B.V. Rauschenbach, Korolev's comrade-in-arms, talked about how he came up with the idea of ​​​​creating artificial gravity on a spaceship: at the end of the winter of 1963, the chief designer, who was clearing the path of snow near his house on Ostankinskaya Street, had an epiphany, one might say. Without waiting for Monday, he called Rauschenbach, who lived nearby, and soon together they began to “clear the way” into space for long flights.
The idea, as often happens, turned out to be simple; it must be simple, otherwise nothing may work out in practice.

To complete the picture. March 1966, Americans on Gemini 11:

At 11:29 a.m., Gemini 11 undocked from Agena. Now the fun begins: how will two objects connected by a cable behave? At first, Conrad tried to introduce the link into gravitational stabilization - so that the rocket would hang below, the ship above and the cable would be taut.
However, it was not possible to move 30 m away without causing strong vibrations. At 11:55 we moved on to the second part of the experiment - “artificial gravity”. Conrad introduced the ligament into rotation; At first the cable stretched along a curved line, but after 20 minutes it straightened out and the rotation became quite correct. Conrad increased his speed to 38 °/min, and after dinner to 55 °/min, creating a heaviness of 0.00078 g. You couldn’t feel it “to the touch,” but the things slowly settled to the bottom of the capsule. At 14:42, after three hours of rotation, the pin was shot off, and Gemini moved away from the rocket.

You may not be interested in space, but you've probably read about it in books, seen in films and games. In most works, as a rule, gravity is present - we do not pay attention to it and take it for granted. Except that's not true.

Massive ones attract stronger, smaller ones weaker.

Materiel

The Earth is just such a massive object. Therefore, people, animals, buildings, trees, blades of grass, a smartphone or a computer - everything is attracted to the Earth. We are used to this and never think about such a small thing.

The main effect of the Earth's gravity on us is the acceleration due to gravity, also known as g. It is equal to 9.8 m/s². Any body in the absence of support will equally accelerate towards the center of the Earth, gaining 9.8 meters of speed every second.

Thanks to this effect, we stand straight on our feet, distinguish between “up” and “down,” drop things, and so on. Take away the Earth's gravity, and all usual actions will be turned upside down.

This is best known to astronauts who spend a significant part of their lives on the ISS. They relearn how to drink, walk, and cope with basic needs.

Here are some examples.

At the same time, in the mentioned films, TV series, games and other science fiction, gravity on spaceships “simply exists.” The creators don’t even explain where it came from - and if they do, it’s unconvincing. Some kind of “gravity generators”, the operating principle of which is unknown. This is no different from “it just is” - it’s better not to explain at all in this case. It's more honest.

Theoretical models of artificial gravity

There are several ways to create artificial gravity.

Lots of mass

The first (and most “correct”) option is to enlarge the ship, make it very massive. Then gravitational interaction will provide the required effect.

But the unreality of this method is obvious: such a ship requires a lot of matter. And something needs to be done about the uniform distribution of the gravitational field.

Constant acceleration

Since we need to achieve a constant gravitational acceleration of 9.8 m/s², why not make the spacecraft in the form of a platform that will accelerate perpendicular to its plane with this same g?

This way the desired effect will be achieved - but there are several problems.

First, you need to get fuel from somewhere to ensure constant acceleration. And even if someone suddenly comes up with an engine that does not require the emission of matter, the law of conservation of energy will not disappear anywhere.

Secondly, the problem lies in the very nature of constant acceleration. Our physical laws say: you cannot accelerate forever. The theory of relativity says the opposite.

Even if the ship periodically changes direction, to provide artificial gravity it must constantly fly somewhere. No hanging near planets. If the ship stops, gravity will disappear.

So this option does not suit us either.

Carousel carousel

And here is where the fun begins. Everyone knows how the carousel works - and what effects a person experiences in it.

Everything that is on it tends to jump out in proportion to the speed of rotation. From the side of the carousel, it turns out that everything is affected by a force directed along the radius. Quite a “gravity” thing.

So we need a barrel-shaped ship that will rotate around its longitudinal axis. Such options are quite common in science fiction.

When rotating around an axis, a centrifugal force is generated directed along the radius. Dividing the force by the mass, we get the desired acceleration.

All this is calculated using a simple formula:

A=ω²R,

where a is the acceleration, R is the radius of rotation, and ω is the angular velocity measured in radians per second (a radian is approximately 57.3 degrees).

What do we need for a normal life on an imaginary space cruiser? A combination of the ship's radius and angular velocity, whose derivative will ultimately give 9.8 m/s².

We have seen something similar in a number of works: “2001: A Space Odyssey” by Stanley Kubrick, the series “Babylon 5”, “Interstellar” by Nolan, the novel “Ringworld” by Larry Niven, the universe of the Halo games.

In all of them, the acceleration of gravity is approximately equal to g - everything is logical. However, these models also have problems.

