that engulfed enemy troops. Desertion increased among the Allied forces. At the end of 1854, the Allied troops in Crimea numbered about 55 thousand people. The opportune moment has come to launch a counterattack against the weakened enemy. But Minister of War Dolgorukov and Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army Menshikov actually withdrew from the leadership of military operations and did not take advantage of the favorable situation. Meanwhile, in December 1854 - January 1855, the enemy received large reinforcements: 30 thousand French soldiers and officers, 10 thousand English and 35 thousand Turkish.

The attempt of Russian troops under the command of Lieutenant General S.A. Khrulev in February 1855 to attack Yevpatoria in order to ease the situation in Sevastopol ended in failure.

However, despite the indecisive actions of the Russian command, sailors, soldiers, and the local population heroically defended the city. L.N. Tolstoy, who participated in the defense of the city, wrote: “The spirit in the troops is beyond any description. During the times of ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. Kornilov, driving around the troops, instead of: “Great, guys!” - he said: “You have to die, guys, will you die?” - and the troops shouted: “We will die...”, and it was not passion... and twenty thousand have already fulfilled this promise.”

During October - December 1854, six batteries were built on the Inkerman Heights, and a second line of defense was erected on the City side. Not only soldiers and sailors, but also the entire population of the city took part in the construction of fortifications. Women and even children worked alongside men.

The defenders of Sevastopol inflicted significant blows on the enemy, carrying out forays into the location of enemy troops. They disabled manpower and equipment, destroyed trenches, and captured prisoners. Even children defended their hometown. For his bravery, the ten-year-old defender of the fifth bastion, Kolya Pishchenko, was awarded a military order. Pyotr Markovich Koshka became famous for his courage, who participated in eighteen forays into enemy troops, captured ten “tongues” and was awarded the St. George Cross. L.N. Tolstoy wrote: “This epic of Sevastopol, the hero of which was the Russian people, will leave great traces in Russia for a long time...” During the defense of Sevastopol, underground mine warfare became widespread. The mine work was led by a talented engineer, staff captain A.V. Melnikov. The military skill of his sappers and work teams thwarted the Allied attempt to destroy the city's defense system.

Upon the arrival of the famous surgeon N.I. Pirogov in Sevastopol in mid-November 1854, the medical service was radically restructured. The emergence of military field surgery is associated with the name of N. I. Pirogov.

They selflessly fought for the life of every wounded person in the hospital. Women provided great assistance in this. In total, up to 250 nurses voluntarily went to war, 120 of them worked in Crimea. Forgetting about fatigue, women did not leave hospitals and dressing stations either day or night. Russia's first sister of mercy, Dasha Alexandrova, named Sevastopolskaya, enjoyed great love among the defenders of Sevastopol. Many warriors owe their lives to her. For her heroic actions, Dasha was awarded the Golden Cross medal. P. Grafova (sister of the author of “Woe from Wit” A.S. Griboyedov), head nurse K. Bakunina and others won great respect from the soldiers.

Enemy troops began to besiege the key position of the Sevastopol residents - Malakhov Kurgan. Under the leadership of P. S. Nakhimov, V. I. Istomin, E. I. Totleben, a system of advanced fortifications was built in front of the line of bastions. In the history of wars, there has never been a time when a besieged city built fortifications under intense enemy fire. This characterizes Russian military leaders as first-class specialists. And the harder it was for the city’s defenders, the more firmly and decisively they defended every meter of their positions, every inch of their native land. With great difficulty it was possible to replenish the garrison-fortress with troops, ammunition, medicine and food. Throughout the war, money was collected for military needs. With everything they could, the people tried to help Sevastopol and its defenders. Especially many students went to war. In accordance with the government decree of January 23, 1855, committees were created in many cities to raise funds for the fund to help the families of sailors - defenders of Sevastopol, widows and orphans.

The Allies did not limit themselves to the siege of Sevastopol; they carried out a number of landing operations. On September 21, Anglo-French troops landed an airborne detachment in Yalta. The city did not have a military garrison. For several days, the defenseless city was subjected to barbaric plunder and robbery.

On May 12 (24), 1844, an allied squadron consisting of 57 ships carrying 17.4 thousand people approached Kerch. Having blown up powder magazines, batteries and city warehouses, a small Russian garrison left Kerch. The city was also plundered.

The main events continued to unfold in the Sevastopol area. The main forces of the Allies were concentrated here, preparing for the next assault on the city. Starting from May 25 (June 6), 1855, about 600 enemy guns fired at the positions of the defenders of Sevastopol day and night. On June 28 (July 10) P. S. Nakhimov was mortally wounded on Malakhov Kurgan.

NAKHIMOV

(Legend)

Nakhimov considered himself to some extent to be responsible for the fact that Sevastopol found itself besieged by British, French, and Turkish troops and, whatever you say, doomed to destruction. In fact, if Nakhimov had not won a brilliant victory over the Turkish fleet at Sinop, God knows how events would have turned out.

But what was done was done. The Turkish fleet was defeated, sunk, and burned. The power of Russia aroused anger among the Turks and apprehension in Europe. Sevastopol was surrounded both from land and sea, Nakhimov could only swear that he would not leave the besieged city while at least one defender was fighting on its bastions. And he won’t leave alive at all; he would prefer to die on Malakhov Kurgan.

As for a successful outcome for the Russians, there was no need to dream about it: the forces that piled up were too great.

The victory over the Turks at Sinop was the last victory of the sailing fleet. Nakhimov was jealous of Admiral Ushakov, Senyavin, and Lazarev. They died before the fleet they nurtured. Through their efforts, Russia turned into a first-class maritime power. The fleet became the pride of the state, and no one seemed to be able to anticipate the sad days of 1854.

When the construction of a cathedral was planned on a hill in the center of the city, the underground part of it was planned as a tomb. According to seniority, the first place in the crypt was reserved for Lazarev, who did a lot for the fleet and developed the city. Lazarev died far from Sevastopol, but his body was transported to this Russian city of prime glory and buried in the still unfinished cathedral. Kornilov, who died in the first days of defense, was already lying there at the feet of his commander. Third place awaited Nakhimov.

And they said: Nakhimov is looking for death. But from bullets - charmed. Some of those especially devoted to the admiral claimed that they themselves saw: a bullet, clearly intended for Nakhimov, was suddenly in the air - and visible to the eye! - changed my route. Some said - others believed. How can you not believe? After all, Nakhimov really stood on Malakhov at full height. He wore an admiral's, clearly visible uniform, and bullets flew like bees in the first warmth of summer. And what? Nothing! The people around him look like a scythe, and he just looks back at everyone who has been hit by a bullet or shrapnel, and there is such pain in his eyes... He would exchange lots, especially with the young ones, but the bullet does not take him! This means that the city needs Nakhimov! Who, like the admiral, will take care of provisions, fodder and gunpowder, which are more and more in short supply every day? Who will write letters to all the mothers of the young officers killed in Sevastopol? Who will take care of sailor widows and orphans if Nakhimov dies?

And now Vladimir Ivanovich Istomin has already been killed and he was buried in the crypt of the Vladimir Cathedral in the place that Admiral Nakhimov had reserved for himself.

The lamp smoked with an uneven flame, darkness thickened in the corners of the room. Stooping his shoulders low over the table, Nakhimov wrote to the widow of Admiral Lazarev: “The best hope that I have dreamed of since the day of the admiral’s death - the last place in the crypt next to my precious coffin, I gave up to Vladimir Ivanovich! The tender fatherly affection of the late admiral for him, the friendship and trust of Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov, and finally, his behavior worthy of our mentor and leader, decided me to make this sacrifice... However, the hope does not leave me to belong to this exalted family: friends and colleagues in In the event of my death, of course, they will not refuse to put me in a grave, which their location will find a way to bring closer to the remains of the founder of our class...”

On June 25, 1855, Nakhimov, once again, greeted the day on Malakhov Kurgan. They asked him to go into hiding. Usually in such cases he answered as he waved it off: “Not every bullet is in the forehead.” And this time he said thoughtfully: “How deftly they shoot.” And then he fell, mortally wounded in the head.

Nakhimov’s coffin in a house near the Grafskaya pier was surrounded by a sea of ​​people who came to say goodbye to the one who for them personified the spirit of defense. Nakhimov’s coffin stood exactly on the table on which Pavel Stepanovich used to write letters to the families of his dead young comrades, and was covered with several flags pierced in battles.

From the house to the church itself, the defenders of Sevastopol stood in two rows, holding guns on guard. A huge crowd accompanied the hero's ashes. No one was afraid of either enemy grapeshot or artillery shelling. And neither the French nor the British fired. The scouts, of course, reported to them what was going on. In those days, they knew how to appreciate courage and noble zeal, even on the part of the enemy.

Military music rang out in full march, farewell cannon salutes rang out, the ships lowered their flags to half masts.

And suddenly someone noticed: flags were creeping down on enemy ships too! And another, snatching a telescope from the hands of a hesitant sailor, saw: the English officers, huddled together on the deck, took off their caps, bowed their heads...

