Vainshtein L., Polikarpov V., Furmanov I.A. General psychology - file n1.doc
UDC 159.9(075.8) BBK 88ya73 B17
Reviewers: Department of General and Differential Psychology, Belarusian State Pedagogical University. M. Tanka; Doctor of Psychology, Professor V.A. Yanchuk
Weinstein, L. A. B17 General psychology: textbook / L.A. Vainshtein, V.A. Polikarpov, I.A. Furmanov. - Minsk: Let's lie, school,2009. - 512 p.
ISBN 978-985-513-428-3.
The textbook is written in accordance with the Standard curriculum of the course “General Psychology” for students of psychological faculties and psychological specialties of higher educational institutions, taking into account modern achievements of psychological science. The content of the textbook meets the requirements of the State educational standard for specialty 1-23 01 04 “Psychology”.
For university students majoring in Psychology, graduate students and teachers.
UDC 159.9(075.8)BBK 88ya73
Educational edition
Weinstein L.A. General psychology
Editor O. V. Fedkova
Computer layout O.Yu. Nightingale
Signed for publication on November 28, 2008 from the customer’s transparencies. Format 60x84/16.
Offset paper. Headset "Nimbus". Offset printing. Conditional oven l. 29.76.
Pech.l. 32. Circulation 3050 copies. Order 3128.
LLC "Modern School" LI No. 02330/0056728 dated December 30, 2003. St. P. Glebki, 11, 220104, Minsk.
Republican Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House "Belarusian House of Printing"". LP No. 02330/0131528 dated 04/30/2004. Etc. Nezavisimosti, 79, 220013, Minsk.
ISBN 978-985-513-428-3 © L.A. Vainshtein, V.A. Polikarpov,
I.A. Furmanov, 2009 © Modern School Publishing House, 2009
Chapter 12. Emotions 12.1. Concept of emotions
The term “emotion” (from the Latin emovere - to excite, excite) is usually used to designate a special group of mental processes andstates in which a subjective attitude is expressedsensitive to the external and internal events of his life.
Ideas about the nature, patterns and manifestations of emotions have undergone significant changes in the course of the development of psychological science, including both doubts about the existence of any patterns in the functioning of emotions or the possibility of their experimental study, and a complete denial of the need to use such a concept (Fig. 63) .
The first theoretically based interpretation of emotional phenomena belongs to introspectionist psychologists: emotions are a special group of phenomena of consciousness that have
There are two main manifestations: pleasure and displeasure. Also, representatives of introspective psychology drew attention to the connection between emotional phenomena and the activity of internal organs. The development of research in this direction led to a rather radical change at the end of the 19th century. views on the nature of emotional phenomena, which began to be viewed as specific type or derivative of physiological processes(James-Lange theory, J. Devey, etc.). After criticism of these views, the problem of studying emotions interested behaviorists (W. Cannon, J. Watson, E. Tolman) and psychoanalysts (Z. Freud). In parallel, another direction developed that explained the origin of emotions based on their evolutionary-biological purpose, from the functions that they perform in human adaptation to the world around us (C. Darwin and others). By the beginning of the 50s. Neo-behaviourism is rapidly beginning to develop, within which the emphasis on considering emotions is shifting: now they are not so much reactions to a certain situation, but rather variables that influence the emergence and course of a behavioral reaction (J. Brown and I. Farber, D. Lindsley). After the cognitive “revolution,” ideas for the cognitive determination of emotions began to be developed (M. Arnold, S. Schechter, R. Lazarus). Somewhat later, biologically oriented theories appeared, which, however, place emphasis on emotions as expressive reactions, and not as physiological changes (E. Tomkins, K. Izard, R. Plutchik).
Despite conceptual disagreements in most theories, when defining emotions, three components were taken into account that characterize emotion as a mental phenomenon:
the experienced or perceived sensation of an emotion;
processes occurring in the nervous, endocrine, respiratory, digestive and other systems of the body;
3) observable expressive complexes of emotions (facial expressions, pantomimes).
The concept of emotions, which is also being developed in domestic (reflective) psychology, is based on the thesis that mental processes are a specific product of brain activity, the essence of which is to reflect the surrounding reality. Emotions -this is one of the types of functional state of the brain, a form of
birthing and regulating brain activity. In addition, emotions are “a person’s attitude to the world, to what he experiences and does, in the form of direct experience” (S.L. Rubinstein).
Thus, in domestic psychology two main aspects of emotions are emphasized:
reflection aspect- emotions are a specific form of reflection of the significance of objects and events of reality for the subject. Emotions are a special class of mental processes and states associated with instincts, needs and motives, reflecting in the form of direct experience (satisfaction, joy, fear, etc.) the significance of the phenomena and situations affecting the individual for the implementation of his life activities;
attitude aspect- emotions express a person’s subjective attitude to the world. “Emotional life is a unique form of reflection of reality, in which a person’s subjective relationship to the world is expressed” (P.M. Yakobson).
Unlike introspective psychology, emotions in reflective psychology are interpreted not as an independent world of subjective phenomena, not as a specific type of spiritual facts (as opposed to material facts), but as a set of processes generated by the activity of the brain (as a material substrate). In contrast to behaviorists, domestic psychologists argue that emotions are not a specific type of physiological reaction; emotion is a mental phenomenon. At the same time, they emphasize the importance of those physiological mechanisms that are a condition for the emergence of emotional processes (the basic ideas about the physiological mechanisms of emotions are based primarily on the teachings of I.P. Pavlov). In contrast to proponents of depth psychology, it is argued that emotions are not caused by the influence of internal instinctive forces, but by the relationship between a person and the world around him.