Carousel problems

The most obvious problem is perhaps easiest to explain using the example of A Space Odyssey. The radius of the ship is approximately 8 meters - to achieve an acceleration equal to g, an angular velocity of approximately 1.1 rad/s is required. This is approximately 10.5 revolutions per minute.

With such parameters, the “Coriolis effect” comes into force - at different “heights” from the floor, different forces act on moving bodies. And it depends on the angular velocity.

So in our virtual design we can't rotate the ship too fast because it will cause sudden falls and vestibular problems. And taking into account the acceleration formula, we cannot afford a small radius of the ship.

Therefore, the “Space Odyssey” model is no longer necessary. The problem is roughly the same with the ships in Interstellar, although there everything is not so obvious with the numbers.

The second problem is on the other side of the spectrum. In Larry Niven's novel Ringworld, the ship is a giant ring with a radius approximately equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit (1 AU ≈ 149 million km). Thus, it rotates at a quite satisfactory speed so that a person does not notice the Coriolis effect.

It would seem that everything fits together, but there is a problem here too. One revolution will take 9 days, which will create huge overloads with such a ring diameter. This requires very strong material. At the moment, humanity cannot produce such a strong structure - not to mention the fact that somewhere you need to take so much matter and still build everything.

In the case of Halo or Babylon 5, all the previous problems seem to be absent: the rotation speed is sufficient for the Coriolis effect to not have a negative impact, and it is possible to build such a ship (hypothetically).

But these worlds also have their drawbacks. Its name is angular momentum.

By spinning the ship around its axis, we turn it into a giant gyroscope. And it is difficult to deflect the gyroscope from its axis due to the angular momentum, the amount of which must be conserved in the system. This means that it will be difficult to fly somewhere in a certain direction. But this problem can be solved.

It should be

This solution is called the “O’Neill cylinder”: we take two identical cylinder ships, connected along an axis and each rotating in its own direction. As a result, we have zero total angular momentum, and there should be no problems with directing the ship in the right direction.

With a ship radius of 500 meters or more (as in Babylon 5), everything should work as it should.

Bottom line

What conclusions can we draw about the implementation of artificial gravity in spacecraft?

Of all the options, the most realistic one is the rotating structure, in which the “downward” force is provided by centripetal acceleration. It is impossible to create artificial gravity on a ship with flat parallel structures like decks, given our modern understanding of the laws of physics.

The radius of the rotating ship must be sufficient so that the Coriolis effect is negligible for humans. Good examples from fictional worlds are the already mentioned Halo and Babylon 5.

To control such ships, you need to build an O’Neill cylinder - two “barrels” rotating in different directions to ensure zero total angular momentum for the system. This will allow adequate control of the spacecraft - a very realistic recipe for providing astronauts with comfortable gravitational conditions.

And until we can build something like this, I would like science fiction writers to pay more attention to physical realism in their works.

Place a person in space, away from the gravitational bonds of the earth's surface, and he will experience weightlessness. And yet they showed us on TV that the crew of a spaceship quite successfully walks with their feet on the floor. For this purpose, artificial gravity is used, created by installations on board a fantastic ship. How close is this to real science?


Captain Gabriel Lorca on the bridge of the Discovery during a mock battle with the Klingons. The entire crew is attracted by artificial gravity, and this is, as it were, already canon.

Regarding gravity. Einstein's great discovery was the equivalence principle: with uniform acceleration, the reference frame is indistinguishable from the gravitational field. If you were on a rocket and couldn't see the universe through the window, you would have no idea what was happening: were you being pulled down by gravity, or was the rocket accelerating in a certain direction? This was the idea that led to the general theory of relativity. After 100 years, this is the most accurate description of gravity and acceleration that we know.


The identical behavior of a ball falling to the floor in a rocket in flight (left) and on Earth (right) demonstrates Einstein's principle of equivalence.

There's another trick, as Ethan Siegel writes, that we can use if we want: we can make the spaceship spin. Instead of linear acceleration (like the thrust of a rocket), centripetal acceleration can be made to work so that the person on board feels the outer body of the spacecraft pushing him towards the center. This technique was used in 2001: A Space Odyssey, and if your spaceship was big enough, the artificial gravity would be indistinguishable from real gravity.
There's just one thing. These three types of acceleration - gravitational, linear and rotational - are the only ones we can use to simulate the effects of gravity. And this is a huge problem for a spacecraft.


The 1969 concept of the station, which was supposed to be assembled in orbit from the completed stages of the Apollo program. The station was supposed to rotate on its central axis to create artificial gravity.

Why? Because if you want to go to another star system, you'll need to speed up your ship to get there, and then slow it down once you arrive. If you cannot protect yourself from these accelerations, disaster awaits you. For example, to accelerate to full momentum in Star Trek, to a few percent of the speed of light, one would have to experience an acceleration of 4000 g. This is 100 times the acceleration, which begins to impede blood flow in the body.