Nakhimov’s body was lowered next to the coffins of his comrades in the crypt of the Vladimir Cathedral.

In Sevastopol, on the square near the Grafskaya pier, a monument to Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov, a heroic naval commander, hero of the defense of Sevastopol, was erected.

The situation in Sevastopol worsened every day. The Russian government could not provide its defenders with the necessary amount of weapons, ammunition, and food.

During the fighting near Sevastopol, the role of mounted (mortar) fire increasingly increased, but few mortars were produced in Russia. If in October 1854 the Sevastopol residents had 5 mortars, and the allies had 18, then in August 1855 they had 69 and 260, respectively. There was not enough gunpowder, there was so little ammunition that the command issued an order: respond to fifty enemy shots with five.

The lack of roads had a negative impact on the entire military campaign, in particular on the defense of Sevastopol. It slowed down the delivery of ammunition and food to the city’s defenders and delayed the arrival of reinforcements. The ranks of the defenders of Sevastopol were melting.

After stubborn fighting in May - June, calm reigned for some time in the Sevastopol area. The Allies were preparing for a new assault on the city.

General M.D. Gorchakov, who replaced A.S. Menshikov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the Crimea, after long hesitations and delays, attempted to go on the offensive against the Anglo-French troops, but on August 4 (16), 1855, he was defeated in the river area Black.

On August 5 (17), 1855, the enemy began preparations for a new assault on Sevastopol with a massive bombardment, which lasted until August 24 (September 5).

In total, about 200 thousand shells were fired. As a result of this shelling, the city was almost completely destroyed, not a single intact house remained in it. On August 24 (September 5), the Allies launched a general offensive, directing the main attack on Malakhov Kurgan. But the defenders repelled the attack. On August 27 (September 8), the 60,000-strong allied army began an assault on Malakhov Kurgan and the city. At the cost of heavy losses, the enemy managed to capture Malakhov Kurgan, which decided the outcome of the defense of Sevastopol.

On August 28 (September 9), the garrisons of the city, its defenders, having destroyed batteries, powder magazines and sunk some of the remaining ships, crossed to the Northern side. On August 30 (September 11), the last ships of the Black Sea Fleet were sunk. On the same day, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, gave the order to stop the defense of Sevastopol. However, the defense of the North side of the city continued until the truce, signed on February 17 (29), 1856, i.e. another 174 days after the South side was abandoned.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol is an epic of the military feat of the masses who defended their Fatherland. “We expected easy victories,” noted the English newspaper The Times, “but we found resistance that surpassed everything hitherto known in history.”

On March 18 (March 30), 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, according to which Russia was prohibited from having a navy and bases on the Black Sea and building fortifications on its coast. Thus, the southern borders of Russia became open.

As a result of military operations, the Crimean peninsula suffered significant damage. Particularly affected were the lands where hostilities took place: Evpatoria, Perekop and most of Simferopol districts; cities: Sevastopol, Kerch, Yalta. The Crimean economy, as well as cultural and historical monuments, were significantly damaged.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the initial stage of the war in Crimea.

2. Describe Sevastopol’s readiness for defense.

3. Why was part of the Black Sea Fleet sunk?

4. Describe the actions of the Russian army: soldiers, sailors, officers and high command.

5. Tell us about the heroic defense of Sevastopol. Give examples.

6. How did the country show its concern for the defenders of Sevastopol?

7. What military operations did the allies carry out, besides the siege of Sevastopol?

8. Tell us about the final stage of the defense of Sevastopol.

9. What are the main reasons for the defeat of Russian troops in Crimea?

10. What are the results and consequences of the war?

CRIMEA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19th century.

The development of the region in the second half of the 19th century was influenced by a number of important events and factors, primarily the Crimean War and the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

The economy of all of Russia began to develop at a rapid pace. Crimea occupied one of the first places in terms of development rates, ahead of other Russian provinces.

The following factors had a great influence on the development of the region:

Firstly, the Crimean village knew almost no serfdom;

Secondly, in the Crimean villages, long before the reform, commodity-money relations were widely developed. Most farms were of a clearly commercial nature;

Thirdly, a large number of migrants flocked to Crimea;

Fourthly, the Lozovaya - Sevastopol railway, the construction of which was completed in 1875, played a huge role in the development of the Crimean economy. This road connected the peninsula with the provinces of Russia, which contributed to the development of trade.

POPULATION OF CRIMEA

In the middle of the century, complex processes took place in Crimea. On the one hand, a significant number of immigrants are flocking here, on the other hand, there is a new emigration of the Crimean Tatar population. Thousands of residents left the peninsula. A significant role in this was played by the pro-Turkish orientation of the highest Muslim clergy, beys and murzas, as well as oppression by the Russian government and officials. According to official data, within

1860-1862 131 thousand Crimean Tatars left Crimea. As a result of emigration and the consequences of the war, 687 villages were partially or completely depopulated. The rural population decreased sharply: in 1853 it was 225.6 thousand, and in 1865 - 122 thousand people. Emigration occurred during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, and in subsequent decades. Thus, in the early 90s of the 19th century, about 30 thousand Tatars left Crimea.

But, despite these painful processes, from the 60s the population of the peninsula began to grow rapidly due to immigrants. This indicates even more clearly the multinational composition of Crimea. In 1897, the share of the Russian population (33.1%) of the region was almost equal to the total number of Tatars, Ukrainians accounted for 11.8%, Germans - 5.8%, Jews - 4.7%, Greeks - 3.1%, Armenians - 1.5%. In 32 years, from 1865 to 1897, the population almost tripled: from 194,000 to 547,000 people.

A characteristic feature of post-reform Crimea was the rapid growth of the urban population. Its share increased by 1897 to 41.9% of the total population of the region. The growth rate of the urban population of the peninsula was significantly higher than in Russia as a whole. Thus, in Russia from 1863 to 1897, i.e. in 34 years, the urban population grew by 97%, while in Crimea the urban population increased by 190%. All this suggests that cities, industry and trade developed at a significant pace on the peninsula.

Questions and tasks

1. What factors influenced the development of the regional economy in the second half of the 19th century?

2. What was the reason for the new wave of emigration of the Tatar population of Crimea?

3. What reasons contributed to the resettlement of a significant number of people to Crimea?

4. Describe the national composition of the population of Crimea.

INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT

The industry of Crimea in the second half of the 19th century developed quite successfully as a whole. Processing industries predominated - food and light industries, tobacco factories and flour mills.

The number of enterprises, mostly small, grew quite quickly: in 1868 there were 63 enterprises with 184 workers, in 1886 - 99 with 743 workers, in 1900 - 264 enterprises and 14.8 thousand workers, of which 77 enterprises in salt industry. This is how A.I. Markevich describes the economic boom and technical progress in Simferopol at the end of the last century: “...in the 80s, the intestinal-string factory of the merchant Lerich opened in Simferopol, which produced 45,000 pieces of strings worth 11,500 rubles with 5 workers. Four soap and candle factories produced products worth 130,800 rubles this year. with 66 workers, two breweries for 19,500 rubles. with 6 workers, an iron foundry with 20-23 workers for 17,400 rubles, three steam and flour mills produced for 23,000 rubles. with 16 workers... In 1882 - the candy factory of the Abrikosov brothers; in 1885 - the Heiss factory under the name Einem. In 1891, production reached 368,500 rubles.”

The introduction of advanced technologies contributed to further technical progress. There were even excursions to the enterprises. Thus, on April 14, 1889, high school students from the Simferopol men’s gymnasium visited the Abrikosov brothers’ candy factory: “The alembic, a hundred bowls of jam, and a machine that seals cans were of particular interest to the schoolchildren. ...It was launched, and the French master prepared up to ten boxes, hermetically sealed, in a few minutes.”

By the end of the century, there were over 40 industrial enterprises in Simferopol, but only four canneries and tobacco factories were large. All other enterprises, both in terms of the number of workers and the volume of production, were very small, not far removed from the artisanal enterprises, which employed up to 10 hired workers.

One of the largest enterprises was ship repair shops in Sevastopol. They belonged to a private joint-stock company called the Russian Society of Shipping and Trade. This largest joint-stock enterprise, having arisen in 1859, by the end of the century had “taken over” most of Russian trade on the Black Sea.

In all port cities there were his trading offices, ship repair and shipbuilding enterprises, where steamships and even large ships for the military department were built. Of the other enterprises in the city, the largest was the mill, which worked mainly for export.

Iron ore mining enterprises were of great importance. The rate of production was constantly increasing; if in 1897 1,241,000 poods were produced, then by the end of the century it was already 19,685,000 poods. And despite the fact that Kerch ore was of low quality, due to its cheapness it successfully competed with higher quality ores.

The rapid growth of iron ore mining, which began in 1899, is explained by two reasons: firstly, the new Kerch Metallurgical Plant was built in 1899; secondly, since 1900, Kerch ore began to be exported by rail, which connected Kerch with the main highway Lozovaya - Sevastopol.

Other, at that time, quite large enterprises in Kerch were the Mesaksudi tobacco factory and the developing fisheries.