Recognition of emotions as a special class of mental phenomena is closely related to the problem of determining their specificity (differences from cognitive or motivational-need processes). According to G.-M. Breslav, emotions are mediators between motivational and cognitive processes.
K. Izard notes that emotions, unlike needs, do not have such a property as cyclicality.
The main differences between emotional and cognitive processes include the following:
emotional phenomena relate to a single subject, while cognitive phenomena refer to diverse objects, and accordingly the former are characterized by subjectivity, and the latter by the objectivity of the content of experience;
relationships that are expressed in emotions are always personal, subjective in nature and differ significantly from those objective relationships - relationships between objects and phenomena of reality that are established by a person in the process of learning about the world around him. The same object or the same phenomenon of reality can sometimes evoke a completely opposite subjective attitude;
emotional phenomena are less influenced by social factors and are more associated with innate mechanisms. They are also less mediated by speech and other sign systems, less conscious, less manageable and voluntarily controlled than cognitive processes;
qualitative features (modalities) of emotional phenomena - joy, fear, anger, etc. - are specific and differ from the qualitative features of the cognitive sphere (for example, sensory modalities);
emotional phenomena are closely related to human needs. Cognitive processes are less determined by needs;
emotional phenomena are closely related to various physiological processes and conditions (vegetative, hormonal, etc.). Cognitive processes interact to a lesser extent and in different ways with the functioning of various physiological systems;
emotional phenomena are included as an obligatory component in the structure of the personality as its main (“nuclear”) formations. Therefore, various emotional disorders lead, as a rule, to various personality disorders. Cognitive processes to a lesser extent determine the structure of personality: their violations (for example, private cognitions
tive disorders) are compatible with the integrity of the personality as such.
As noted I. Reikowski, in everyday experience, order, harmony, and organization are usually attributed to the functioning of intellectual processes, while emotional responses are characterized by uncertainty, unpredictability and chaos. However, at present there is reason to believe that everything is just the opposite: it is thinking that can flow freely, in an uncertain and unpredictable way, while the functioning of emotions is subject to strictly defined patterns, and everything that is determined by them is quite stereotypical, stable and despite variety of shapes similar.
The apparent paradox of this thesis, or rather, its apparent inconsistency with everyday experience, is due to the fact that the possibility of predicting the behavior of a person who is guided by rational ideas is much greater than the possibility of predicting the behavior of a person gripped by emotion and, therefore, reacting in an unexpected way. for others in a way. This unpredictability of reactions and actions performed under the influence of emotions is connected to some extent with the fact that the laws governing emotional processes, in contrast to the laws of thinking, have not been systematically studied until recently. Moreover, it was believed that if they existed, they were difficult to identify and use. However, over the past decades, a large number of facts have been accumulated, many observations and experimental data have been systematized, making it possible to determine the place of emotions in the general system of knowledge about human mental activity.
Thus, emotions are a special class of mental phenomena that express in the form of direct experiencesignificance for the subject of external and internal events and regulationhis activities and behavior in accordance with them.
Weinstein Albert Lvovich (1892 – 1970)- famous researcher of mathematical economics, Doctor of Economics (1961), professor (1962). One of the leading theorists at the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where he worked since 1963.
After graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov (1914) began his scientific activity in the world-famous Aerodynamic Laboratory of the “father of Russian aviation” N.E. Zhukovsky.
Beginning in the 1920s, he devoted himself entirely to research in various fields of economic science, having previously taken a course at the economics department of the Moscow Commercial Institute. Scientific maturity came to him during the years when he worked at the Market Research Institute of the People's Commissariat of Finance of the USSR - at that time the country's leading economic research center, headed by the outstanding Russian economist N.D. Kondratiev. In addition, in those years, A.L. Weinstein conducted scientific work within the walls of Moscow and Central Asian universities, and the Industrial and Economic Institute.
A.L. Weinstein's first scientific works were devoted to issues of economics and agricultural statistics. In particular, his works of those years became famous: “Mathematical calculation of the average distance of fields from the estate with different configurations of land use area and different locations of the estate” (1922) and “Taxation and payments of the peasantry in pre-war and revolutionary times. Experience in statistical research” (1924).
A.L. Vainshtein became one of the first domestic interpreters of the method of forecasting market conditions, called the “economic barometer”, and became interested in applying the methodology of harmonic analysis (Fourier series) to the study of periodicity and forecasting of oscillatory processes in the economy. His scientific interests in those years attracted: the study of the market cyclical economy of the New Economic Policy, the desire to understand the movement of the market and methods of conscious regulation of economic processes according to the “market plus plan” scheme, as well as the analysis of national economic dynamics (operational and long-term). Like E.E. Slutsky, he noted the weaknesses of the methodology of market barometers, assessing the statistical and mathematical methods of forecasting the dynamics of the national economy that were generally used in the 20s as unsuccessful (see his work: “Problems of economic forecasting in its statistical production", M., 1930).
A decade of staying in Stalin's dungeons did not break him as a scientist. In the fifties, A.L. Weinstein took up the issue of national wealth and in this area became a recognized authority, both in Russia and abroad. It should be noted that he had a very tough position regarding the interpretation of the essence of this category in a number of statistical works of the 40-50s. He did not allow national (people's) wealth to be interpreted as a combination of components of different essences, and therefore could not be calculated as a single synthetic indicator. He sharply criticized those specialists who allowed themselves to include natural resources in their national wealth in their geographical rather than economic interpretation.