The launch of the space shuttle Columbia in 1992 showed that acceleration occurs over a long period. The acceleration of the spacecraft will be many times higher, and the human body will not be able to cope with it.

Unless you want to be weightless during a long journey - so as not to subject yourself to terrible biological wear and tear like muscle and bone loss - there must be a constant force on the body. For any other force this is quite easy to do. In electromagnetism, for example, one could place a crew in a conductive cabin and many external electric fields would simply disappear. It would be possible to place two parallel plates inside and create a constant electric field that pushes charges in a certain direction.
If only gravity worked the same way.
There is simply no such thing as a gravitational conductor, nor is it possible to protect yourself from gravitational force. It is impossible to create a uniform gravitational field in a region of space, for example between two plates. Why? Because unlike the electrical force generated by positive and negative charges, there is only one type of gravitational charge, and that is mass-energy. The gravitational force always attracts, and there is no escape from it. You can only use three types of acceleration - gravitational, linear and rotational.


The vast majority of quarks and leptons in the Universe consist of matter, but each of them also has antiparticles made of antimatter, the gravitational masses of which have not been determined.

The only way that artificial gravity could be created that would protect you from the effects of your ship's acceleration and provide you with constant "downward" thrust without acceleration would be if you unlocked negative gravity mass particles. All the particles and antiparticles we have found so far have positive mass, but these masses are inertial, meaning they can only be judged when the particle is created or accelerated. Inertial mass and gravitational mass are the same for all particles we know, but we have never tested our idea on antimatter or antiparticles.
Currently, experiments are being carried out in this area. The ALPHA experiment at CERN has created antihydrogen: a stable form of neutral antimatter, and is working to isolate it from all other particles. If the experiment is sensitive enough, we will be able to measure how an antiparticle enters a gravitational field. If it falls down, like ordinary matter, then it has a positive gravitational mass and can be used to build a gravitational conductor. If it falls upward in a gravitational field, it changes everything. Just one result, and artificial gravity could suddenly become possible.


The possibility of obtaining artificial gravity is incredibly attractive to us, but is based on the existence of negative gravitational mass. Antimatter may be such a mass, but we haven't proven it yet.

If antimatter has negative gravitational mass, then by creating a field of normal matter and a ceiling of antimatter, we could create an artificial gravity field that would always pull you down. By creating a gravitationally conductive shell in the form of the hull of our spacecraft, we would protect the crew from the forces of ultra-fast acceleration that would otherwise be lethal. And best of all, people in space would no longer experience the negative physiological effects that plague astronauts today. But until we find a particle with negative gravitational mass, artificial gravity will be obtained only due to acceleration.

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Goals and objectives of the study

The purpose of my research work is to consider such a fundamental interaction as gravity, its phenomena and the problem of space settlements with artificial gravity, to consider the features of using various types of engines to create artificial gravity, to develop ideas about life in space in conditions of artificial gravity and to solve problems arising when the creation of this project, the integration of patents of advanced technologies to solve the problems of artificial gravity.

The relevance of research.

Space settlements are a type of space station where a person could live for a long period of time or even a lifetime. To create such settlements, you need to think through all the necessary conditions for optimal life activity - a life support system, artificial gravity, protection from space influences, etc. And although it is quite difficult to implement all the conditions, a number of science fiction writers and engineers have already created several projects that, perhaps, will create amazing space settlements in the future.

Significance and novelty of the research.

Artificial gravity is a promising area for research, because it will provide long-term stay in space and the possibility of long-distance space flights. The construction of space settlements could provide funds for further exploration; If we launch a space tourism program, which will be a very expensive pleasure, space corporations will receive an additional stream of funding, and research can be carried out in all directions, without being limited by possibilities.

Gravity. Gravitational phenomena. Gravity.

Gravity is one of the four types of fundamental interactions, or in other words - such an attractive force directed towards the center of mass of any object and to the center of mass of a cluster of objects; the greater the mass, the higher the gravity. As you move away from an object, the force of attraction towards it tends to zero, but under ideal conditions it never disappears at all. That is, if we imagine an absolute vacuum without a single extra particle of any origin, then in this space any objects that have even an infinitesimal mass, in the absence of any other external forces, will be attracted to each other at any infinitely distant distance.

At low speeds, gravity is described by Newtonian mechanics. And at speeds comparable to the speed of light, gravitational phenomena are described by SRT

A. Einstein.

Within the framework of Newtonian mechanics, gravity is described by the law of universal gravitation, which states that two point (or spherical) bodies are attracted to each other with a force directly proportional to the product of the masses of these bodies, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acting along the straight line connecting these bodies.

In the high-velocity approximation, gravity is explained by special relativity, which has two postulates:

Einstein's principle of relativity, which states that natural phenomena occur equally in all inertial frames of reference.

The principle of constancy of the speed of light, which states that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant (contradicts the law of addition of speeds).