In Feodosia, in addition to the port, the Stamboli tobacco factory and the Einem canning factory were considered large enterprises.

There were no large enterprises in Evpatoria, Bakhchisarai and other cities of Crimea. Only small workshops and handicraft factories developed.

The salt mining industry is gradually losing its leading place in the economy. This was due to the fact that in the second half of the 19th century, rock salt was discovered in a number of provinces of the country. Salt production in all fields in the 90s ranged from 19,000,000 to 26,000,000 poods per year.

The ongoing railway construction was of great importance in the successful development of industry in the region.

In 1874, the construction of the Lozovaya - Simferopol railway was completed. The first freight train arrived at the Simferopol station on June 2, 1874. The following year, 1875, the railway line was extended to Sevastopol. In 1892, work was completed on the construction of a railway line from Dzhankoy to Feodosia, and in 1900 the Vladislavovka - Kerch railway line was put into operation. Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, the main cities of Crimea were connected by rail.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the development of industry in Crimea.

2. How was industry different in the second half of the 19th century? from industry of the first half of the 19th century. ?

3. Tell us about industrial enterprises of the second half of the 19th century.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The rapid development of industry, the noticeable growth of cities and the non-agricultural population, railway and sea transport, the expansion of the domestic market, domestic and foreign trade - all this could not but affect the nature and structure of agricultural production. Steadily developing, agriculture throughout the post-reform period was increasingly drawn into commodity circulation and became entrepreneurial.

The most important reforms and transformations that took place, the development of a new form of land ownership inevitably led to significant changes in the material and technical base of agriculture and, above all, in the tools of labor as the most mobile element of production. Tools were updated throughout the post-reform period. This was facilitated, on the one hand, by the import of agricultural machinery into Russia from more industrially developed Western European countries and, on the other hand, by the progress of domestic agricultural engineering.

Already in the first post-reform years, all large farms had horse-drawn threshing machines, and some had steam threshing machines.

The development of agriculture in Crimea was facilitated by the intensive resettlement of new residents to the region. In addition, tens of thousands of seasonal workers from the central, densely populated regions of the country began to come here every year.

The agriculture of Crimea was replenished with a large number of workers, and agricultural products received convenient access to domestic markets. All this contributed to the rapid development of agriculture. It occupied a leading position in the economy of the region.

Particularly great changes took place in the steppe zone of Crimea. The sharply increased demand for wheat contributed to the development of field farming. From this point on, sheep farming is reduced, freeing up land for wheat. There is a reduction in the number of sheep. During the period from 1866 to 1889, the number of fine-wool sheep decreased from 2,360,000 heads to 138,000 heads, i.e. 17 times.

More and more land in the steppe regions is devoted to grain crops. The expansion of cultivated areas has especially begun to increase since the 80s. Thus, over 35 years, the sown area in Crimea increased from 204,000 dessiatines to 848,000 dessiatines, i.e. more than three times.

The production of grain, mainly wheat, was of a commercial nature, i.e., intended for sale on the market. This is evidenced by the following data: in terms of the export of marketable grain, the Taurida province took second place after the Samara province. In 1885, an average of 15.94 pounds of grain were exported from the Samara province per resident. In the same year, an average of 15.31 poods were exported from the Tauride province per resident. If we take Russia as a whole, then this figure was only 2.33 poods.

In large farms, hired labor and the latest equipment were widely used, and land cultivation was improved.

The Crimean War caused great damage primarily to special crops, in particular vineyards. In the Sevastopol region, in the Belbek, Kachin, and Alma valleys, many vineyards were neglected. But gradually this industry is beginning to recover, and the area occupied by vineyards is expanding. In the mid-80s it amounted to 5,482 dessiatines, in 1892 it increased to 6,662 dessiatines.

With the construction of railways to Crimea, it became possible to export fresh grapes to the country's domestic markets, which, naturally, also contributed to the development of the industry. The annual export of grapes from Crimea by rail in the 80s was 24 thousand poods per year.

Industrial winemaking developed on the basis of viticulture. Large wine-making industrial enterprises and trading firms appeared: Gubonina - in Gurzuf, Tokmakova - Molotkova - in Alushta, Tayursky - in Kastel, Khristoforova - near Ayu-Dag, large industrial enterprises of the specific department. In the 90s, the total production of grape wine was estimated at 2,000,000 buckets.

The gardens of Crimea suffered significantly during the war. But after its completion, they recovered and developed quite successfully. By 1887, the area of ​​gardens on the peninsula reached approximately five and a half thousand acres.

The development of gardening was facilitated by the domestic market and the opening of a large number of canning and candy factories, which began to appear in the late 70s and early 80s. From that moment on, the need for raw materials for these enterprises constantly increased. Canning factories gave an industrial character to gardening. They are creating their own raw material zones in Crimea.

In the 1980s, the export of fresh fruit from Crimea, primarily via rail, to the central provinces of Russia increased sharply - about half a million poods per year.

In the second half of the 19th century, another branch of agriculture—tobacco growing—was widely developed in Crimea. The development of tobacco growing began after the end of the Crimean War. Over 30 years, the area of ​​tobacco plantations increased more than 11 times, and by the end of the 80s it was estimated at 3,900 acres.

Tobacco growing had a pronounced commercial and industrial character. Tobacco cultivation was mainly carried out by professional tobacco growers on rented or own plots of land, making extensive use of hired labor.

The tobacco industry developed on the basis of tobacco growing. By the end of the century, up to one hundred thousand pounds of tobacco were shipped annually from Crimea to the domestic markets of Russia by rail.

In Crimea, they engaged in sericulture, beekeeping, and the cultivation of various medicinal herbs and other special crops.

By the beginning of the century, Crimean agriculture was quite highly developed.

TRADE

The development of industry and agriculture led to the further growth of domestic trade. This was facilitated by the expansion of the domestic market associated with the deepening of the social division of labor.

Transport, especially railways, was of great importance in the development of trade. He made the exchange of goods faster and cheaper.

The forms and structure of domestic trade changed significantly. Stationary trade - shops and shops - began to develop quickly. An important link in domestic trade was represented by bazaars and auctions. The growth of trade was facilitated by the expansion of postal, trade, telegraph and telephone communications. Already in the 50s, telegraph communication was established between Moscow, St. Petersburg and Simferopol. In the early 70s, almost all county towns were connected by telegraph.

The development of trade was facilitated by a wide network of banks and savings and loan societies in the province, for example, in 1873-1878. 30 savings and loan societies with a capital of 5 thousand rubles were created for the rural population.

Simferopol, Kerch, Evpatoria, Sevastopol and a number of other settlements are becoming quite large shopping centers in the region. In Simferopol in 1900, there were up to 650 commercial establishments - shops, shops and stalls - with an annual turnover of up to 10,000,000 rubles. Grape wine and fruit were especially sold here.

Evpatoria made significant trade turnover. By the end of the century, there were over 350 trading establishments there with a total annual turnover of more than 8,000,000 rubles.

Significantly smaller amounts of trade were in cities such as Bakhchisarai, Karasubazar and other settlements. Here trade was local in nature.

The export of fruits, wine, tobacco, canned goods and fish from Crimea to the central provinces of Russia was large. Salt and iron ore were exported.

Along with the growth of domestic trade, foreign trade through the Crimean ports increased quite quickly. The development of maritime trade can be traced through the turnover of two main ports - Sevastopol and Feodosia. In 1866, the turnover of these ports was calculated at only 2,799,940 rubles.

In the 80s, the average annual turnover of these ports increased to eighteen million seven hundred thousand rubles, and by the end of the century their average annual turnover was over 24,000,000 rubles. It is very interesting that at first the import of goods significantly exceeded the export, then export much exceeded import.

A large number of goods from Crimea were exported. Crimean wheat was in great demand due to its high quality; at the same time, goods were also exported from the central provinces of Russia through the Crimean ports.

2.7 million pounds of fruit, several million deciliters of wine, and 240 thousand tons of tobacco were exported from Crimea annually. The total cost of agricultural products exported from the peninsula alone was determined to be approximately 19 million rubles.

Questions and tasks

1. What contributed to the development of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century. ?

2. What changes occurred in agriculture in the second half of the 19th century. compared to the first half of the 19th century. ?

3. What damage did the Crimean War cause to the agriculture of Crimea?

4. Tell us about the development of field cultivation, horticulture, viticulture and special crops.

5. What contributed to the development of trade?

6. What goods were exported from Crimea?

CITIES OF CRIMEA

Economic success contributed to the growth of Crimean cities.

Simferopol by the end of the century it was rightfully the administrative, cultural and economic center of the province. All provincial institutions and organizations were located in the city. Simferopol was the first of all the cities of Crimea to be connected by telegraph with Moscow and St. Petersburg. A professional theater appeared in 1874. Since 1875, the city began publishing its own newspaper. In 1893, telephone communication appeared.