His works such as “National Wealth and National Economic Accumulation of Pre-Revolutionary Russia. Statistical Research” (1960) and “National Income of Russia and the USSR. History, Calculation Methodology, Dynamics” (1969), included in the classical fund, represent not only and not just numbers and their analysis. These books are an encyclopedia of Russian statistical sources of the pre-revolutionary era and statistical methodology of those years, containing a theoretical and methodological concept for calculating a system of indicators of people's (national) wealth and economic accumulation. This is a study on the history of statistical indicators, on the key ideas of socio-economic statistics - the science in which Russian scientists were world leaders at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Let us note that while dealing with the problem of assessing national wealth, A.L. Weinstein was the first in world science to use the method of “continuous inventory” of fixed assets.
High mathematical culture, commitment to precise quantitative analysis, striving for strict logic in analysis and substantiation of conclusions led A.L. Weinstein to the economic-mathematical direction in the last period of his scientific life. In collaboration with its other outstanding representatives - V.S. Nemchinov, V.V. Novozhilov, A.L. Lurie - he did a lot of work both in developing this scientific direction and in promoting and popularizing its achievements. He conducted a number of important economic and mathematical studies in the areas of: savings functions; efficiency of capital investments; analysis, dynamics and structure of national income; economic optimality criterion. Let us note that A.L. Weinstein was a very strict editor of the famous book by Nobel laureate L.V. Kantorovich “Economic calculation of the best use of resources”, treating this work, as the author himself admitted, in a completely non-formal manner.
A.L. Weinstein was characterized by the highest scientific conscientiousness and adherence to principles, sharp polemics, and at times harshness in defending his scientific positions. But he never put journalistic acuity above the scientific clarity of the alternative solutions he proposed.
The result of almost half a century of scientific activity of A.L. Weinstein was not only more than forty major works and more than a hundred articles, but also the knowledge and qualities of a researcher that he passed on to his many students. Until his last days, he was surrounded by young scientists, led a theoretical seminar, and worked directly with young scientists.
Albert Lvovich left a bright mark in the hearts and memories of those who knew him and worked with him. As a scientist, he created around himself an atmosphere of high scientific conscientiousness and integrity. As a person, he was exceptionally attentive and sensitive to those around him.
N.S. Glukhanyuk, S.L. Semyonova, A.A. Pecherkina
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
The textbook allows you to optimize the psychological preparation of students - future teachers of a vocational school. The manual includes two sections: theoretical - lecture notes, presented in a brief form, focused on the specifics of the training and future activities of vocational education teachers and practical - promoting familiarity with the methods and techniques of psychological study of personality, the formation of interest in issues of self-analysis. The topics of the classes correspond to the content of the educational material of the approximate program of the course “General Psychology”.
The manual is addressed to students of vocational pedagogical universities, as well as students of faculties of advanced training and retraining of personnel in the field of vocational education.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. General psychology: Schemes. M., 2002. P. 6..
See: Ibid. P. 7.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. General psychology in diagrams and comments to them. M., 1998. P. 16.
Cm.: Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human psychology. M., 1995. S. 64 – 65.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 24.
Cm.: Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of psychology. M., 1998. S. 28 – 29.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 50.
Cm.: Ananyev B.G. On the problems of modern human science. M., 1996. S. 296 - 298.
See: Psychology: Words. / Under. ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. M., 1990. P. 227.
Cm.: Turusov O.V. Workshop on experimental psychology. Samara, 1997. P. 54.
Cm. Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 42.
Cm.: Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. St. Petersburg, 2000. P. 310.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 46.
Cm.: Druzhinin V.N. Decree. op. P. 309.
See: Psychology: Words. P. 428.
See: Ibid. P. 299.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. pp. 74 – 75.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree op. P. 75.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 35.
Cm.: Smirnov V.I. General pedagogy in theses, definitions, illustrations. M., 1999. P.93 – 94.
Cm.: Nemov R.S. Psychology: In 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. M., 1995. P. 289.
Krysko V.G. Decree. op. pp. 154-155.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 153.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 227.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 160.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 254.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 254.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 256.
Cm.: Nemov R.S. Decree. op. Book 1. pp. 514 – 515.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. C 119.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 184.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 100.
Cm. Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 149.
See ibid. P. 150.
Cm. Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 151.
Cm. Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 153.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 90.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 92.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 93.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 155.
See: General psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1986. P. 231.
Cm.: Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Decree. op. P. 115.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 169.
See: Cognitive processes and abilities in learning / Ed. V.D. Shadrikova. M., 1998.
Cm.: Luria A.R. Attention and memory. M., 1975. P. 104.
See: Psychology: Words. P. 264.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 163.
Cm.: Zinchenko T.P. Methodological research and practical exercises in the psychology of memory. Dushanbe, 1974. P. 142.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P.111.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 116.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 178.
See: Ibid. P. 178.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 184.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 187.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 190.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 194.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 208.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 209.
See: Ibid. P. 211.
Cm.: Aismontas B.B. Decree. op. P. 269.
Cm.: Melnikov V.M., Yampolsky L.T. Introduction to experimental personality psychology. M., 1985.
Cm.: Teplov B.M. Abilities and giftedness // Reader on developmental and educational psychology. M., 1981. P. 32.