To describe gravity, a special extension of the theory of relativity has been developed, which allows for the curvature of space-time. However, dynamics even within the framework of STR can include gravitational interaction, as long as the gravitational field potential is much smaller. It should also be noted that STR ceases to work on the scale of the entire Universe, requiring replacement by GRT.

Gravitational phenomena.

The most striking gravitational phenomenon is attraction. There is also another phenomenon associated with gravity - weightlessness.

Thanks to gravitational forces, we walk on the earth, and our planet exists, like the entire Universe. But what happens if we leave the planet? We will experience one of the brightest gravitational phenomena - weightlessness. Weightlessness is a state of the body in which no forces other than gravitational forces act on it, or these forces are compensated.

Astronauts staying on the ISS are in a state of weightlessness, which negatively affects their health. When transitioning from the conditions of earth's gravity to conditions of weightlessness (primarily, when a spacecraft enters orbit), most astronauts experience an organism reaction called space adaptation syndrome. When a person stays in space for a long time (more than a week), the lack of gravity begins to cause certain changes in the body that are negative. The first and most obvious consequence of weightlessness is the rapid atrophy of muscles: the muscles are actually turned off from human activity, as a result all the physical characteristics of the body deteriorate. In addition, the consequence of a sharp decrease in the activity of muscle tissue is a reduction in the body's oxygen consumption, and due to the resulting excess hemoglobin, the activity of the bone marrow, which synthesizes it, may decrease. There is also reason to believe that limited mobility disrupts phosphorus metabolism in the bones, which leads to a decrease in their strength.

In order to get rid of the negative effects of weightlessness it is necessary to create artificial gravity in space.

Artificial gravity and space settlements. Early research of the 20th century.

Tsiolkovsky proposed the theory of etheric settlements, which were a torus that slowly rotates around its axis. But at that time such ideas were a utopia and all his projects remained in sketches.

The first developed project was proposed by the Austrian scientist Hermann Nordrung in 1928. It was also a torus-shaped station, including habitation modules, a power generator and an astronomical observatory module.

The next project was proposed by Wernher von Braun, a leading specialist in the American space program; it was also a torus-shaped station where people would live and work in rooms connected into one large corridor. Werner's project was one of NASA's priorities until the advent of the Skylab project in the 60s.

Skylab, the first and only US national orbital station, was intended for technological, astrophysical, medical and biological research, as well as for Earth observation. Launched on May 14, 1973, hosted three Apollo missions from May 1973 to February 1974, deorbited and collapsed on July 11, 1979.

Further, in 1965, the American Space Society suggested that the ideal shape for space settlements would be a torus, since all the modules are located together, the gravity force will have a maximum value. The problem of artificial gravity seemed largely solved.

The next project was put forward by Gerard O'Neill, he envisioned the creation of colonies, for which it is proposed to use two giant-sized cylinders, enclosed in a frame and rotating in different directions. These cylinders rotate around their own axis at a speed of about 0.53 revolutions per minute, due to which the force of gravity familiar to humans is created in the colony.

In 1975, Parker put forward a project to create a colony with a diameter of 100 m and a length of 1 km, located at a distance of about 400,000 km from the Earth and the Moon and designed for 10,000 people. Rotation around the longitudinal axis at a speed of 1 revolution per 21 seconds will create a gravity close to that of the Earth.

In 1977, NASA Ames Research Center researcher Richard Johnson and Professor Charles Holbrow of Colgate University published the paper Space Settlements, which looked at promising research into torus-shaped settlements.

In 1994, under the direction of Dr. Rodney Galloway, with the participation of scientists and laboratory scientists at Phillips Laboratory and Sandia Laboratories, as well as other research centers of the United States Air Force and the University of Arizona Space Research Center, a voluminous manual was compiled for the design of torus-shaped space settlements.

Modern research.

One of the modern projects in the field of space settlements is the Stanford Torus, which is a direct descendant of the ideas of Wernher von Braun.

The Stanford Torus was proposed to NASA during the summer of 1975 by Stanford University students to conceptualize the design of future space colonies. Gerard O'Neill later introduced his "Island One" or "Bernal Sphere" as an alternative to the torus. The "Stanford Torus", only in a more detailed version, representing the concept of a ring-shaped rotating space station, was presented by Wernher von Braun, as well as by the Slovenian-born Austrian engineer Hermann Potocnik.

It is a torus with a diameter of about 1.8 kilometers (for habitation of 10 thousand people, as described in the work of 1975) and rotates around its axis (revolutions per minute), creating an artificial gravity of 0.9 - 1 g on the ring due to centrifugal strength.

Sunlight enters through a system of mirrors. The ring is connected to the hub through “spokes” - corridors for the movement of people and goods to the axle and back. The hub, the axis of rotation of the station, is best suited for the docking station for receiving spacecraft, since artificial gravity is negligible here: there is a stationary module docked to the axis of the station.