Sevastopol. Essentially, the city of glory had to be rebuilt, so great was the destruction during the battle for this city during the war, there were only a little over a dozen intact buildings left. But, as they say, “the situation obliged,” and the city is rapidly recovering, especially after the abolition of the treaty on the neutralization of the Black Sea. This process was further accelerated by the construction of the railway and the establishment of a commercial port. By the beginning of the century, there were already 3,250 residential buildings and 67,752 residents (except military personnel) in Sevastopol. The city is being improved - a water supply system is being built, a telephone is appearing.

Despite the fact that during the Crimean War some of the buildings Yalta was destroyed, the city is quickly being restored. The reputation of a prestigious resort has already firmly established itself outside the city. After the famous Russian scientist S.P. Botkin made a conclusion about the similarity of the southern coastal climate with the Mediterranean, the Romanovs acquired the Livadia estate near Yalta, and after the royal family a large “retinue” rushed here. It was prestigious to vacation in close proximity to the royal family. By the end of the century, the city was turning into a famous resort, into “Russian Nice”, “Russian Riviera”. By this time, the city had about a thousand houses with 22,630 inhabitants. During the holiday season, the number of “residents” increased sharply.

It's becoming quite a big city Feodosia. It is turning into a large trading city, a port city, connected to the commercial and administrative centers of the country. By the end of the century, the city already had more than 30 thousand inhabitants.

The resort and medical center of the west coast is becoming Evpatoria. This was facilitated by the healing properties of Moinak mud. At the same time, the city had a port through which significant trade flowed.

Cities such as Karasubazar And Bakhchisaray, still maintaining its medieval appearance.

SCIENCE AND CULTURE

One of the explorers of Crimea was a professor of geologist and hydrogeologist Nikolai Alekseevich Golovkinsky(1834-1897). He is the author of about 25 published works on tectonics, geography, water resources of Crimea, and one of the best guides to Crimea. He categorically protested against unmanaged logging in the Crimean mountains, arguing that this had a detrimental effect on the environment and led to the shallowing of rivers.

The scientist discovered significant reserves of artesian waters in the Crimean plain, substantiated the feasibility of creating a network of hydrological stations on the peninsula, and took part in organizing the first “artesian observatory” in Russia in Saki. He was the first to find the fossilized skeleton of a mammoth in the Sotera Valley on the South Coast.

He was a prominent historian and archaeologist Andrey Yakovlevich Fabre(1789-1863). He wrote the following works on the history and archeology of the Northern Black Sea region: “The Most Memorable Antiquities of Crimea and the Memories Associated with It”, “Ancient Life of Eiona, the Present Taman Peninsula”, described Taurus dolmen boxes.

Alexander Lvovich Berthier-Delagarde(1842-1920), a native of Crimea, was in military service until 1887, after graduating from the Engineering Academy. As a military engineer he participated in the last Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. A. L. Berthier-Delagarde made a great contribution to Crimean studies with his works: “Remains of ancient structures in the vicinity of Sevastopol and cave cities of Crimea”, “How Vladimir besieged Korsun”, “From the history of Christianity in Crimea. The Imaginary Millennium", "Calamita and Theodoro", "Studies of Some Perplexing Questions of the Middle Ages in Tauris."

Ismail Bek Mustafa-ogly Gasprinsky(1851-1914), a native of Crimea, after studying in a number of educational institutions, returned to Bakhchisarai, taught Russian at the Zindzhirli madrasah. On April 10, 1883, I. M. Gasprinsky’s dream came true - he began publishing the newspaper “Terdzhiman” (“Translator”) in Bakhchisarai, which was published in the Crimean Tatar and, partially, Russian languages. Gasprinsky also published the weekly newspaper “Millet” (“Nation”) and the weekly magazine for women “Alemi Nisva” (“World of Desires”).

Gasprinsky is known as a journalist and scientist, whose pen includes a number of works; was engaged in educational activities, was the author of a number of textbooks and educational programs, and was the author of a new sound teaching method; had great authority as a public figure.

A prominent Karaite Hebraist (the science of the Hebrew language and writing), historian, archaeologist, and scientist of the 19th century was Abraham Samuilovich Firkovich(1786-1875). He traveled a lot in search of information about his people, their culture and religion on behalf of the spiritual Karaite rule in Evpatoria. The result of these travels through the countries of the Middle East - Palestine, Turkey, Egypt, as well as the Caucasus and Crimea - was an impressive collection of manuscripts, which makes it possible to trace the development of codification (bringing together) the biblical text. Most of the manuscripts are complete or partial texts of the Pentateuch, rewritten in the 9th-14th centuries; A number of copies bear inscriptions from donors. During his lifetime, Firkovich donated his unique collection - 15 thousand items - to the Imperial Russian Public Library.

The activities of the Taurida Scientific Archival Commission (TUAC) were extremely important for the development of local history. TUAK was the oldest and most authoritative local history organization in Crimea. Created on January 24 (February 6), 1887, it did a lot to study the history of Crimea, protect and use its monuments. Thanks to TUAC, hundreds of thousands of valuable archival documents were saved from destruction. The first chairman of TUAC was Alexander Christianovich Steven, son of the founder of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden Christian Christianovich Steven. Since 1908 he was replaced Arsenty Ivanovich Markevich, famous Crimean expert. The most prominent scientists took part in the work of TUAC D. V. Ainalov, A. L. Berthier-Delagarde, S. I. Bibikov, U. A. Bodaninsky and many others. The results of scientific research by members of the Commission were published in Izvestia TUAK (57 volumes). These publications are an excellent source base for studying the history of the region.

In the second half of the 19th century, a number of scientific societies were created that played a significant role in the development of science and the dissemination of scientific knowledge: Tauride medical-pharmaceutical society (1868), Simferopol Department of the Russian Society for the Study of Horticulture for Economic and Scientific Purposes(1883) and others.

In Crimea, new museums and libraries are opening and replenishing their collections.

In Simferopol in 1887 the Museum of Antiquities of the Tauride Scientific Archival Commission was founded, and in 1899 the Natural History Museum was founded. The names of many major figures are associated with the history of these centers of culture - A. X. Steven, A. I. Markevich, A. L. Berthier-Delagarde, S. A. Mokrzhetsky, N. N. Klepinin and many others. On November 12, 1873, the Tavrika library was founded. It contained rare reference books, guidebooks, monographs, albums, lifetime publications of outstanding writers, discoverers and researchers of Crimea; almost all legislative publications of provincial and district zemstvo assemblies; files of newspapers, including the Tauride Provincial Gazette (starting from 1838). All these bibliographic rarities allow for a comprehensive study of Crimea.

Museums were replenished with wonderful finds from archaeological expeditions. A number of important archaeological studies were carried out during this period. One of the sensational discoveries - a cave site of an ancient man - Wolf Grotto(discovered by K. S. Merezhkovsky in 1879).

Since the 60s, regular research on Chersonesos began. Since 1888, the first director of excavations K. K. Kostsyushko-Valyuzhinich gave archaeological excavations a systematic character. In 1892, a museum was opened called the “Warehouse of Local Antiquities.” The unique collection he collected over twenty years of excavations served as the basis of the collection.

Museum of Sevastopol Defense was opened in Sevastopol on September 14, 1869 on the initiative of participants in the defense of the city in 1854-1855, in five halls of a house that belonged to one of the leaders of the defense, Adjutant General E. I. Totleben. In 1895, for now Military Historical Museum of the Black Sea Fleet, By decision of the naval department, a special building was built according to the design of academician of architecture A. M. Kochetov. The building is made in a classical style, its architecture is distinguished by its pomp and abundance of decor.

In Sevastopol in 1897, the first marine in Russia was opened museum-aquarium. A special building was built for him in 1898 according to the design of the architect A. M. Veizan. The museum traces its history back to the Sevastopol Marine Biological Station, created in 1871 on the initiative of outstanding Russian scientists N.P. Miklukho-Maclay, I.I. Mechnikov, I.M. Sechenov, A.O. Kovalevsky.

An art gallery was opened in Feodosia - one of the oldest art museums in the country. The gallery building is an architectural monument of the 19th century. Its construction approximately dates back to 1845-1847. In terms of architectural and decorative design, the house was built in the spirit of Italian Renaissance villas. In 1880, a large exhibition hall was added to the main building. Construction was carried out according to the design and under the supervision of Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky. The official opening of the art gallery in 1880 was timed to coincide with the artist’s birthday. During Aivazovsky’s lifetime, the collection of paintings was constantly updated, as his works were sent to exhibitions in Russian cities and abroad. After the death of I.K. Aivazovsky, the art gallery, according to the artist’s will, becomes the property of the city. 49 paintings by the famous marine painter were donated to Feodosia.

Periodicals played an important role in the development of culture. Since 1838, the Tauride Provincial Gazette was published, which consisted of an official and an unofficial part. Since 1889, the unofficial part has been closed. The newspaper was published once a week.