Rubinshtein S.L. Principles and ways of development of psychology. M., 1959. P. 129.
Introduction to psychology / Ed. ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1996. P. 118.
Platonov K.K. A brief dictionary of the system of psychological concepts. M., 1984. P. 140.
Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. M., 1996. P. 248.
Cm.: Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Decree. op. P. 23.
Cm.: Morozov A.V. Business psychology. St. Petersburg, 2000.S. 272.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree. op. P. 202.
Cm.: Krysko V.G. Decree op. P. 216.
Psychology: Words. Decree. op. P. 352.
Cm.: Borozdina L.V. Study of the level of aspirations. M., 1993. P. 84.
See: Ibid. S. 3.
See: Psychology: Words. Decree. op. P. 417.
Cm.: Baron R., Richardson D. Aggression. St. Petersburg, 1998. P. 26.
See: Psychology: Words. Decree. op. P. 10.
Cm.: Rogov E.I. Handbook for a practical psychologist in education. M., 1995. S. 167 – 168.
Cm.: Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: In 2 vols. M., 1986. P. 374.
Cm.: Gilbukh Yu.Z. How to study and work effectively. Minsk, 1995.
Cm.: Gilbukh Yu.Z. How to study and work effectively. Minsk, 1995. P. 141.
See: General and social psychology: Workshop / Ed. N.D. Tvorogova. M., 1997. P. 248.
Cm.: Ivashchenko F.I. Tasks in general, developmental and educational psychology. Minsk, 1985. P. 96.
Cm.: Levitov N.D. Frustration as one of the types of mental states // Issues. psychology. 1987. No. 6. P. 120.
Cm.: Fresse P., Piaget J. Experimental psychology. M., 1971. P. 120.
Cm.: Tarabrina N.V. Methodology for studying frustration reactions // Foreign. psychology. 1994. No. 2. P.68.
See: Methods of social psychology / Ed. E.S. Kuzmina, V.E. Semenov. St. Petersburg, 1997. P. 176.
Cm.: Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Team. M., 1982. S. 124 – 134.
Psychology: Words. Decree. op. P. 174.
Vainshtein L.A., Polikarpov V.A., Furmanov I.A., Trukhan E.A.
F General psychology: Course of lectures: .– Mn.: BSU, 2004. –290 p.
The course of lectures is written in accordance with the curriculum of the discipline "General Psychology" for students of the psychology department of BSU, taking into account modern achievements of psychological science.
ã Vainshtein L.A.,
Polikarpov V.A.,
Furmanov I.A.,
Trukhan E.A.
ISBN ã BSU, 2004
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY.................................................... .... 6
1.1. Psychology as a science................................................... ........................... 6
1.2. Subject of psychology........................................................ ................................... 7
1.3. The concept of the psyche......................................................... ................................ 8
1.4. Psyche and activity......................................................... ...................... 10
Chapter 2. METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF THE PSYCHE.... 12
2.1. Methodological foundations of psychological cognition.................................... 12
2.2. Basic methods of psychology......................................................... ......... 18
2.3. Auxiliary methods of psychological research......... 29
2.4. Additional methods used in psychology.................................. 38
2.5. Objectivity of psychological research and features of psychological interpretation of the information received.................................................... ........ 43
Chapter 3. SENSORY PROCESSES.................................................. ...... 46
3.1. Sensory and perceptual processes in the structure of human information reception and processing.................................................... .................................... 46
3.2. The concept of sensations......................................................... .................... 48
3.3. The emergence of sensations................................................... ................ 49
3.4. Classification and types of sensations.................................................... ... 51
3.5. General properties of sensations................................................... ............... 57
3.6. Basic patterns of sensations.................................................... 58
Rice. eleven. Dependency of probability................................................... ............ 60
detection from magnitude................................................... ........................... 60
stimulus in the near-threshold................................................... ....................... 60
Chapter 4. PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES.................................................... 65
4.1. The concept of perception................................................................... ........................... 65
4.2. General patterns of perception................................................................... .66
4.3. Classification and types of perception.................................................................. 77
4.4. Individual differences in perception.................................................... 87
Chapter 5. ATTENTION.................................................... ................................ 88
5.1. General concept of attention................................................................. ............... 88
5.2. Functions and theories of attention.................................................. ............... 91
5.3. Properties of attention........................................................ ........................... 91
5.4. Types of attention........................................................ ................................... 99
Chapter 6. MEMORY.................................................... .................................... 103
6.1. Basic definitions........................................................ .................... 104
6.2. Basic properties of memory................................................................... ............... 105
6.3. Types of memory........................................................ .................................... 107
6.4. Mechanisms of memory................................................... ........................... 111
6.5. Some universal principles of operation of memory mechanisms 115
Chapter 7. THINKING.................................................... ........................... 116
7.1. Basic characteristics of thinking.................................................. 117
7.2. Psychological theories of thinking................................................................... 118
7.3. Thinking and perception........................................................ ................... 119
7.4. Thinking as action......................................................... .................... 120
7.5. Thinking as a process................................................................... .................... 121
7.6. Thinking and speech........................................................ ........................... 125
7.7. Phases of the thinking process......................................................... ......... 126
7.8. Dynamics of the thought process................................................................... .129
7.9. Types of thinking........................................................ ........................... 129
7.10. Operations of thinking........................................................ ........................... 136
7.11. Development of thinking................................................... ........................ 137
Chapter 8. SPEECH................................................... ............................................... 141
8.1. Speech and communication. Language and speech. Sign and meaning................................... 141
8.2. Functions of speech................................................... ................................... 143