The interior of the torus is habitable, large enough to create an artificial ecosystem, a natural environment, and inside is like a long, narrow glacial valley whose ends eventually curve upward to form a circle. The population lives here in conditions similar to a densely populated suburb, and inside the ring there are branches for farming and a residential part. (Annex 1)

Space settlements and artificial gravity in culture. Elysium

Ring worlds, such as those depicted in the sci-fi action movie Elysium or the video game Halo, are perhaps some of the most interesting ideas for future space stations. In Elysium, the station is close to Earth and, if you ignore its size, has a certain degree of realism. However, the biggest problem here is its “openness,” which is pure fantasy in appearance alone.

“Perhaps the most controversial issue about Elysium Station is its openness to the space environment.”

“The film shows a spaceship just landing on a lawn after arriving from outer space. There are no docking gates or anything like that. But such a station must be completely isolated from the external environment. Otherwise, the atmosphere here won't last long. Perhaps the open areas of the station could be protected by some kind of invisible field that would allow sunlight to penetrate inside and support life in the plants and trees planted there. But for now this is just fantasy. There are no such technologies."

The very idea of ​​a station in the shape of rings is wonderful, but so far unrealizable.

Star Wars

Almost every science fiction movie fan knows what the Death Star is. This is such a large gray and round space station from the Star Wars movie epic, which looks very much like the Moon. This is an intergalactic planet destroyer, which is essentially itself an artificial planet made of steel and inhabited by stormtroopers.

Can we really build such an artificial planet and roam the expanses of the galaxy on it? In theory - yes. This alone will require an incredible amount of human and financial resources.

The issue of building the Death Star was even raised by the American White House, after the society sent a corresponding petition for consideration. The official response from the authorities was that $852,000,000,000,000,000 would be required for construction steel alone.

But even if the issue of finance were not a priority, then humanity does not have the technology to recreate the Death Star, since a huge amount of energy is needed to move it.

(Appendix 2)

Problems in implementing the space settlements project.

Space settlements are a promising direction in the space industry of the future, but as always there are difficulties that must be overcome to complete this task.

Initial capital costs;

Internal life support systems;

Creation of artificial gravity;

Protection from hostile external conditions:

1. from radiation;

   providing heat;

   from foreign objects;

Solving the problems of artificial gravity and space settlements.

Initial capital costs - this problem can be solved together if people put aside their personal ambitions and work for the greater good. After all, the future of humanity depends only on us.

Internal life support systems - already now on the ISS there are systems for reusing water, but this is not enough; provided there is enough space on the orbital station, you can find a place for a greenhouse in which plants that release maximum oxygen will grow; there is also the creation of hydroponic laboratories for growing GMOs that will be able to supply food to the entire population of the station.

Creating artificial gravity is not such a difficult task as delivering the huge amount of fuel needed to rotate the station.

1. 1. There are several ways to solve the problem.

      1. 1. When it comes to comparing the efficiency of different types of engines, engineers usually talk about specific impulse. Specific impulse is defined as the change in impulse per unit mass of fuel consumed. Thus, the more efficient the engine, the less fuel is required to launch the rocket into space. Impulse, in turn, is the result of the action of a force over a certain time. Chemical rockets, although they have very high thrust, operate for only a few minutes and therefore have a very low specific impulse. Ion engines, capable of operating for years, can have high specific impulse with very low thrust.

Use a standard approach and apply jet engines to the problem. Calculations show that using any known jet engine would require enormous amounts of fuel to run the station for at least a year.

Specific impulse I (LPRE) = 4.6

Specific impulse I (solid propellant rocket engine) = 2.65

Specific impulse I (EP) = 10

Specific Impulse I (Plasma Engine) = 290

This is the fuel consumption for 1 year, therefore, it is unwise to use jet engines.

1. 1. 1. 1. My idea is this.

Let's consider an elementary case.

Let us have a carousel that is motionless. Then, if we fix n number of unipolar electromagnets along the edge of the carousel so that the force of their interaction is maximum, we get the following: if we turn on electromagnet No. 1 so that it acts on electromagnet No. 2 with a force x times greater than the second one acts on first, then according to Newton’s III law, the force of action of electromagnet No. 1 on No. 2 from the side of No. 2 will be compensated by the reaction force of the carousel support, which will bring the carousel out of rest. Now turn off No. 1, raise the strength of No. 2 to No. 1 and turn on No. 3 with a force equal to No. 2 at the previous stage, and if we continue this procedure, we will achieve rotation of the carousel. By applying this method to the space station, we will obtain a solution to the problem of artificial gravity.

(Appendix 3).