In the second half of the 19th century, the number of periodicals increased, but until 1881 only official newspapers were published: “Tavrichesky Provincial Gazette”, “Tavrichesky Diocesan Gazette” (since 1869), “Police List of the Kerch-Yenikalsky City Administration” (since 1860). ). The first socio-political literary newspaper was “Crimean Leaflet”, published in Simferopol since 1875, and since 1897 - under the name “Salgir” (editor Mikhno). The newspaper was published on 4 pages and consisted of an official section (city chronicle, court chronicle, international events, announcements) and an unofficial section - letters, feuilletons (stories, historical information), anecdotes, advertising, etc. The newspaper was published until 1908 of the year.

Periodical printing developed much more successfully in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, newspapers appeared not so much of an official nature, but of an informational nature. Since 1884, the “Yalta Information Sheet” has been published in Yalta, and since 1882 in Sevastopol - the “Sevastopol Information Sheet” (since 1888, after the editorial office moved to Simferopol, the newspaper has been published under the name “Crimea”). Such popular and major newspapers appeared as “Crimean Messenger” in Sevastopol, “Southern Courier” in Kerch, and the private newspaper “Tavrida” edited by I. I. Kazas, a famous Karaite educator.

Museums, libraries, stations, nurseries opened in many places and had great cultural and scientific value. One of the most important problems of the government in Crimea after its annexation to Russia was the problem of education. As the region was settled and settled, the economy developed, this problem became more and more pressing. To its credit, the government, local authorities, and especially the public have made great efforts to resolve this issue.

The pride of the city was Simferopol State Men's Gymnasium, opened September 2, 1812. In the first years, it was located in a building donated to the city by the nephew of the first ruler of the region, D. E. Leslie. The first public school in the province, founded in 1793, was located in the same building, in which 130 people already studied in the 30s of the 19th century. There were also girls among the school students.

In 1841, a new building was purchased for the gymnasium (K. Marx St., 32, where the gymnasium is now also located). In 1836, the gymnasium was transformed from a four-year school to a seven-year school with a new course of study. Opened in 1865 Simferopol Women's School, converted six years later into a girls' grammar school. From that time on, the Taurida Provincial Gymnasium became the Simferopol State Men's Gymnasium. In 1883, there were 434 students studying there. Note that, as an exception, children of “low classes” also came here, who “graduated with praise from the district school.” The gymnasium was actively supported by the public, and in 1880 it was created Society for the Welfare of Poor Students.

The gymnasium had its own library, well-equipped classrooms, and an archaeological museum.

The gymnasium played a significant role in concentrating the intellectual forces of the region. The first trustees of the gymnasium were famous scientists and public figures F. K. Milhausen and X. X. Steven. Here he began his teaching career D. I. Mendeleev. One of the first directors of the gymnasium was E. L. Markov. Thanks to his efforts, the building was completely renovated in 1866-1867.

A Crimean scholar worked here as a teacher of Russian language and literature for more than 25 years. A. I. Markevich - one of the founders of the Tauride Scientific Archival Commission, author of many research works.

He was an excellent teacher F. F. Lashkov, who wrote a number of studies on the history of Crimea.

Thanks to the fairly high level of teaching, many future celebrities came out of the gymnasium - economist N. I. Ziber, historian A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky, scientists G. O. Graftio, E. V. Vulier, B. A. Fedorovich, I. V. Kurchatov; artists A. A. Spendiarov, I. K. Aivazovsky; famous doctors M. S. Efetov, N. P. Trinkler, N. A. And A. A. Arendt and many others: Students of the gymnasium, under the guidance of their teachers, conducted three multi-day educational and scientific excursions: to Sevastopol (1886), Bakhchisarai (1888) and Simferopol (1889), reports on the excursions were compiled in the form of books.

Gymnasium education began to develop rapidly in the second half of the 19th century. Essentially all cities of Crimea had gymnasiums. Unlike the first half of the century, when only men's gymnasiums were opened, in the second half of the century women's gymnasium education began to develop (until 1871 there were only women's schools and pro-gymnasiums). As expected, the first women's gymnasium appeared in the “capital” of the province - Simferopol. It was created on August 1, 1871 on the basis of a former women's school. Then women's gymnasiums were opened in Kerch, Evpatoria, Sevastopol and Yalta. The first gymnasiums were state-owned, that is, state-owned, but subsequently more and more private ones began to appear. The most famous were the women's gymnasiums Oliver and Stanishevskaya in Simferopol, Baroness von Taube in Kerch, Rufinskaya and Mironovich in Evpatoria.

Girls aged eight to ten years were accepted into the preparatory classes of the gymnasium, and girls aged ten to thirteen into the first grade. The structure of the gymnasium was as follows: a preparatory class, then followed by a course of seven main classes, which provided secondary education, and the training ended with the eighth additional pedagogical class, at the end of which the pupils were given a diploma as home teachers or mentors.

In both state and private gymnasiums, education was paid. But education in private gymnasiums was much more expensive. If for training in the preparatory class of a state gymnasium they paid about 25 rubles, then in a private one - up to 60 rubles.

The academic year consisted of four academic quarters and lasted nine months. After passing the transfer exams there is a holiday (from June 15 to August 15).

The educational process was quite democratic. Along with compulsory subjects, there were also optional ones (optional). The mandatory ones included the following: the law of God, the Russian language, history, natural history, penmanship, arithmetic and geometry, geography, physics (handicrafts are required for girls). The main role in the educational process was assigned to teachers, who enjoyed unquestioned authority. The teacher had the right to choose from a large number of teaching aids the one that he considered the best.

Along with democratic trends, there was strict regulation, which was especially clearly manifested in the “Rules of Conduct”. Thus, female students of the gymnasium were obliged to fulfill the following requirements “outside the walls of the educational institution and outside the home”:

“1) When meeting the Sovereign Emperor and members of the imperial family, stop and bow respectfully;

2) behave modestly and decently on the streets and in all public places;

3) when meeting with superiors and members of the educational staff, give them due respect;

4) wear a uniform dress without unnecessary decorations outside the home.

Pupils were prohibited:

1) walks in the evening without parents (at dusk);

2) attend theaters, concerts, circuses, children’s evenings, and exhibitions without parents;

3) attend operettas, farces, masquerades, clubs, dances, restaurants, coffee shops and other places where staying is reprehensible for students;

4) attend court sessions of the city duma, noble and zemstvo assemblies;

5) participate as performers and managers in performances and concerts organized outside the walls of the educational institution, as well as distribute entrance tickets;

6) attend public lectures of a scientific nature without special permission from their academic superiors.

Each student must have with her a personal ticket issued to her, signed by the headmistress and sealed by the educational institution, to establish her identity if necessary.”

Both in the educational institution and outside the home, gymnasium students had to wear a gymnasium uniform. Over time, this form has undergone various changes. At the beginning of the 19th century, in particular for girls, the uniform looked like this: “the color of the dress is dark green, the skirt is smooth and does not touch the floor. English cut sleeves. The apron is black with straps crossing at the back. The collar is white, not starched, turned-down.” This was the daily uniform of the gymnasium students. The dress uniform differed from the everyday uniform by a white collar with a fold at the bottom and a white cape to the waist, trimmed with lace.

Hats must fit the uniform. A summer hat made of yellow straw, round, with a moderate brim, with uniform green trim and with a badge established for a given gymnasium. For autumn and spring - the same style, made of black felt and with the same finishing.

In addition to gymnasiums, the school network consisted of various colleges and schools. Children received education in orphanages, religious schools maintained at mosques, monasteries, churches, synagogues and houses of worship; there were theological seminaries and even institutes for noble maidens. Next to public educational institutions there were private ones. Many “wealthy citizens” maintained schools, colleges or orphanages at their own expense.

The number of educational institutions gradually increased, and by 1865 their number in Crimea was 262.

Most educational institutions were located in the provincial center. In 1866, 773 students studied here. Of these, 146 were girls (it should be taken into account that due to the high demand for literate people, many students were taken from school to various institutions). There were 48 teachers in the city. In Karasubazar there were 218 students, in Feodosia -141, in Perekop - 63. There were very few schools in rural areas: in Evpatoria district - one school with 25 students, in Simferopol - three schools with 95 students, in Feodosia - one school with 28 by students.

According to 1866 data, the number of literate people in the cities of the peninsula was: in Simferopol - 37%, in Sevastopol - 28%, in Feodosia - 22%, in Karasubazar - 16%, in Bakhchisarai - 2.3%.

A great contribution to the development of education was made by zemstvos, which paid great attention to this issue (especially in rural areas). In the second half of the 19th century, the number of educational institutions increased sharply. In 1887, there were already 569 educational institutions in Crimea - 148 in cities and 421 schools in rural areas.

ART

As an 11-year-old teenager, the son of Admiral M. Stanyukovich, commandant of Sevastopol, took part in the heroic defense of the city in 1854-1855. Meetings with the famous admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Totleben and others sank deep into the soul of the future writer. K. M. Stanyukovich in his hometown determined his literary choice. In the stories “Kirillich”, “The Adventures of a Sailor”, the stories “Little Sailors”, “The Sevastopol Boy”, and finally, in “Sea Stories” K. M. Stanyukovich shows the everyday life of the Russian fleet.

Famous Ukrainian poet Stepan Vasilievich Rudansky came to Yalta in 1861 and was soon appointed district doctor of Yalta. S. V. Rudansky combined his medical practice with extensive social work and literary activity. In 1872, he led the fight against the plague epidemic. During the years of his life in Yalta, he translated into Ukrainian the poems “The Iliad” by Homer, “The Aeneid” by Virgil, “The Demon” by M. Yu. Lermontov, and wrote the musical play “Chumak”.

“Pushkin in prose,” as A. called it. P. Chekhov L.N. Tolstoy settled in Crimea in September 1898, when he completed the construction of a house in Outka (now 112 Kirova St., in Yalta). Before this, A.P. Chekhov visited Crimea several times and lived in Gurzuf and Yalta. In Crimea, A.P. Chekhov wrote “The Lady with the Dog”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”, “Case from Practice”, “Bishop”, “New Dacha”, “Darling”, “At Christmastide”, “In ravine."

Famous artists often came to see the writer. So, in 1900, a group of artists from the Moscow Art Theater, led by K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, came to Chekhov. The writer was shown performances based on his plays - “The Seagull” and “Uncle Vanya”.

In the second half of the century people came to Crimea Lesya Ukrainka, I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, M. Gorky, M. M. Kotsyubinsky, L. N. Tolstoy and many others.

Fedor Alexandrovich Vasiliev, was one of the founders of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. I. E. Repin wrote about him: “We slavishly imitated Vasiliev and believed him to the point of adoration. He was an excellent teacher to all of us."

F. A. Vasiliev arrived in Crimea in the summer of 1871 and settled in Yalta. In a short time, he painted a number of paintings - masterpieces of the Russian landscape: “The Thaw”, “Wet Meadow”, “Road in Crimea”, “Surfing Waves”, “In the Crimean Mountains”. The artist died at the age of 24. Buried in Yalta.

Life and work of the artist Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky closely connected with Crimea. He was born on July 17, 1817 in Feodosia, studied at the Simferopol men's gymnasium. Next, study at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, a trip to Italy to get acquainted with the art of this country. In 1844, I.K. Aivazovsky was awarded the title of academician of painting. Since 1845, he constantly lived and worked in Feodosia.

Most of the paintings of the outstanding master of seascapes are kept in the Feodosia Art Gallery.

Most of all, I.K. Aivazovsky loved the sea. The artist depicted the ocean, inland European seas and especially the Black Sea, shores, bays, bays, pictures from the life of fishermen, and naval battles. An excellent description of I.K. Aivazovsky and his work was given by L.P. Kolli: “Aivazovsky, the true son of Taurida, left us a precious inheritance, and his name will not die in the Crimea, just as it will not die in the history of art...”

The popularity of theater is increasing more and more. Theaters now exist not only in big cities, but even small towns have their own troupes or small premises in which performances are staged. On February 4, 1886, in Bakhchisarai, in the hall of the Mikhaili House, amateur artists gave a performance in the Crimean Tatar language. Particular attention was paid to the classics. So, in 1900, A. S. Pushkin’s drama “The Miserly Knight” was staged in Bakhchisaray. It was translated into the Crimean Tatar language by one of the active participants in the educational movement. On October 14, 1901, with the opening of a separate theater premises in Bakhchisarai, the number of productions increased sharply. The most popular among them was the play “Oladzhae chare olmaz” (“What happens, cannot be avoided”) by the Crimean Tatar writer S. Ozenbashly. The plays of the Turkish writer and playwright N. Kemay were staged. Popular theater artists were D. Meinov, O. Zaatov, S. Miskhorly, I. Lufti and A. Terlikchi. These were the first productions in the Muslim world within Russia at the end of the 19th century.

The Simferopol Theater experienced a rebirth. In 1873, the old theater premises were dismantled and a new one was built - with a foyer, a stage, an auditorium with 410 seats, artistic restrooms, workshops, an office and other services. The buffet was located next door in the building of the Noble Assembly. Many famous Russian artists performed on the theater stage. In 1878, Simferopol residents applauded M. L. Krapivnitsky, who played the role of the mayor in N. V. Gogol’s comedy “The Inspector General.” During tours around the country, P. A. Strepetova, M. G. Savina, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova, F. P. Gorev, V. I. Kachalov, M. K. Sadovsky, V. F. demonstrated their brilliant skills Komissarzhevskaya, M.K. Zankovetskaya and others.

ARCHITECTURE

In the second half of the 19th century, construction developed rapidly. Residential buildings and banks, shopping centers and palaces, temples and mosques are being built.

Even before the Crimean War, a significant amount was collected for the construction of the Cathedral of St. Vladimir in Sevastopol on the territory of ancient Chersonesos, where, according to legend, the Kiev prince Vladimir converted to Christianity. The project of a five-domed temple in the so-called Russian-Byzantine style was carried out by the architect K. A. Ton. But the war prevented the plan from being realized. After the war, this issue was returned to again in

In 1861, in the presence of the imperial family headed by Alexander II, the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St. Vladimir in Chersonesus. But the old project was abandoned. The new project was developed by the architect D. I. Grimm, who preferred a purely Byzantine style in the construction of cathedrals. The construction of the huge cross-domed church for this project took a long time - construction was stopped several times due to lack of finance. Several leading architects changed during construction - K. Vyatkin, N. Arnold, F. Chagin And Bezobrazov. But in 1892, construction of the cathedral was completed.

Even before the war, in 1854, construction of the cathedral began in Sevastopol itself, which also received the name Vladimir. The war stopped construction. In 1862, under the direction of the architect A. A. Avdeeva construction of the temple is resumed. The project he developed is based on the Byzantine style. The temple took quite a long time to build, more than 20 years, and only in 1888 the construction was completed. The temple is single-domed with an octagonal drum and triangular pediments on all facades. It was built from local light limestone, against which dark labradorite columns with carved marble capitals stand out. The temple is the decoration of the city. It is located on the Central Hill. The total height of the temple is 32.5 meters. This was perhaps one of the most noticeable buildings in the beautiful Sevastopol of that time.

It should be noted that in the second half of the 19th century, due attention was paid to temple construction. Construction was completed by 1911 Foros Church. The architect chose the construction site very well: at the intersection of the Yalta - Sevastopol road, at the Baydar Gate. The temple itself is located on a high rocky ledge. Dominating the surrounding area, it is visible from everywhere. When viewing the temple, one is amazed by the correct proportions and the quality of the construction and finishing work. The decoration is the domes of the temple.

In 1909-1914, architect Ter-Mikelov according to the artist's sketches Vardges Surenyants built armenian church in Yalta. It is built on a steep slope and is approached by a grand staircase lined with cypress trees on both sides. The sparingly ornamented portal on the smooth wall contrasts with the rich patterning of the side facades and the top, decorated with a carved bell. The ceremonial portal impresses with its purity and clarity of style, the harmony of simple decorative divisions. The carefully designed details of the construction are also interesting. Each of them is a work of art.

The interior of the church is also beautiful - a cruciform nave in plan, as well as a dome painted by Surenyants, complemented by a marble iconostasis with inlays.

The construction of palaces and mansions continues, especially on the South Bank, the architectural styles of which are very diverse. Particularly distinguished by their claim to originality "Bird home" And "Kichkine". These buildings are truly extremely original, one of a kind. The courage of the author of the engineer project is admirable A. V. Sherwood, who decided to build the “Swallow’s Nest” on the cliff of the Aurora cliff hanging over the sea. The dacha was built in 1911-1912. for the oil industrialist Baron Steingel in a distinct Gothic style.

The Kichkine (Baby) Palace was built on Cape Ai-Todor in 1908-1911. With its originality it evokes the most controversial reviews. One way or another, “Kichkine” is very colorful and always attracts attention.

The palace is no less colorful "Dulber"(“Beautiful”), built according to the architect’s design N. P. Krasnova in 1895-1897 The architecture of the palace uses motifs of oriental architecture. On the dazzling white stone surface of the wall, blue horizontal stripes of glazed ceramic tiles look impressive. The original design of lancet windows, the combination of majolica cladding with knock carvings (artificial marble), noble restraint in the use of decorative means place this palace among the best architectural structures of the Crimea.

According to the design of the architect N.P. Krasnov, it was built for the Russian Emperor Nicholas II Livadia Palace- the best building of the early 20th century in the resort of Yalta.

The palace was built as the summer residence of the Russian Tsar. A large number of workers, 52 Russian firms and factories took part in its construction. Thanks to this, the palace was built in 17 months - from April 1910 to September 1911. The main task pursued by the architect was to make the building open to the sun and air.

The purity of the style is violated by the inclusion of motifs from Byzantine (church), Arabic (courtyard), Gothic (well with a chimera) architecture. The main entrance to the palace from the north is beautiful. It seems to have been transferred here from the best Italian examples: graceful columns of the Corinthian order support a finely profiled arcade, you can admire it endlessly. Everything is lined with light gray marble. Magnificent marble carvings fill the space between the arches. One can only admire the talent of the architect.