8.3. Motivation for speech................................................... ................................ 145
8.4. Psycholinguistics................................................. ........................... 145
8.5. Types of speech................................................... ........................................ 146
Chapter 9. EMOTIONS.................................................... .................................... 148
9.1. The concept of emotions................................................................... ........................... 148
9.2. Properties of emotions........................................................ ........................... 151
9.3. Structure of emotions................................................... ........................ 156
Chapter 10. NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF EMOTIONAL RESPONSE................................................................... ........................................ 165
10.1. Reflex mechanisms of the emergence of emotions.................................... 166
10.2. Subcortical and cortical mechanisms of emotional response 167
10.3. Emotions and functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres 170
Chapter 11. FORMS OF EMOTIONAL.................................................... 173
RESPONSE......................................................... .................................... 173
11.1. Emotional tone................................................... ........................... 175
11.2. Affect................................................. ........................................... 178
11.3. Mood................................................. .................................... 181
11.4. Emotion................................................. ........................................... 183
11.5. Feelings................................................. ........................................... 184
Chapter 12. THEORIES OF EMOTIONS.................................................... ................... 186
12.1. Structural theories of emotions................................................................... .......... 187
12.2. Evolutionary theories of emotions................................................................. ....... 189
12.3. Physiological theories of emotions................................................................... .... 192
12.4. Cognitive theories of emotions.................................................................... .... 198
12.5. Motivational theories of emotions................................................................... ...... 202
Chapter 13. CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS.................................................... 207
Chapter 14. NEEDS.................................................... .................... 214
14.1. The concept of need................................................... .................... 214
14.2. Needs of the body and personality............................................................. 219
14.3. Stages of formation and implementation of personal needs........ 221
Chapter 15. MOTIVES.................................................... ................................... 223
15.1. The concept of motive................................................... ........................... 223
15.2.Motivational process.................................................... ................... 229
Chapter 16. MAIN PROBLEMS.................................................... ....... 231
PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION................................................................. ............. 231
16.1. Problems of motivation in the theory of instincts.................................... 233
16.2. Problems of behavior in homeostatic theories of behavior.... 235
16.3. Problems of motivation, differential theories of motivation.. 239
16.4. Problems of motivation in cognitive psychology ........................ 241
16.5. Problems of motivation in personality psychology......................... 243
16.6. Problems of motivation in the psychology of learning and activation......... 244
Chapter 17. CLASSIFICATIONS OF NEEDS AND MOTIVES...... 248
17.1. Classification of motives based on the theory of instincts................................ 248
17.2. Classification of motives based on the “individual–environment” relationship 251
Description................................................. ................................................... 252
17.3. Hierarchical model of classification of motives by A. Maslow......... 254
17.5. Classification of needs in domestic psychology.......... 259
Chapter 18. EMOTIONAL SITUATIONS.................................................... 263
Chapter 19. MOTIVATION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTION........... 266
19.1. The strength of motive and the effectiveness of learning.................................................... 266
19.2. Motivating potential of various types of stimulation.......... 268
LITERATURE................................................. ........................................ 278
A. L. Weinstein’s productivity in the last decade of his life turned out to be incredible: by the end of his life he managed to write over 40 books and brochures, more than 100 articles. He supervised the translation of a number of foreign works on mathematical methods of economic analysis, the publication of which played a major role in improving the scientific culture of Soviet economists. In the work “National income of Russia and the USSR. History, methodology, calculus, dynamics" (1969) Weinstein tried to revive the methodology for calculating aggregated indices characterizing the state of the Soviet and Russian national economies ("economic barometer"), which he had worked on back at the Economic Research Institute in the mid-1920s. His last book, “Prices and pricing in the USSR during the recovery period 1921-1928.” (1972), was published posthumously. A two-volume edition of selected scientific works by A. L. Weinstein was published by the Nauka publishing house in the series “Monuments of Economic Thought” in 2000.
Throughout his life, A.L. Vainshtein dealt mainly with the problems of macroeconomic statistics, studied the long-term dynamics of changes in income and prices, anticipating the cliometric direction of new economic science by a decade. Other areas of Weinstein's research work included the development of economic and mathematical methods, the methodology of economic statistics, solving problems of optimizing agricultural production, and developing mathematical support for accounting for national wealth. A significant influence on Soviet economic science was exerted by the bibliographies of works he compiled on domestic and world statistics and economic modeling, studies of the savings function, the efficiency of capital investments, analysis of the dynamics and structure of national income, and criteria for the optimality of the economy. He was the first in world science to use the method of “continuous inventory” of fixed assets when assessing national wealth. Under his editorship, a collective work “National Economic Models” was published. Theoretical issues of consumption" (Moscow, 1963).
The son of A.L. Weinstein is a prominent Soviet radiophysicist Lev Albertovich Weinstein.
Scientific monographs by A. L. Weinstein
- Mathematical calculation of the average distance of fields from the estate for different configurations of land use area and different location of the estate. Moscow, 1922.
- Taxation and payments of the peasantry in pre-war and revolutionary times. Experience in statistical research. Moscow, 1924.
- A study of the closeness of the mutual relationship: between price, gross harvest, yield and sown area of cotton in North America. S. Sh. Publishing house of the Main Cotton Committee, 1924.
- Results, main trends and conditions of the national economy in 1923-1924. Proceedings of the Market Research Institute. Joint-stock company "Promizdat", 1925.
- Productivity, meteorological and economic cycles, the problem of forecasting. Harvest problems. Ed. A. V. Chayanova. Economic life: Moscow, 1926.
- The evolution of grain yield in Russia before the war and prospects for its development in the future. Moscow, 1927.
- Problems of economic forecasting in its statistical formulation. RUNYON: Moscow, 1930.
- National wealth and national economic accumulation of pre-revolutionary Russia. Statistical research. Gosstatizdat: Moscow, 1960.
- National economic models. Theoretical issues of consumption (editor-compiler). Moscow, 1963.
- Statistics of national wealth, national income and national accounts. Essays on balance sheet statistics (editor-compiler). Science: Moscow, 1967.
- National income of Russia and the USSR. History, methodology, calculations, dynamics. Science: Moscow, 1969 (see full text here).
- Prices and pricing in the USSR during the recovery period 1921-1928. Science: Moscow, 1972.
- Selected works: In two books. Book 1. Soviet economy: 20s. Book 2. National wealth and national income of Russia and the USSR. Series “Monuments of Economic Thought”, Science: Moscow, 2000 (see review here).
L. P. VaishteYan V. P. Pepmkariov N. P. Furmam"
Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions in psychological specialties
Minsk "Modern School" 2009
UDC 159.9(075.8)
Reviewers: Department of General and Differential Psychology, Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after. M. Tanka; Doctor of Psychology, Professor VA. Yannuk
Weinstein, J1. A.
B17 General psychology: textbook / JI.A. Weinstein,
V.A. Polikarpov, I.A. Furmanov. - Minsk: Let's lie. school, 2009. - 512 p.
ISBN 978-985-513-428-3.
The textbook is written in accordance with the Standard curriculum of the course “General Psychology” for students of psychological faculties and psychological specialties of higher educational institutions, taking into account modern achievements of psychological science. The content of the textbook meets the requirements of the State educational standard for specialty 1-23 01 04 “Psychology”.
For university students majoring in Psychology, graduate students and teachers.
UDC 159.9(075.8) BBK 88ya73
Educational edition
Weinstein JI.A.
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Editor O. V. Fedkoea
Computer layout O.Yu . Nightingale
Signed for publication on November 28, 2008 from the customer’s transparencies. Format 60x84/16.
Offset paper. Headset "Nimbus". Offset printing. Uel. oven l. 29.76.
Pech. l. 32. Circulation 3050 copies. Order 3128.
LLC "Modern School" LI No. 02330/0056728 dated December 30, 2003.
St. P. Glebki, 11, 220104, Minsk.
Republican Unitary Enterprise “Publishing House “Belarusian House of Printing””. LP No. 02330/0131528 dated 04/30/2004. Etc. Nezavisimosti, 79, 220013, Minsk.
ISBN 978-985-513-428-3 © JI.A. Vainshtein, V.A. Polikarpov,
I.A. Furmanov, 2009 © Modern School Publishing House, 2009
PREFACE
In recent years, modern psychology has been enriched by the knowledge of many specific facts from the field of human knowledge and has given them a scientifically based psychological explanation. Psychological science has taken its rightful place among other sciences necessary for successful work in various areas of human practice. Based on more and more new achievements, psychology has been filled with modern content, reflecting various scientific and practical directions. Therefore, the educational material presented is a symbiosis of classical and modern ideas about the functioning of the human psyche.
The textbook is written in accordance with the Standard Curriculum for the course “General Psychology” and the requirements of the State Educational Standard for the specialty 1-23 01 04 “Psychology”. The authors set themselves the task of re-evaluating many outdated psychological views based on the Marxist theory of reflection, and focused on the most complete, objective, systematic and most accessible presentation of educational issues from psychological positions generally recognized in world science.
The textbook does not have a single methodological core. The authors were based on an integrative-eclectic approach, according to which each topic under consideration can rely on its own methodology, the most successful for it. For example, studies of the unconscious and studies of memory may be based on psychoanalysis, but memory is still better studied within the framework of the cognitivist approach, while for all the efforts expended, cognitive psychology did not provide such a detailed doctrine of the unconscious.
The textbook is based on the works of classics of Soviet and foreign psychology, as well as the Belarusian psychological school.
The textbook was written by employees of the Department of Psychology of the Belarusian State University, teaching the course “General Psychology”: Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Professor I.A. Furmanov (chapters 5, 12-18), candidate of psychological sciences, associate professor at JLA. Weinstein (chapters 2-4, 9, 10), candidate of psychological sciences, associate professor V.A. Polikarpov (chapters 1, 6-8, 11). Chapters 12-18 were written with the participation of Candidate of Psychological Sciences E.A. Trukhan.
The publication of this textbook would not have been possible without the help of many scientists. The authors express their sincere gratitude for their assistance and support in their work to doctors of psychological sciences, professor V.A. Yanchuk, professor JI. V. Marischuk, Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor T.V. Vasilets, who took on the task of evaluating and reviewing the manuscript.
Chapter1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a science
However, despite the fact that the psyche constantly reveals its presence and its influence on the life and behavior of people, for a long time it did not become the subject of scientific knowledge. The fact is that the psyche does not have material, i.e., accessible to sensory perception, properties. It cannot be touched, seen, and therefore cannot be observed, experimented with, or measured. At the same time, any science must satisfy at least three requirements. She must use observational and experimental methods, mathematical analysis and apply the acquired knowledge in practice.
The situation changed in the middle of the 19th century, when O. Comte proposed his classification of sciences. Instead of social philosophy, he proposed creating sociology - the science of society, instead of philosophy of history - historical science, and instead of philosophical anthropology - psychology - the science of the soul (although the term “psychology” itself was introduced by the 18th century German philosopher X. Wolf). Soon these ideas became very popular, and in 1878 the German scientist W. Wundt founded the world's first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig. This year is considered the year of birth of psychology as a science. Soon I.M. Sechenov organized a similar laboratory in Russia. Another factor in the transformation of psychology into a science was the creation by the Belgian mathematician A. Quetelet of mathematical statistics, which became the mathematical apparatus of psychology. The final formation of psychology as a science was completed by the creation of a laboratory of differential psychology in London by F. Galton, which provided its applied aspect.
The development of psychology led to the emergence of various schools.
Subject of psychology
So, behaviorism defined the subject of psychology as the study of human and animal behavior and the stimulus-response relationships mediating this behavior. Conditioned reactions are the main unit of analysis of visible manifestations of the psyche, which act reflexively, according to the figurative expression of I.M. Sechenov, like the links of some machine. The mechanism of formation of conditioned reactions is observed; it can be
but it can be expressed through a system of laws, and it is accessible to mathematical analysis. This is a promising direction based on the teachings of I.P. Pailova, is still developing today.
Another direction in the search for a way out of the crisis in the same vein was depth psychology, which originates in psychoanalysis 3. Freud. Its difference from behaviorism is that it retained the method of introspection, although it applied it to the study of the unconscious psyche. According to Freud's concept, the psyche exists as conscious, preconscious and unconscious. 3. Freud adhered to views based on the discovery and study of a strict connection between cause and effect in human mental life.
The next direction of psychology, which is based on the principle of determinism and the theory of reflection, is called reflective psychology. Its very name apparently comes from one of the translation options for the word “reflex”: reflexus - reflection (Latin). At the same time, this (sometimes called “Marxist”) psychology considers consciousness to be the subject of its study, considering it as a reflection of objective reality in the human brain. This made it possible to introduce a cultural-historical dimension into psychology and develop the theory of the formation of higher mental functions.
I took a different path understanding psychology, founded by German philosophers W. Dilthey and E. Spranger. Understanding psychology considers its subject not the study of cause-and-effect relationships of mental life, but their understanding through correlation with the world of cultural and historical values. A prominent representative of understanding psychology is the Swiss psychologist K.-G. Jung.
A popular destination in the 20th century. was cognitive psychology. It belongs to the scientific, not the understanding tradition. The subject of psychology is considered to be the processes of human information processing and the implementation of behavior based on cognitive processes. The beginning of cognitive psychology was laid by the genetic theory of the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget and Gestalt psychology, which developed in Germany in the 30s. XX century
Despite all the differences in existing views, it is possible to give an extremely general definition subject of psychology : the psyche of humans and animals, the basic laws of its formation and functioning.
The concept of the psyche
The first definition of the soul (psyche - Greek), formulated rather as a question, was given by Heraclitus. He taught: everything flows, everything changes, you cannot enter the same river twice. What allows a river to remain a river? Bed? But it also changes. One should look for the unchangeable in the changeable, that which gives this changeable certainty. This unchangeable thing is never accessible to sensory perception and at the same time gives existence to the world of things. When applied to the human body, this something acts as a soul.
The philosopher who developed this position was Plato. He attributed the eternal and unchangeable to the world of being, and the temporary and changeable to the world of existence. The soul is the idea of the body. It unites with matter (hora), and thus man arises. Other names for the idea, as Plato understood it, are morphe, form, in the German translation - die Gestalt. Today it would be possible to find an equivalent to this concept - a matrix or a program.
Plato's student Aristotle, developing these ideas, gave the final definition of the psyche, which still exists today, despite the differences in terminology. Objecting to Plato, Aristotle declared that if what is common is what is common to many objects, then it cannot be a substance, that is, a completely original being. Therefore, only a single being can be a substance. Single being is a combination of form and matter. In terms of being, form is the essence of an object. In terms of cognition, form is the concept of an object. The matter from which man is formed on the basis of form is the substratum. Today we say: the physiological substrate of the psyche. For Aristotle, the soul is the form of the body. The full definition is: soul (psyche) is a way of organizing a living body. And in fact, from the point of view of modern biology, a person looks more like a waterfall than a stone (remember the river of Heraclitus). During plastic exchange, the composition of human atoms almost completely changes over eight years, but at the same time each of the individual people remains himself. Over the course of a person’s entire life, an average of 75 tons of water, 17 tons of carbohydrates, and 2.5 tons of proteins are spent on the continuous construction and renewal of his body. And all this time, something, remaining unchanged, “knows” where, in what place to put this or that structural element. Now we know that this something is the psyche. That is why, by influencing the psyche, we can influence the body, and the properties of the psyche and the laws of its functioning cannot be deduced from the properties and laws of functioning of the body. Where does it come from? From outside. From the world of existence, which each psychological school interprets differently. For example, for JI.C. Vygotsky is a world of culture deposited in signs. “Every mental function,” he writes, “appears on stage twice. Once as interpsychic, the second time as intrapsychic,” that is, first outside a person, and then inside him. Higher mental functions arise as a result of interiorization , i.e., immersion of a sign and the method of its use in a natural function. Form connects with matter.
So, following Aristotle, we defined the psyche as a way of organizing a living body. Now we should consider the question of the relationship between the psyche and the brain. Sometimes this problem is formulated as a problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man.
A starting point here might be C.J1. Rubinstein that the brain and psyche are substantively the same reality. What does it mean? Let's take some object, the simplest one, for example a pencil. According to C.J1. Rubinstein, any subject can be considered in different systems of connections and relationships. For example, a pencil can be thought of as both a writing aid and a pointer. In the first case, we can say that this object leaves a mark on paper or other smooth surface. When it stops writing, it needs to be sharpened; what is written can be erased with an eraser attached to the end opposite the lead. In the second case, we will say that this object is pointed at the end, it is light, it is comfortable to hold in your hands, but it is not long enough. If you now re-read these two groups of characteristics, forgetting that they relate to the same subject, it will seem that we are talking about two completely different realities.
Thus, in different systems of connections and relationships, the same object appears in different qualities.
So, the brain and the psyche are essentially the same reality. Taken from the point of view of biological determination, it acts as the brain, more precisely, as the central nervous system, which carries out higher nervous activity, and taken from the point of view of social determination - more broadly, as a person’s interaction with the world - as the psyche. Psyche - these are all those changes in the structure of the nervous system that arose as a result of human interaction with the world both in onto- and phylogenesis.
Thus, the psyche is objective, it has its own properties and qualities and is determined by its own laws.
Very simply, we can draw an analogy with a computer disk and information. The information recorded on the disk exists as a specific relative arrangement of the elements of the disk's substance. This means that it is objective, if you like, material, just as the crystal lattice is material - the gestalt (form) of the crystal. But its properties are not determined by the properties of the disk matter. The information got onto the disk from outside and initially existed outside of this computer. At the same time, information is the main thing in a computer. Without programs, it's just a set of parts. In this analogy, the disk is a carrier of information, the brain is a carrier of the psyche. Information is not reduced to the disk, and the psyche is not reduced to the brain. The disk and the brain are the substrate, information and the psyche are the form, the method of organization. The disk and the brain are accessible to sensory perception, information and the psyche are not.
Possessing its own objective existence, the psyche also has its own structure. In the most general terms, it has a vertical and horizontal organization. TO vertical organizations include: consciousness, personal unconscious, collective unconscious, horizontal - mental processes, properties and states.
A separate question is the question of the origin of the psyche and its main functions. In search of an answer to this question, we will proceed from the theory retrograde evolution American biochemist N. Horowitz.
According to this theory, life on Earth arose as one single living organism - eobiont . The cell has not yet appeared, nor has the mechanism of its division emerged. The ebiont was immortal and therefore deprived of the ability to reproduce. However, instead of the quantitative growth that reproduction provides, the eobiont increased the diversity of its properties. All earthly life as a whole has behaved exactly this way to the present day: from the very beginning it is present in a single copy and is constantly increasing its diversity. Eobiont, representing a certain system of chemical reactions, was not isolated spatially, but was included in the general system of biochemistry of that time. At first, the evolution of living things was carried out through the gradual inclusion of reactions that had previously occurred outside the framework of life. Thus, the eobiont was a kind of non-dividing, but rapidly evolving half-being - a semi-chemical self-sustaining process, an organism-biosphere. Being not isolated spatially, instead of returning the substance to the geochemical system, it could transfer it from one of its parts to another. So, he could use the material of the used membrane as an energy source, i.e., as if he partially ate himself. Later these functions were transferred to various organisms. Therefore, when the time came for the eobiont to split into different organisms, among them there were already prototypes of plants, herbivorous animals, predatory and putrefactive bacteria.
Having divided into separate organisms (the reason for this could be very different), life retained its basic principle. French scientist of the 17th century. P. Bayle defined it as resistance to death. This problem could be solved in two ways:
preserve existing immortality;
master the ability to reproduce, which compensates for losses from natural factors, such as volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, meteorites, etc.
The development of the biosphere followed the second path. Living things paid for the ability to reproduce with their biological immortality.
Is it possible to find a common drive for all living things that would give purpose to any life activity? Yes. In all manifestations of living things we will find something in common: the desire to preserve the species. Life is the highest, final and only goal of life. To be is the universal law of all things, including the human community. This goal, which the eobiont solved so simply, now stood before each individual individual. All behavior of any individual solves the same problem. By saving its life, an individual ensures the preservation of the species; By giving birth and raising offspring, an individual ensures the preservation of the species;
By sacrificing its life to save its offspring or other individuals, an individual ensures the preservation of the species.
Behavior is controlled by the psyche. Having received individual existence (their own individual being), individuals received a psyche, which is more complex, the more complex the individuals’ own organization and behavior. The general biological goal has led to the fact that any psyche has two main functions: indicative and motivating. Approximate function provides specific behavior aimed at satisfying certain needs (in humans this behavior is called activities ), creating ideal models of material reality. Incentive function consists in the work of instincts. If the orienting function is always rational, that is, it always meets the requirements for the success of individual behavior programs, then many drives may be irrational. For example, an animal can sacrifice itself in an effort to leave offspring. This irrationality is compensated by strong emotions that originate precisely in this area of \u200b\u200bthe psyche. At the human level, the orienting function turns into consciousness, and the incentive function into the unconscious.
Features of the formation of functional literacy in English lessons List of used literature
general characteristics of the program the approximate literature program for the basic school is compiled on the basis of the fundamental
The concept of a new educational and methodological complex on Russian history The concept of teaching history