Protection from hostile environmental conditions

1. Radiation protection patent № 2406661

patent holder Alexey Gennadievich Rebeko

The invention relates to methods and means of protecting crew and equipment from ionizing radiation (charged high-energy particles) during space flights. According to the invention, a protective static electric or magnetic field is created around the spacecraft, which is localized in the space between two closed, non-contacting surfaces nested inside each other. The protected space of the spacecraft is limited by the inner surface, and the outer surface isolates the spacecraft and the protected space from interplanetary plasma. The shape of the surfaces can be arbitrary. When using an electric protective field, charges of the same magnitude and opposite sign are created on these surfaces. In such a capacitor, the electric field is concentrated in the space between the plate surfaces. In the case of a magnetic field, currents of the opposite direction are passed through the surfaces, and the ratio of current strengths is selected so as to minimize the value of the residual field outside. The desired shape of the surfaces in this case is toroidal, to ensure continuous protection. Under the influence of the Lorentz force, charged particles will move along deflecting curved trajectories or closed orbits between surfaces. It is possible to simultaneously apply electric and magnetic fields between surfaces. In this case, a suitable material can be placed in the space between the surfaces to absorb charged particles: for example, liquid hydrogen, water or polyethylene. The technical result of the invention is aimed at creating reliable, continuous (geometrically continuous) protection from cosmic radiation, simplifying the design of protective equipment and reducing energy costs for maintaining the protective field.

1. Providing heat patent №2148540

Patent holderOpen Joint Stock Company "Rocket and Space Corporation "Energia" named after S.P. Korolev"

Thermal control system of a spacecraft and orbital station, containing closed cooling and heating circuits connected through at least one intermediate liquid-liquid heat exchanger, control and measurement systems, valve-distribution and drainage-filling fittings, while the heating circuit contains a circulation stimulator , gas-liquid and coil heat exchangers and thermal plates, and in the cooling circuit, at least one circulation stimulator, a liquid flow regulator, one output of which is connected through the first check valve to the inlet of the coolant flow mixer, and the other through the second check valve to the inlet radiation heat exchanger, the output of which is connected to the second input of the flow mixer, the output of the flow mixer is connected by a connecting pipeline to the heat-receiving cavity of the intermediate liquid-liquid heat exchanger, the output of which is connected to the circulation stimulator, temperature sensors are installed on the connecting pipeline, electrically connected through a control system to the flow regulator liquid, characterized in that two electric pump units are additionally introduced into the cooling circuit, and the input of the first electric pump unit is connected through a filter to the coolant outlet from the heat receiving cavity of the intermediate liquid-liquid heat exchanger, and its output is connected to the second check valve and in parallel, through a filter to the input a second electric pump unit, the output of which is connected to the first check valve, each electric pump unit is equipped with a differential pressure sensor, and an additional temperature sensor is installed on the pipeline connecting the output of the flow mixer with the heat receiving cavity of the liquid-liquid heat exchanger, electrically connected through the control system to the first electric pump unit.

1. Protection against foreign objects

There are many ways to protect against foreign bodies.

Use non-standard motors, such as an electromagnetic accelerator with variable specific impulse;

Wrap an asteroid in a reflective plastic solar sail using aluminum-coated PET film;

"Paint" or sprinkle an object with titanium dioxide (white) or carbon black (black) so that cause the Yarkovsky effect and change its trajectory;

Planetary scientist Eugene Shoemaker proposed in 1996 release a cloud of steam in the path of an object to gently slow it down. Nick Zabo drew a similar idea in 1990, "aerodynamic braking of a comet": A comet or ice structure targets an asteroid, after which nuclear explosions vaporize the ice and form a temporary atmosphere in the path of the asteroid;

Attach heavy ballast to the asteroid in order to change its trajectory by shifting the center of gravity;

Use laser ablation;

Use a shock wave emitter;

Another “contactless” method was recently proposed by scientists C. Bombardelli and G. Pelez from the Technical University of Madrid. It offers use ion cannon with low divergence, aimed at the asteroid from a nearby ship. The kinetic energy transmitted through the ions reaching the asteroid's surface, as in the case of a gravity tug, will create a weak but constant force capable of deflecting the asteroid, and a lighter ship will be used.

Detonation of a nuclear device above, on or below the surface of an asteroid is a potential option for repelling the threat. The optimal explosion height depends on the composition and size of the object. In the event of a threat from a pile of debris, in order to avoid their dispersion, it is proposed to carry out a radiation implosion, that is, an explosion above the surface. During an explosion, the released energy in the form of neutrons and soft x-rays (which do not penetrate matter) is converted into heat when it reaches the surface of the object. Heat turns the substance of the object into an outburst, and it will go off the trajectory, following Newton's third law, the outburst will go in one direction, and the object in the opposite direction.

Electromagnetic catapult is an automatic system located on an asteroid that releases the substance of which it consists into space. Thus, it slowly shifts and loses mass. An electromagnetic catapult must operate as a low specific impulse system: using a lot of fuel but little energy.

The idea is that if you use asteroid material as fuel, the amount of fuel is not as important as the amount of energy, which will most likely be limited.

Another possible method is to place an electromagnetic catapult on the Moon, aiming it at a near-Earth object, in order to take advantage of the orbital speed of the natural satellite and its unlimited supply of “rock bullets”.