The Florentine courtyard is delightful (it is also called “Italian”), with a Tuscan colonnade, supporting arches, and a babbling white marble fountain in the center. The patterned gates made by Ural craftsmen are amazingly good. The Arabic courtyard is interesting in color and elegant in design.

Elements of different styles were used in the interior design of the palace. Various garlands of relief flowers and fruits, characteristic of the Renaissance style, decorate the lobby. The White Hall is especially solemnly decorated, distinguished by an abundance of light and the sophistication of the stucco ceiling decoration. The billiard room uses elements of English architecture of the 16th century (Tudor style).

In February 1945, a historic conference of the heads of government of the three great powers of the anti-Hitler coalition - the USSR, the USA and England - took place in the dining hall of the Livadia Palace.

Terraces and balconies, galleries and colonnades, protruding bay windows and large windows of various shapes allowed the Livadia Palace to fit surprisingly harmoniously into the surrounding landscape.

Not only the palace architecture, but also the city architecture evokes admiration. When receiving an order for the construction of a particular structure in the city, the architect had to apply maximum talent and imagination.

Projects were approved at meetings of city councils and councils. Projects for public buildings and memorial structures were especially carefully considered.

As a result of such careful selection, original buildings appeared in the cities of Crimea that have not lost their attractiveness to this day.

In memory of the heroic defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855), a special museum building was built in 1895 on Ekaterininskaya Street (now Lenin Street) by architect A. M. Kochetov and sculptor B. V. Edwards (now the Museum of the History of the Black Sea Fleet) . The building is small, elegant, with lush decoration, an abundance of stone carvings, and all kinds of decorations. On the pediment there is a famous emblem - the so-called “Sevastopol Sign” - a cross with the number 349 (the number of days of the siege in 1854-1855) in a laurel wreath.

Taking advantage of the steep terrain, the building was built with one-story on the main and two-story on the courtyard facades. Along the latter there is a vast terrace with a colonnade of fluted Doric columns; the entrance is decorated with a portico of the same order. The middle part of the first floor is designed like the facade of an ancient temple, to the left and right of it are small risalits with stylized obelisks leaning against their walls.

To the credit of the residents of Sevastopol, they carefully preserve the memory of the defenders of the city. The largest memorial building in memory of the Crimean War - Panorama building. Its construction was completed in 1904, the author is a military engineer O. I. Enberg, with the participation of the architect V. A. Feldman. This is a cylindrical building with a dome (its diameter and height are 36 m). The building stands on a massive rectangular ground floor, treated with deep rustication. The vertical division of the walls is emphasized by pilasters, between which busts of defense heroes stand in niches.

A huge painting is stretched along the inner walls of the building, depicting the moment of the assault on the Malakhov Kurgan on June 6 (18), 1855. The complete authenticity of what is depicted is enhanced by the subject plan, skillfully combined with the canvas. This masterpiece of battle painting was created in 1904 by a group of artists led by F. A. Rubo.

The building of the Evpatoria city library, built in 1912 with the money of one of the best sons of this city, is unique in its architectural style. Seeds of Ezrovich Duvan. The author of the library project was a Yevpatoria architect P. Ya. Seferov.

The building was built in the Empire style. In plan, it repeats the ancient Greek round temple with the only difference that only the side sectors are surrounded by a colonnade, forming covered terraces. Classical Dorian columns (four on each side) support a narrow architrave that encircles the entire building and a continuous frieze that covers it. The front facade of the library was decorated in a manner characteristic of the first third of the last century: in a semicircular arched niche, the entrance is furnished with a pair of pilasters. Above it is a tympanum with a semicircular window in the center, framed by decorative inserts. The reading room was covered with a large dome on a low drum with a chandelier in the center. There are six windows cut into it and the same number of niches on the inside.

The growth of cities and urban populations, as well as increased cultural and spiritual demands, urgently required an increase in the number of social and cultural institutions. Libraries, museums, recreation parks and theaters are being built in the cities of the region. In Simferopol, the provincial center, a theater is being built on the street. Pushkinskaya (now Pushkin Street).

The theater built in the resort of Yevpatoria was considered the most beautiful and original. Back in 1901, local government official M.S. Sarach donated for the construction of a theater in the city. But a dispute broke out between the “fathers” of the city about the construction site. This dispute was concluded only in 1906, when the energetic and active Semyon Ezrovich Duvan was appointed mayor. It was decided to build a theater in the western part of the city. A competition was announced for the theater project. The City Duma was not satisfied with three projects, and only the project developed by A. L. Heinrich And P. Ya. Seferov, was approved, and already on August 3, 1907, a decision was made to begin construction.

The facade of the building was decorated in the neoclassical style characteristic of P. Ya. Seferov: the central pediment rested on an eight-column portico - four double supports on top of the powerful pillars of the lower floor.

The same columns with Ionian capitals supported the ceilings of the observation balconies. From the main contour of the structure, risalits with their own small pediments protrude from the sides. The building is strictly symmetrical, and its plan is geometrically simple, convenient and provides all the necessary utility rooms. Above the main volume of the building rises a stage box, the pediments of which were crowned with female figures personifying the muses. The three-tier auditorium, which included a stalls, a mezzanine with boxes and a gallery, was designed for 630 seats.

The architects (primarily A.L. Genrikh) tried to enrich the building with a variety of decorative details from the Art Nouveau arsenal, covering with them the conspicuous structural elements. This is where the professionalism of the theater’s creators, who managed to give the entire structure an elegant look, was especially clearly demonstrated.

The auditorium has also been carefully decorated and has excellent acoustics. D. L. Weinberg stucco was made in the decoration of the hall. The portal bordering the wall with geometric patterns stands out as particularly beautiful. The theater opened on April 20, 1910 and was very popular.

SIMFEROPOL - PROVINCIAL CITY

The development of the cities and towns of Crimea in the second half of the 19th century, the life and way of life of the inhabitants, was influenced by the most important events that took place during this period - the consequences of the Crimean War, the reform of 1861, the rapid development of the economy, etc. To more realistically imagine life of this period, we will follow the development of the main city of the province - Simferopol, since it was here that, perhaps, certain trends were most clearly manifested.

The city is experiencing constant population growth - both due to immigrants from other provinces of Russia and due to the peasantry. In the journal of the meetings of the Simferopol City Duma there are quite a lot of entries from alien peasants who have become the rank of “Simferopol bourgeois”. This period of the city's history was marked by the appearance of settlements. Of course, even then rich mansions, elaborate buildings of banks, trading offices, shops, and hotels were built. However, the most characteristic developments that forced the city to quickly expand its borders were the workers' settlements: Zheleznodorozhnaya, Salgirnaya, Kazanskaya, Shestirikovskaya, Nakhalovka, etc.

Construction became more intensive from 1842, after the approval of the master plan for the development of the city. If in 1836 there were 1014 houses in Simferopol, then in 1867 there were already 1692.

Until the 70s, the city lived its old provincial life, in which important events of “local significance” sometimes took place. Thus, on May 25, 1865, Vice-Governor Sontsov, together with members of the construction commission, inspected the construction of the water pipeline necessary for the city. However, it soon became clear that the water supply provided only 440 buckets per day, and this did not cover the city’s need for drinking water... In 1873, according to the description of V. X. Kondoraki, Simferopol was a quiet provincial town: “... In Simferopol “, as in our other provincial cities, there is a boulevard and all kinds of charitable and charitable, administrative and judicial institutions, but in general everything in it is somehow sluggish...” Life became livelier on market days, when rural residents flocked to the city. Events worthy of the attention of the average person were fairs and horse races.

The picture can be supplemented by a fact from the minutes of the technical commission of the city duma, which noted in 1872 that pigs roaming around the city spoil the sidewalks, that even the city garden and the square near the cathedral “are subject to their visits...”

But important changes were already brewing that would soon enliven life, and not only in the provincial center. In the summer of 1871, construction began on the Lozovo-Sevastopol railway. The 615-verst highway was planned to be built within three years. The deadline was very tight in those days when all work was done manually. And they fit into it. Near Simferopol, the construction of rail tracks and railway tracks began closer to the autumn of 1872.

On October 14, 1874, the third section of the road - Melitopol - Simferopol - was commissioned. On this day the first passenger train arrived. The construction of the Lozovo-Sevastopol railway was completed on January 5, 1875.

The Simferopol railway junction became the first large enterprise of the city. The opening of the railway station generally led to the rapid development of the city in a western direction, to the development of the entire territory - from the old border of the city (roughly modern Tolstoy Street) to the station. But the main reason why so much attention should have been paid to the railway was that it was thanks to it that no longer handicraft, but truly industrial enterprises appeared in Simferopol.

In the 80s of the 19th century, construction began on plots of land not provided for by the plan on the right bank of the Salgir. Dachas, gardens and factories of local and Moscow entrepreneurs appear here. In 1897, the “district” - the former so-called Sultansky Meadow (from Kirov Avenue almost to Shpolyanskaya Street) - and the lands up to the Mir cinema that existed in Soviet times were included within the city. The name New City was assigned to this area for a long time. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were 200 streets and alleys in Simferopol.

Despite the fact that intensive construction was underway in the city during this period, the “housing issue” becomes more acute every year. Thus, in his report, sanitary doctor G. G. Grudinsky notes that almost 40% of industrial establishments did not have living quarters for workers. Most of the visiting seasonal workers spent the night in shelters, basements, factory workshops, or in the open air - on the stone pavement of the Market Square, in an open field. The houses in the settlement are most often “mazankas”; at best, they were built of unhewn stone. The description of academician P. S. Pallas is completely suitable for such streets: “Crooked, running away, unpaved and unclean streets, surrounded by high walls, behind which low houses are hidden, and when you walk around the city, it seems that you are between collapsed walls built from rough unhewn stone... hewn stones are used only for corners, doors and windows. Instead of cement, they use clay, which is mixed with sand, adding a little lime, and the roofs are covered with light tiles, laying them on brushwood or reeds, smeared with clay...”

The city grew, the number of its inhabitants increased, in the 90s of the 19th century in Simferopol the population reached 49 thousand (1897 census); there were 17 industrial enterprises in the city; the railway station's freight turnover was more than 7 million poods per year; 2,478 children studied in educational institutions.

From the city outskirts, working-class settlements, we will move to the “fashionable” area of ​​the city - the center.

Dvoryanskaya Street (now Gorky Street) was named so because here, in the best part of the city, the building of the Tauride Provincial Noble Deputy Assembly (no. 10) was built in 1847. The street was built in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. One of the earliest buildings here was the Armenian Catholic Church (not preserved, on the site of the circus), the Mutual Credit Society (no. 4), the building of the provincial government girls' gymnasium (no. 18); apartment buildings and shops of entrepreneurs Shneiders (no. 5, 7), Tarasovs (no. 1), Potapov (no. 8); private pro-gymnasium E. I. Svishchova; Russian bank for foreign trade (1, Kirov Ave. No. 32).

Until 1917 it was a street of “people with capital”. The “pure public” lived and walked on Dvoryanskaya. Four rows of greenery (chestnuts, acacias, elms) refreshed the air and gave coolness.

The manufacturing store “Association of Manufactories of the Tarasov Brothers” was the largest in the Tauride province. Huge cellars were bursting with Russian and foreign goods. The store had several branches, and each had its own entrance.

One of the busiest streets in the city was, perhaps, st. Salgirnaya (part of the current Kirov Avenue). The first building built on this street was the Athenskaya Hotel. It was erected at the very beginning of the 20s of the 19th century. Around Bazarnaya Square (now Trenev Square) and in the immediate vicinity of it, there is a lot of construction going on: hotels, inns (khans), apartment and residential buildings, shops, public buildings. Let's name some of them: hotel "Severnaya", "Grand Hotel", "Bolshaya Moskovskaya", "Passage", "Birzha", "Continental", "San Remo", inns "White Khan", "Little Khan" etc.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Salgirnaya Street was intensively “inhabited” by commercial capital: large stores, a pharmacy, photography, and entertainment establishments appeared. In house number 21 there was the best kebab shop in the province. The owner called it provincial, and the people called it “governor’s.” (It was a custom here - a sort of chic - not to take or give change).

Near the bridge, in 1829 (on the site of house No. 37-a) a building was built, which initially housed the city government, and from the end of the 19th century - the famous so-called “Tumanovskaya” library. After the death of the owner, according to his will, a free library was opened on October 14, 1890 (named after S. B. Tumanov), numbering 5,000 books. “When in the provincial town of S., visitors complained about the boredom and monotony of life, the local residents, as if making excuses, said that, on the contrary, it is very good in S., that there is a library in S....” - this is how this event was reflected in the story “Ionych” by A.P. Chekhov. The library was the third in the south of Russia - after the Sevastopol Maritime and Odessa Scientific.

From an architectural point of view, the building of the Simferopol branch of the Russian Commercial Bank for external relations (Kirova Ave., 32) stood out.

One of the best streets in the city by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century was Dolgorukovskaya (from May 30, 1924 - Karl Liebknecht Street). In the excellent scientific work “Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland” it was written about it: “The traveler gets from the station to the city along this street. The best hotels in the city are located on this last one.” The street was built mainly in the 19th century. Its appearance was shaped by the following buildings: the house of the doctor A. F. Arendt (no. 14), the Simferopol state military warehouse (no. 38), the Lutheran church and its school (no. 36), the provincial zemstvo government (no. 2), the officers' meeting of the 51st Lithuanian Regiment (no. 35), hotel "Livadia", later "Bristol" (no. 5), Schneider's house (no. 17), private men's gymnasium Voloshenko (no. 41).

By the end of the 19th century, Simferopol became a city of contrasts: on the one hand, streets with beautiful buildings and “decent” people, on the other, narrow and crooked streets with “muzankas” and working people.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the cities of the Tauride province.

2. Name famous scientists. Describe the life and work of one of them.

3. Determine the level of education in the province. Support your conclusion with examples.

4. Tell us about the development of art.

5. Tell us about the life of city residents.

6. Travel mentally through the streets of Simferopol and other cities of the province in the second half of the 19th century.

REMEMBER THESE DATES

1783 - foundation of Sevastopol.

1784 - foundation of Simferopol.

1787 - Catherine II's journey to Crimea.

October 1802 - establishment of the Tauride province.

1838 - Yalta receives city status.

1853-1856 - Crimean War.

1875 - opening of the railway connection Lozovaya - Sevastopol .

Name				Example	Download
Land map of Crimea Row 8 Sheet 8 Row 11 Sheet 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24 Row 12 Sheet 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28 Row 13 Sheet 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 26 Row 14 Sheet 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Row 15 Sheet 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Row 16 Sheet 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 Row 17 Sheet 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 Row 18 Sheet 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 Row 19 Sheet 10, 11, 12, 13, 14	1c	1887	550mb
Crimea map	4v	1817	135mb
Crimea map	5v	1842	76mb
South map Crimea Köppen	4v	1836	23mb
Memorial book of the Tauride province		1889	38mb

Maps are available for free download

Maps are not available for free download, to receive maps - write to mail or ICQ

Historical information on the province

The Tauride province is an administrative-territorial unit of the Russian Empire that existed from October 8 (20), 1802 to October 18, 1921. The center is the city of Simferopol.

Initially, the province was divided into 7 districts: Dnieper, Evpatoria, Melitopol, Perekop, Simferopol, Tmutarakan and Feodosia. In 1820, Tmutarakansky district was transferred to the region of the Black Sea Army. In 1838 the Yalta district was formed, and in 1843 - Berdyansk.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the province covered the entire Crimean peninsula (5 counties: Evpatoria, Perekop, Simferopol, Feodosia and Yalta - together 25,600 km² and 740,000 inhabitants in 1914, of which Ukrainians made up 12%, Russians 33%, and Tatars - 36 %) and part of Steppe Ukraine (Berdyansk, Dnieper, Melitopol districts - together 35,060 km², 1.76 million inhabitants) with a Ukrainian majority - 61%; Russians here made up 25% of the population and another 5% were German colonists. In general, Russians constituted an absolute majority only in the Sevastopol and Kerch-Yenikalsk city administrations (essentially in the cities of Kerch and Sevastopol), as well as in the cities of Berdyansk, Nogaisk, Aleshki and Yalta. The relative majority of Russians were in the cities of Perekop, Feodosia, Simferopol, and Melitopol. Outside the cities, the Ukrainian (in the north) and Tatar (on the peninsula) population predominated; There was also a significant proportion of Germans (up to a quarter of the population in Perekop district). In addition, Tatars made up the majority of the population of Bakhchisarai, Karasubazar, Yevpatoria and about 20% of the population of Simferopol.

In 1918, Berdyansk, Dnieper and Melitopol districts were removed from the province. In 1920, Kerch and Sevastopol districts were formed, and in 1921 - Dzhankoy district. In the same year, Evpatoria and Perekop districts were abolished. At the same time, the counties were divided into districts: Dzhankoy district included the Armenian and Dzhankoy districts; Kerchensky - Kerchensky and Petrovsky; Sevastopol - Bakhchisarai and Sevastopol; Simferopol - Biyuk-Onlarsky, Karasu-Bazarsky, Sarabuzsky and Simferopolsky; Feodosia - Ichkinsky, Staro-Krymsky, Sudak and Feodosiya; Yalta - Alushta and Yalta.

The southernmost of the provinces of European Russia, lies between 47°42" and 44°25" N. w. and 49°8" and 54°32" in. d. Three districts of the province - Berdyansk, Melitopol and Dnieper - lie on the mainland, and the remaining five are on the Crimean Peninsula. T. is separated from the Ekaterinoslav and Kherson provinces by the rivers and rivers Berda, Tokmachka, Konka and Dnieper; further the border goes as an estuary, and then the rest of it is sea.

The greatest width of the province - from the city of Berdyansk to the outpost of Kinburn - is about 400 versts, and the greatest length - from the city of Orekhov to Cape Ai-Todora on the southern coast of Crimea - 360 versts.

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