Conclusion.

After analyzing the information presented, it becomes clear that artificial gravity is a very real phenomenon that will have wide application in the space industry as soon as we overcome all the difficulties associated with this project.

I see space settlements in the form proposed by von Braun: torus-shaped worlds with optimal use of space and using advanced technologies to ensure long-term life activity, namely:

• The rotation of the station will occur according to the principle that I described in the section Creating artificial gravity. But due to the fact that in addition to rotation there will be movement in space, it is advisable to install correction motors on the station.

Use of advanced technologies to meet the needs of the station:

• Hydroponics

  • Plants do not need to be watered a lot. Much less water is used than when growing on the ground in a garden. Despite this, with the correct selection of minerals and components, the plants will not dry out or rot. This happens by getting enough oxygen.

    The big advantage is that this method allows you to protect plants from many diseases and pests. The plants themselves will not absorb harmful substances from the soil.

    Consequently, there will be maximum productivity, which will completely cover the needs of the station’s inhabitants.

Water regeneration

• Condensation of moisture from the air.

  Purification of used water.

  Processing of urine and solid waste.

A cluster of nuclear reactors will be responsible for energy supply, which will be shielded according to patent no. 2406661 adapted to displace radioactive particles outside the station.

The task of creating space settlements is difficult, but doable. I hope that in the near future, due to the rapid development of science and technology, all the necessary prerequisites for the creation and development of space settlements based on artificial gravity will be fulfilled. My contribution to this necessary cause will be appreciated. The future of humanity lies in space exploration and the transition to a new, more promising, environmentally friendly round of the spiral of human development.

Applications

Appendix 1. Stanford torus

Appendix 2. Death Star, Elysium.

Appendix 3. Scheme of rotational motion.

Resultant forces in a first approximation (only interaction of magnets). As a result, the station performs a rotational movement. That's what we need.

Bibliography

ALYAKRINSKY. Man lives in space. Weightlessness: plus or minus?

Barrer, M. Rocket engines.

Dobrovolsky, M. Liquid rocket engines. Basics of design.

Dorofeev, A. Fundamentals of the theory of thermal rocket engines.

Matveev. Mechanics and theory of relativity: Textbook for university students.

Myakishev. Molecular physics and thermodynamics.

Myakishev. Physics. Mechanics.

Myakishev. Physics. Electrodynamics.

Russell, D. Hydroponics.

Sanko. Astronomical Dictionary.

Sivukhin. General physics course.

Feynman. Feynman lectures on gravity.

Tsiolkovsky. Proceedings on rocket technology.

Shileiko. In an ocean of energy.

Golubev I.R. and Novikov Yu.V. Environment and its protection

Zakhlebny A.N. Reading book on nature conservation

Zverev I. Nature conservation and environmental education of schoolchildren.

Ivanov A.F. Physical experiment with environmental content.

Kiselev S.V. Demonstration of the greenhouse effect.

Internet resources:

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_page

http://www.roscosmos.ru

http://allpatents.ru

— Is it true that there is no gravity in space?

- NO, it’s not true: the law of universal gravitation operates everywhere.

Why then do astronauts “fly” inside their ship, strap themselves to their beds while they sleep, and catch “flying chips” throughout the cabin?

They experience weightlessness because move in a circle(around the Earth) at enormous speed (7.9 kilometers per second); This can be roughly demonstrated by pouring water into a small bucket and swirling it vigorously. The water will not pour out, it will be pressed to the bottom by “centrifugal force”, or rather by the force of inertia: since inertia acts rectilinearly, and the “rounding” of the trajectory of movement constantly changes the direction of movement.

It is the inertia of motion in a circular orbit around the Earth that compensates for the force of gravity. If the spaceship had not been flying at this speed - but had been stationary - it would have immediately crashed to Earth - it does not matter that it is located at a distance of several hundred kilometers from the Earth: its gravitational force is enormous and extends to a very large (theoretically - infinite) distance. If there was a huge tower sticking out of the ground, 500 kilometers high (at about this height the ISS constantly moves), and we stood on top of this tower, we would not experience any weightlessness, but the usual gravity of the Earth (perhaps a little less than on a surface).

Therefore, Space, in this regard, is no different; but only in space, where there is no atmosphere, can you move at such a tremendous speed that you can compensate for earth’s gravity. Is it possible to somehow “get” weightlessness on Earth? This is a rather pleasant feeling when nothing forces the muscles to tense. When you can float without touching objects, push off with your feet once - and fly a huge distance - and quickly, faster than a running person! It would probably be great to visit some special salon that provides “zero gravity” services!

But on Earth, this is a problem. The water disappears: although a person in the water may not “fall to the bottom”, and in principle may not float up - but as if “hovering” in place - this is still not weightlessness at all. If you stay upside down under water for a long time, blood will rush to the brain just like on land. The muscles will be just as tense as anywhere else on Earth: the same force of gravity acts on them, and the body’s organs, including internal ones, will have their usual weight. Zero gravity is something completely different!

Perhaps the only possible way creating total weight loss is being on boardfastdeclining airplane. And then, the duration of this effect is no more than a couple of minutes. You can, of course, just jump - but then the body will be in weightlessness for less than a second. During a skydive, weightlessness will last longer, but it will not be complete, due to the greatly increased friction with the air, which to some extent will become “solid”, like support and the body will feel some weight.

Is there, at least theoretically, a way to achieve weightlessness without

the need to move or fall, in a stationary laboratory, whenthan indefinitely?

Yes, but purely theoretically: to build such an establishment incenter of the earth! Yes, in its very center (center of mass), in the bowels, in the core: the entire mass of the globe will be outside and exert a gravitational influence on the visitor of such a “club” from all sides simultaneously and with equal force. The resulting direction of gravity will be ZERO - man(or any object) will freeze and will not fall anywhere. In fact, this is of course not possible (in the next couple of billion years) - due to the enormous pacerature and colossal pressure in the bowels of the Earth, but on some other celestial body, in principle, probably.

Well, what if it’s still on Earth, and in a slightly more realistic way than in the earth’s core?

Perhaps it is possible, but other earthly inhabitants will not like it much: disperse planet rotation speed approximately 17 times! A day on Earth will last about an hour and a half (40 minutes during the day and about the same at night). But anywhere on the equator there will be real weightlessness! The surface of the Earth, in the equatorial part, will move at the same speed with which the satellites rotate, that is, with the first cosmic speed; the force of inertia at this latitude completely compensates for gravity and it will be possible to fly! But not only people will fly, and this is a problem...

All objects: keys, lighters, hats, chairs, suitcases, bicycles, cars - everything will not be on the ground - but where they “please”. Small stones, medium stones, huge cobblestones will float in the air, collide, fly apart, fly up to the ground, hit, then jump off, rise very high, come back - in general, this is such a commotion... The whole earth, in general, is not a monolithic rock, but stones, grains of sand, specks of dust and all that, superimposed on one another. All this will no longer be pressed to the ground and will begin to move randomly. Nothing will be visible from the dust. Buildings, to

which stand on a foundation are 90 percent supported by the gravity of the Earth, which will cease to take place. Entire mountains that are supported from below by the earth's mantle will becomebreak away and fly away. What about water? Well, of course, the water will also curl into small drops or large balls and fly around, covered in dust. Moreover, there will be a lot of water - all the oceans will instantly rush to where the force of weight is less. Together with the oceans, everything from all over the planet that can come off will arrive.me: everything will end up at the equator or in the air near it. The entire planet will “inflate” at the equator - and it will turn from a ball into a highly oblate ellipsoid. The fiery liquid mantle from the depths will also rise, following everything else. What about the air? The air will be thrown out in a huge fountain in the equatorial plane far into space, some will then return to the poles - then again flow to the equator and burst out. The hurricane will be continuous, continuous and brutally strong. Combined with all the light, medium and heavy objects flying in the air, it will probably be pure hell...

Yes, in such a scenario it is better to dig towards the core... Maybe there is still a “normal” way to “produce” weightlessness? In order not to touch the whole planet, but to dig a bunker under some mountain: the mountain is on top, close: it attracts upward. And the center of the Earth is far away - it pulls down. Is it possible to achieve “balance”?

Then you will have to “burrow” to a third of the radius of the Earth, and the mountain must be the size of the Moon... Although... The mountain must be made of such material that it will be a hundred thousand timesdenser than gold! An ordinary mountain, weighing a billion tons, was several meters in size. Place such a “blank” on the roof of the bunker - and there will be the world’s first boarding house that offers entertainment in zero gravity! It is only necessary to strengthen the ceiling structure well, because such a heavy body of such small dimensions will crush everything in the world, and will gradually sink into the very depths of the earth... And yet... We need to somehow break off a billion tons of such substance from the nearest extinct White Dwarf and bring it...

And yet, more seriously: is there really no real way? use anti-gravity, or shield the attraction from below a little, or turn on artificial gravity from above? You only need to lift a human body, several tens of kilograms, because you don’t need enormous energy for this? The elevator lifts you up, and your legs lift you to such a height every day... You can increase your own weight many times over in a centrifuge, or even on a simple carousel. Maybe you can just as easily reduce it somehow? This, in principle, will not contradict the law of conservation of energy? Anti-matter has been obtained a long time ago, maybe it can be used somehow?

Anti-matter does not provide anti-gravity: by and large, it is the same matter, only with the opposite electrical charge. On a carousel swing you can get weightlessness - but only for a short time; in general, the same effect as from a regular “jump”: half a second of weight loss, and then the same amount of overload. Method for creating long-term weightlessness on Earth not yet known. Although, most likely there should be a possibility.

Maybe someone has already figured it out? Write a comment or ask your friends on social media. networks: