Who introduced the concept of educational psychology. Subject and methods of educational psychology

In an ever-changing world, learning and development abilities require more and more attention. Not so long ago, at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology, educational psychology arose, studying the processes of cognition, trying to answer the question “Why do some students know more than others, what can be done to improve their learning and motivate them?”

Educational psychology as a science arose as a result of the emergence of learning theories; it is closely related to psychology, medicine, biology, and neurobiology. Its achievements are used in the development of curricula, principles of educational organization, and methods of motivating students. The main task is to find ways of optimal development in a learning situation.

History and scope of application of forces

The history of the formation of educational psychology goes back far into the past, even if it was formed as a separate direction only recently. The stages of development of educational psychology can be represented by three periods: laying general didactic foundations, systematization, and development of independent theories.

Even Plato and Aristotle wrestled with the issues of character formation, possibilities and limits of education, especially highlighting music, poetry, geometry, and the relationship between mentor and student. Later, Locke came onto the scene, introducing the concept of a “blank slate” - the child’s lack of any knowledge before learning. So, from Locke’s position, the basis of knowledge is the transfer of experience.

Prominent representatives of the first stage (XVII-XVIII centuries) - Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi - emphasized the fundamental role of the child’s characteristics in the learning process. At the second stage, pedology arises, which puts emphasis on the study of the patterns of child development.

In the middle of the 20th century, the first well-developed psychological theories of learning emerged; they required a new branch for themselves, which cannot be attributed entirely to either psychology or pedagogy. Theories about programmed and problem-based learning are becoming widely known.

Although the final formation of educational psychology took place during this period, Davydov expressed the idea that educational psychology could become part of developmental psychology, since developmental psychology examines the patterns of child development, and the characteristics of mastering a particular area of knowledge depend on its development.

On the other hand, Skinner defined educational psychology as dealing with human behavior in educational situations. Education, in turn, tries to shape the behavior of the student, the desired changes in him for the comprehensive development of his personality. So this is a science not just about the peculiarities of learning, but also about the organization of the educational process and the study of its influence in general.

Naturally, the object of educational psychology is a person. The subject of educational psychology distinguishes it from all other sciences that have man as its object; it identifies and adapts for use those laws according to which the development of the human personality occurs in the process of training and education.

Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns that make it possible to manage the development of people. She seeks to understand the possible paths of development of students, the range of their capabilities, and the processes that result in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Now it is used as a basis for the development of methodological programs.

general information

Basic concepts of educational psychology: learning, assimilation, laws of development in the learning process, the ability to direct it, etc. These concepts generally overlap with other human sciences, but still they clearly illustrate the emphasis of educational psychology on the principles of the formation of new experience in the learning process and determining the abilities of students and teachers to organize it productively. The main categories of educational psychology are also used by other sciences: educational activities, content of education, etc.

Over the years of its existence, the main problems of educational psychology have been formulated. All of them are connected in one way or another with the study of the educational process or the student in it:

The influence of training on development and education.
The influence of genetic and social factors on development.
Sensitive periods.
Child's readiness for school.
Individual training.
Diagnosis of children in the psychological and pedagogical aspect.
Optimal level of teacher training.

All of them are considered together, each problem is based on the fact that we do not yet fully understand how learning occurs, what impact this or that action has on the development of the student. In connection with these problems, the following tasks of educational psychology are distinguished:

Reveal the influence of training on development.
Determine mechanisms for optimal assimilation of social norms, cultural values, etc.
To highlight the patterns of the learning process for children at different levels of development (intellectual and personal).
Analyze the nuances of the influence of the organization of the learning process on the development of students.
Study teaching activities from a psychological point of view.
Identify key points of developmental learning (mechanisms, facts, patterns).
Develop ways to assess the quality of knowledge acquisition.

The principles of educational psychology are based on its object and subject, in particular, the importance of identifying and studying the patterns underlying the learning process and their influence on the student. There are only a few of them: social expediency, unity of theoretical and practical research, development, systematicity and determination (determining the connection between the impact and its consequences).

The structure of educational psychology consists of three main areas of its study - education, training, and teacher psychology. The tasks are accordingly divided into these areas.

The basic methods of educational psychology coincide with the methods that psychology uses in its activities. Research methods in educational psychology: tests, psychometrics, paired comparisons, experiments. And if earlier the methodology used more theoretical concepts, now the basis of the theories put forward are achievements in cognitive psychology.

Experiments and conclusions

The tasks and problems assigned to educational psychology intersect with other areas, so it often uses the work of cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and sociologists. Data are used in educational psychology both for the design of possible practical research and for purely theoretical revision or modification of existing methods and views. Let's look into the brain and see how it learns.

Aleksandrov (psychologist and neurophysiologist, head of the laboratory of neurophysiological foundations of the psyche), based on his own experiments and the calculations of Edelman, Kandel and others, supports the theory of individual specialization of neurons. Different chunks of subjective experience are served by different groups of neurons.

In particular, quoting Aleksandrov almost verbatim, we can say that learning leads to the formation of specialized neurons, so learning is the creation “in the head” of specialists of various profiles. Many already known patterns have been found in the psychology of learning:

1. Eternity of skill. The formation of specialization is associated with gene activity, which, in turn, serves as a trigger for the processes of neuronal restructuring. How long does specialization last? Perhaps forever. In Thompson and Best's experiment, the response of a rat neuron to a specific segment of the maze did not change over six months.

In this case, the memory is not erased, excluding special methods. New experience associated with a certain specialization is layered on the old one, neurons are modified. In this regard, the question arises whether it is worth teaching people first simple schemes and then complicating them, whether past understanding will prevent them from learning new ones.

2. Possibility of even minimal impacts. A 2009 study by Cohen, published in Science, reported astonishing results from a half-hour self-assessment interview with low-achieving subjects that resulted in increased academic achievement for as much as two years. However, it is possible that the influence continued in the future, but the observation period was limited to this time. In turn, the study raises an important question: what are the consequences of this or that influence on the child?

3. Sum of actions or goal? An experiment by researchers Koyama, Kato and Tanaka showed that different goals are controlled by different groups of neurons, even if the behavior in both cases is the same! It follows that for one result some neurons will be involved, and for another - different ones, although the behavior itself may be the same.

There are no neurons specializing specifically for a particular skill. There are groups of neurons for some results, there are groups responsible for other results, but not skills. Therefore, it is impossible to form a skill that will not be aimed at some result, and learning for future use is useless, according to Aleksandrov.

If you can't learn something not to achieve a specific result, then what do children learn? Get good grades and approval.

4. Inability to solve using previous methods. New experience is always formed due to mismatch - the inability to resolve a problematic situation in the old way: without conflict there will be no learning. That is, if we return to pedagogy, problem-based learning. There must be a problem that can be controlled by the teacher that cannot be solved using old methods. The problem should be in the area where you need to learn, and with what exactly you need to learn.

5. Rewards or punishments? What is the best way to motivate? Intimidate or reward? As a result of research, it was found that these two pathways have fundamental differences in their effects on memory, attention and learning. Apparently, both methods can bear fruit under different conditions. For example, as a result of working with children, it was found that before puberty, their behavior is more influenced by encouragement, after - punishment.

6. Time. Experiments on animal learning of a skill have shown that brain activity in animals performing the same task varies depending on the time that has passed since learning.

Although these calculations still need to be thoroughly verified, the very fact of the identified dependence is also striking for the reason that different activities organized by old learning lead to differences in the perception of new learning. So research on finding the optimal ratios of breaks and proper scheduling to at least avoid the negative influence of past learning on new learning may become one of the problems of educational psychology in the near future.

In conclusion, here are the words of Bill Gates, who spoke at the TED conference about the problems of education and the need to increase the general level of education to open equal opportunities for different people. Although his words relate to the US experience, it is unlikely that the situation in other countries is much different. “The difference between the best and worst teachers is incredible. The best teachers give a 10% increase in test scores in one year. What are their characteristics? This is not experience, not a master's degree. They are full of energy, they track those who are distracted and engage them in the learning process.” Of course, the research that Gates relies on is not enough to say who the best teachers are and what matters most, but without attention, knowledge will not arise. Author: Ekaterina Volkova

Educational psychology Stages of formation, subject, structure, problems.

Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in the conditions of training and education. Psychology is the basic science for educational psychology. Pedagogical psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become a field of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations.

The term "educational psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874

The subject of educational psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997).

Stages of the formation of educational psychology The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic. Represented by the works of J. A. Komensky, J.-J. Rousseau, I. Herbart, A. Disterweg, K. D. Ushinsky, P. F. Kapterev. Range of problems studied: connection between development, training and education; creative activity of the student, the child’s abilities and their development, the role of the teacher’s personality, organization of training.

The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century, when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries. A lot of experimental work appears: studies of the characteristics of memorization, speech development, intelligence, learning characteristics, etc. Their authors were domestic scientists A.P. Nechaev, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Watson, as well as G. Ebbinghaus, J. Dewey, B. Skinner, K. and S. Büller, E. Tolman, E. Claped.

Test psychology and psychodiagnostics are developing - A. Wiene, T. Simon, R. Cattell. A psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology - emerges as an attempt to comprehensively (with the help of various sciences) study the child. The founder of pedology is the American psychologist S. Hall, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889. The term itself was coined by his student - O. Chrisment.

The founder of Russian pedology was the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. The main discoveries and theories of this period belong to: P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, M.A. Basov, A.R. Luria, K.N. Kornilov, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, V.N. Myasishchev and others. The range of problems studied: - the relationship between perception and thinking in cognitive activity - the mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts - the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children - the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the M. Montessori school.

The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. and until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology. B.F. Skinner came up with the idea of programmed learning in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built a holistic system of problem-based learning

In 1957-1958 the first publications of P.Ya. appeared. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions. in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental education, which arose in the 70s. on the basis of the general theory of educational activity (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankova. The emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestopedia, suggestology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher’s control of the student’s unconscious mental processes of perception and memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion.

Educational psychology should be considered as an independent science, a special branch of applied psychology(L. S. Vygotsky). Educational psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about man, which were recorded in the main psychological theories that have had and have had a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period.

At the end of the 19th century, educational psychology began to take shape as an independent science. The entire path of formation and development of pedagogical science is presented three big stages.

First stage– from the middle of the 17th century to the end of the 19th century. This is a general didactic stage. At this stage, scientists and teachers felt an objective need to psychologize pedagogy. This period is represented by the names of Jan Amos Comenius, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, K. D. Ushinsky and others. The contribution of these educational thinkers to the development of educational psychology is determined, first of all, by the range of problems that they considered: the connection between learning and development ; creative activity of the student; the child’s abilities and their development; the role of the teacher's personality; organization of training and others. These were first attempts at scientific understanding this process. Jan Amos Comenius in the “Great Didactics” (1657) laid the foundation for the development of pedagogical theory and the purposeful organization of school teaching. A major role in the formation of educational psychology in the general didactic period of its development was played by the work K. D. Ushinsky“Man as a subject of education. Experience of anthropological psychology" (1868-1869), in which a holistic concept of human development was proposed. The child is at the center of upbringing and learning, and upbringing plays a decisive role. Psychological and pedagogical problems of memory, attention, thinking, speech in the learning process act as subjects of special analysis and development tasks. K. D. Ushinsky believed that the development of a child’s speech, associated with the development of thinking, is a condition for the formation of his ideas, concepts and personality as a whole.

Second phase lasted from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. At this stage, educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch of psychology. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that educational psychology is a product of the last few years; that this is a new science, which is part of applied psychology, that it is an independent science. Psychological problems themselves were presented in the works of P. F. Kapterev, E. Thorndike, L. S. Vygotsky, J. Piaget, P. P. Blonsky, E. Meiman, D. Baldwin and others.

P. F. Kapterev made a great contribution to the development of the foundations of educational psychology. He sought to implement the behest of I. G. Pestalozzi - to psychologize pedagogy. The concept itself "pedagogical psychology" entered scientific circulation with the appearance of the book “Educational Psychology” (1876-1877). It was he who introduced the modern scientific concept into scientific use "education", as a set of teaching and upbringing, connections between the activities of the teacher and students, pedagogical problems of teaching work and teacher training, problems of aesthetic development and education and many others. Russian scientists considered the general educational process from a psychological position. According to P. F. Kapterev, the educational process is “an expression of the internal initiative of the human body,” the development of abilities.

In addition, P. F. Kapterev gave a fundamental analysis of the works of representatives of experimental didactics. He believed that the purpose of these works was to study the mental work of students, the importance of movement in mental work, the subject and verbal concepts of students, the types of giftedness of schoolchildren and other problems.

During this period, a number of laboratories and schools were formed. A laboratory was founded in Germany E. Maimana, in which instruments and techniques created in university laboratories were used to solve educational and educational problems. In 1907 he published "Lectures on experimental pedagogy", where he gave an overview of works on experimental didactics.

This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology(D. Baldwin, P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which the characteristics of a child’s behavior were determined comprehensively, based on a set of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, in order to diagnose his development.

Educational psychology at this stage is characterized not only by the use test psychodiagnostics, widespread school laboratories, experimental pedagogical systems And programs, the emergence of pedology, but also an attempt at scientific reflection of the educational process, its theoretical understanding.

Third stage– 50s of the twentieth century to the present. The current stage of development of educational psychology is characterized by the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.

In 1954, W. Skinner put forward the idea programmed learning, and in the 60s L.N. Landa formulated the theory of it algorithmization. Then, in the 70-80s, V. Okun and M. I. Makhmutov built a complete system problem-based learning.

In 1957-1958, the first publications by P. Ya. Galperin and then N. F. Talyzina appeared, which outlined the main positions gradual formation of mental actions.

At the same time it is being developed developmental learning theory, described in the works of D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov on the basis of the general theory of educational activity. Developmental education was also reflected in the experimental system of L.V. Zankov.

During the same period, S. L. Rubinstein in “Fundamentals of Psychology” gave a detailed description learning as knowledge acquisition, which was further developed in detail from different positions by L. B. Itelson, E. N. Kabanova-Miller, N. A. Menchinskaya and others.

Chapter 7. Educational psychology and pedagogy

1. The subject of educational psychology and the subject of pedagogy

“A person, if he is to become a person, must receive an education” Jan Komensky

Educational psychology studies the conditions and patterns of formation of mental new formations under the influence of education and training. Educational psychology has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become a field of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations (B.G. Ananyev). For example, one of the pedagogical problems is the realization that the educational material is not being absorbed as much as we would like. In connection with this problem, the subject of educational psychology is emerging, which studies the patterns of assimilation and learning. On the basis of established scientific ideas, technology and practice of educational and pedagogical activities are formed, substantiated from the psychological point of view of the laws of assimilation processes. The second pedagogical problem arises when the difference between learning and development in the educational system is realized. You can often encounter a situation where a person learns, but develops very poorly. The subject of research in this case is the patterns of development of intelligence, personality, abilities, and man in general. This direction of educational psychology develops the practice not of teaching, but of organizing development.

In modern pedagogical practice, it is no longer possible to build one’s activities competently, effectively and at the level of modern cultural requirements without the intensive introduction of scientific psychological knowledge. For example, since pedagogical activity consists of communication between a student and a teacher, in establishing contact between them, that is, a request for research, the construction of scientific knowledge about the methods of communication between people and their effective use in constructing pedagogical processes. The teaching profession is probably the most sensitive to psychology, since the activity of a teacher is directly aimed at a person and his development. In his work, the teacher encounters “living” psychology, the individual’s resistance to pedagogical influences, the importance of a person’s individual characteristics, etc. Therefore, a good teacher, interested in the effectiveness of his work, is inevitably obliged to be a psychologist, and in his work he gains psychological experience. The important thing is that this experience serves the main practical task; it is the experience of a teacher who has certain pedagogical principles and methods of teaching activity. Psychological knowledge is built on top of this pedagogical activity as serving it.

Educational psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, skills, abilities, explores individual differences in these processes, patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers issues of relationships between the teacher and students, relationships between students (V.A. Krutetsky). In the structure of educational psychology, the following areas can be distinguished: psychology of educational activity (as the unity of educational and pedagogical activity); psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student); psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer); psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Thus, the subject of educational psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (I.A. Zimnyaya).

The subject of pedagogy is the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.

Pedagogy explores the following problems:

study of the essence and patterns of development and formation of personality and their influence on Education;
determination of educational goals;
development of educational content;
research and development of educational methods.

The object of knowledge in pedagogy is a person who develops as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relationships that ensure human development.

Pedagogy- this is the science of how to educate a person, how to help him become spiritually rich, creatively active and completely satisfied with life, to find balance with nature and society.

Pedagogy is sometimes seen as both a science and an art. When it comes to education, it is necessary to keep in mind that it has two aspects - theoretical and practical. The theoretical aspect of education is the subject of scientific and pedagogical research. In this sense, pedagogy acts as a science and is a set of theoretical and methodological ideas on issues of education.

Another thing is practical educational activities. Its implementation requires the teacher to master the appropriate educational skills, which can have varying degrees of perfection and reach the level of pedagogical art. From a semantic point of view, it is necessary to distinguish between pedagogy as a theoretical science and practical educational activity as an art.

The subject of pedagogical science in its strictly scientific and precise understanding is Education as a special function of human society. Based on this understanding of the subject of pedagogy, let us consider the main pedagogical categories.

The categories include the most capacious and general concepts that reflect the essence of science, its established and typical properties. In any science, categories play a leading role; they permeate all scientific knowledge and, as it were, connect it into an integral system.

Education is the social, purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the new generation to assimilate socio-historical experience in order to prepare it for social life and productive work. The category “Education” is one of the main ones in pedagogy. Characterizing the scope of the concept, they distinguish Education in the broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of society as a whole, and Education in the narrow sense - as a purposeful activity designed to form a system of personality qualities, views and beliefs. Education is often interpreted in an even more local meaning - as the solution to a specific educational task (for example, education of certain character traits, cognitive activity, etc.).

Thus, Education is the purposeful formation of personality based on the formation of 1) certain attitudes towards objects and phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) worldview; 3) behavior (as a manifestation of attitude and worldview). We can distinguish types of education (mental, moral, physical, labor, aesthetic, etc.).

Being a complex social phenomenon, Education is the object of study of a number of sciences. Philosophy explores the ontological and epistemological foundations of education, formulates the most general ideas about the highest goals and values of education, in accordance with which its specific means are determined.

Sociology studies the problem of socialization of the individual, identifies social problems of its development.

Ethnography examines the patterns of education among the peoples of the world at different stages of historical development, the “canon” of education that exists among different peoples and its specific features.

Psychology reveals individual, age-related characteristics and patterns of development and behavior of people, which serves as the most important prerequisite for determining the methods and means of education.

Pedagogy explores the essence of education, its patterns, trends and prospects for development, develops theories and technologies of education, determines its principles, content, forms and methods.

Education is a concrete historical phenomenon, closely related to the socio-economic, political and cultural level of society and the state.

Humanity ensures the development of each person through Education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.

Development is an objective process of internal consistent quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical and spiritual powers of a person.

We can distinguish physical development (changes in height, weight, strength, proportions of the human body), physiological development (changes in body functions in the field of the cardiovascular, nervous systems, digestion, childbirth, etc.), mental development (complication of the processes of a person’s reflection of reality: sensations , perception, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives for activities, abilities, interests, value orientations). The social development of a person consists of his gradual entry into society, into social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal and other relations. Having mastered these relationships and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crowning achievement is the spiritual development of man. It means his understanding of his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding of the complex nature of the universe and the desire for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, mental, social development, for his life and the lives of other people. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core of personality development in a person.

The ability to develop is the most important personality trait throughout a person’s life. Physical, mental and social development of the individual is carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled and uncontrollable factors. It occurs in the process of a person’s assimilation of values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society at a given stage of development.

It may seem that Education is secondary in relation to development. In reality, their relationship is more complex. In the process of educating a person, his development occurs, the level of which then affects Education, changes it. More perfect education accelerates the pace of development. Throughout a person’s life, education and development mutually support each other.

The category “Education” is used widely: the transfer of experience, therefore, education, can be done in the family, through the media, in museums through art, in the management system through politics, ideology, etc. But among the forms of upbringing, education stands out especially.

Education is a specially organized system of external conditions created in society for human development. A specially organized educational system consists of educational institutions, institutions for advanced training and retraining of personnel. It carries out the transfer and reception of the experience of generations in accordance with goals, programs, structures with the help of specially trained teachers. All educational institutions in the state are united into a single education system, through which human development is managed.

Education in the literal sense means the creation of an image, a certain completion of education in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is interpreted as the process and result of a person’s assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, and relationships.

Education can be viewed in different semantic planes:

Education as a system has a certain structure and hierarchy of its elements in the form of scientific and educational institutions of various types (preschool, primary, secondary, secondary specialized, higher education, postgraduate education).
Education as a process presupposes an extension in time, a difference between the initial and final states of the participants in this process; manufacturability, ensuring changes and transformations.
Education as a result indicates completion of an educational institution and certification of this fact with a certificate.

Education ultimately provides a certain level of development of a person’s cognitive needs and abilities, a certain level of knowledge, abilities, skills, and his preparation for one or another type of practical activity. There are general and special education. General education provides each person with the knowledge, skills and abilities that he needs for comprehensive development and are the basis for further special, professional education. According to the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary and higher. Now, when the need for continuous education arises, the term “adult education”, post-university education, has appeared. Under the content of education V.S. Lednev understands “... the content of a triune holistic process, characterized, firstly, by the assimilation of the experience of previous generations (training), secondly, by the education of typological qualities of the individual (Education), and thirdly, by the mental and physical development of a person (development)” . From here follow three components of education: training, education, development.

Training is a specific type of pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), the socially determined tasks of an individual’s education are realized in close connection with his upbringing and development.

Teaching is the process of direct transmission and reception of the experience of generations in the interaction of a teacher and students. As a process, learning includes two parts: teaching, during which the transfer (transformation) of a system of knowledge, skills, and experience is carried out, and learning (student activity) as the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.

The principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching are studied by didactics.

But training, upbringing, education mean forces external to the person himself: someone educates him, someone educates him, someone teaches him. These factors are, as it were, transpersonal. But a person himself is active from birth, he is born with the ability to develop. He is not a vessel into which the experience of humanity “merges”; he himself is capable of acquiring this experience and creating something new. Therefore, the main mental factors of human development are self-education, self-education, self-training, self-improvement.

Self-education- this is the process of a person’s assimilation of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development. Education, if it is not violence, is impossible without self-education. They should be considered as two sides of the same process. By carrying out self-education, a person can educate himself.
Self-education is a system of internal self-organization for assimilating the experience of generations, aimed at its own development.
Self-study- this is the process of a person directly gaining generational experience through his own aspirations and self-chosen means.

In the concepts of “self-education”, “self-education”, “self-study”, pedagogy describes the inner spiritual world of a person, his ability to develop independently. External factors - Upbringing, education, training - are only conditions, means of awakening them, putting them into action. That is why philosophers, teachers, and psychologists argue that it is in the human soul that the driving forces of his development lie.

Carrying out upbringing, education, training, people in society enter into certain relationships with each other - these are educational relationships. Educational relationships are a type of relationship between people, aimed at human development through upbringing, education, and training. Educational relationships are aimed at the development of a person as an individual, i.e. on the development of his self-education, self-education, self-training. Educational relationships can include a variety of means: technology, art, nature. Based on this, such types of educational relationships are distinguished as “person-person”, “person-book-person”, “person-technology-person”, “person-art-person”, “person-nature-person”. The structure of educational relations includes two subjects and an object. The subjects can be a teacher and his student, a teaching staff and a group of students, parents, i.e. those who make the transfer and who assimilate the experience of generations. Therefore, in pedagogy, subject-subject relationships are distinguished. In order to better transfer knowledge, skills, and abilities, subjects of educational relations use, in addition to words, some materialized means - objects. The relationship between subjects and objects is usually called subject-object relations. Educational relationships are a microcell where external factors (upbringing, education, training) converge with internal human factors (self-education, self-education, self-training). As a result of such interaction, human development results and personality is formed.

The OBJECT of knowledge is a person who develops as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relationships that ensure human development.

Pedagogy is the science of educational relationships that arise in the process of interconnection between upbringing, education and training with self-education, self-education and self-training and aimed at human development (V.S. Bezrukova). Pedagogy can be defined as the science of translating the experience of one generation into the experience of another.

1.1 Goal setting in pedagogy and pedagogical principles

An important problem of pedagogy is the development and determination of educational goals. A goal is what one strives for and what needs to be achieved.

The purpose of education should be understood as those predetermined (predictable) results in preparing the younger generations for life, in their personal development and formation, which they strive to achieve in the process of educational work. A thorough knowledge of the goals of education gives the teacher a clear idea of what kind of person he should form and, naturally, gives his work the necessary meaning and direction.

It is known from philosophy that the goal inevitably determines the method and nature of human activity. In this sense, the goals and objectives of education are directly related to determining the content and methodology of educational work. For example, once upon a time in the old Russian school one of the goals of education was the formation of religiosity, obedience, and unquestioning adherence to established rules of behavior. That is why a lot of time was devoted to the study of religion, methods of suggestion, penalties and even punishment, even physical, were widely practiced. Now the goal of education is to form a personality that highly values the ideals of freedom, democracy, humanism, justice and has scientific views on the world around us, which requires a completely different methodology of educational work. In a modern school, the main content of teaching and upbringing is the mastery of scientific knowledge about the development of nature and society, and the methodology is becoming increasingly democratic and humanistic in nature, the fight against the authoritarian approach to children is being waged, and methods of punishment are actually used very rarely.

Different goals of education determine differently both its content and the nature of its methodology. There is an organic unity between them. This unity acts as an essential pattern of pedagogy.

The formation of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed personality not only acts as an objective need, but also becomes the main goal (ideal) of modern education.

What do they mean when they talk about the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual? What content does this concept have?

In the development and formation of personality, physical education, strengthening one’s strength and health, developing correct posture and sanitary and hygienic culture are of great importance. It is necessary to keep in mind that it is not without reason that people have a proverb: a healthy mind in a healthy body.

The key problem in the process of comprehensive and harmonious personal development is mental education. An equally essential component of the comprehensive and harmonious development of a person is technical training or familiarization with modern technological achievements.

The role of moral principles in the development and formation of personality is also great. And this is understandable: the progress of society can only be ensured by people with perfect morality and a conscientious attitude towards work and property. At the same time, great importance is attached to the spiritual growth of members of society, introducing them to the treasures of literature, art, and the formation of high aesthetic feelings and qualities in them. All this, naturally, requires aesthetic education.

We can draw a conclusion about the main structural components of the comprehensive development of the individual and indicate its most important components. Such components are: mental education, technical training, physical education, moral and aesthetic education, which must be combined with the development of the inclinations, inclinations and abilities of the individual and its inclusion in productive work.

Education should be not only comprehensive, but also harmonious ( from Greek harmonia - consistency, harmony). It means that all aspects of personality must be formed in close connection with each other.

Of primary importance is the creation at school of conditions for mastering the fundamentals of modern sciences about nature, society and man, giving educational work a developmental character.

An equally important task is that in the conditions of democratization and humanization of society, freedom of opinions and beliefs, young people do not acquire knowledge mechanically, but deeply process it in their minds and themselves draw the conclusions necessary for modern life and education.

An integral part of the education and training of younger generations is their moral education and development. A fully developed person must develop the principles of social behavior, mercy, the desire to serve people, show concern for their well-being, and maintain established order and discipline. He must overcome selfish inclinations, value humane treatment of people above all else, and possess a high culture of behavior.

Civic and national education is of utmost importance in the comprehensive development of the individual. It includes nurturing a sense of patriotism and a culture of interethnic relations, respect for our state symbols, the preservation and development of the spiritual wealth and national culture of the people, as well as the desire for democracy as a form of participation of all citizens in resolving issues of national importance.

Pedagogical principles

Principles are the basic starting points of any theory, science in general, these are the basic requirements for something. Pedagogical principles are the basic ideas, following which helps to best achieve the set pedagogical goals.

Let's consider the pedagogical principles of forming educational relationships:

The principle of conformity to nature is one of the oldest pedagogical principles.

Rules for implementing the principle of conformity to nature:

build the pedagogical process according to the age and individual characteristics of students;
know the zones of proximal development that determine the capabilities of students, rely on them when organizing educational relations;
direct the pedagogical process to the development of self-education, self-education, self-training of students.

The principle of humanization can be considered as a principle of social protection of a growing person, as a principle of humanizing the relationships of students with teachers and among themselves, when the pedagogical process is built on full recognition of the student’s civil rights and respect for him.
The principle of integrity orderliness means achieving unity and interconnection of all components of the pedagogical process.
The principle of democratization means providing participants in the pedagogical process with certain freedoms for self-development, self-regulation and self-determination, self-training and self-education.
The principle of cultural conformity involves maximum use in the upbringing and education of the culture of the environment in which a particular educational institution is located (the culture of a nation, country, region).
The principle of unity and consistency of the actions of the educational institution and the student’s lifestyle is aimed at organizing a comprehensive pedagogical process, establishing connections between all spheres of students’ life activities, ensuring mutual compensation, and complementarity of all spheres of life activity.
The principle of professional expediency ensures the selection of content, methods, means and forms of training specialists, taking into account the characteristics of the chosen specialty, in order to develop professionally important qualities, knowledge and skills.
The principle of polytechnicism is aimed at training specialists and general workers on the basis of identifying and studying an invariant scientific basis common to various sciences, technical disciplines, and production technologies, which will allow students to transfer knowledge and skills from one area to another.

All groups of principles are closely related to each other, but at the same time, each principle has its own zone of most complete implementation, for example, for classes in the humanities, the principle of professional expediency is not applicable.

1.2 Basic concepts of didactics

Didactics studies the principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching.

Let's consider the basic concepts of didactics.

Training is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and cognition are assimilated.

Learning as a process is characterized by the joint activity of the teacher and students, with the goal of developing the latter, forming their knowledge, skills, abilities, i.e. general indicative basis for specific activities. The teacher carries out activities designated by the term “teaching”; the student is included in the learning activity, in which his cognitive needs are satisfied. The learning process is largely generated by motivation.

Typically, training is characterized as follows: it is the transfer of certain knowledge, skills and abilities to a person. But knowledge cannot simply be transferred and “received”; it can only be “obtained” as a result of the active activity of the student himself. If there is no counter activity, then he does not acquire any knowledge or skills. Consequently, the “teacher-student” relationship cannot be reduced to the “transmitter-receiver” relationship. Activity and interaction of both participants in the educational process are necessary. The French physicist Pascal correctly noted: “The student is not a vessel that needs to be filled, but a torch that needs to be lit.” Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates the necessary conditions for the student’s activity, directs it, controls it, and provides the necessary tools and information for it. The function of teaching is to maximize the adaptation of symbolic and material means to develop people’s ability to perform.

Education is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating the active educational and cognitive activity of students to master scientific knowledge, skills, and development of creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views.

If the teacher fails to arouse students’ activity in acquiring knowledge, if he does not stimulate their learning, then no learning occurs, and the student can only formally sit through classes. During the learning process, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of students;
organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;
development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;
improvement of educational skills;
development of a scientific worldview and moral and aesthetic culture.

The organization of training assumes that the teacher implements the following components:

setting goals for educational work;
formation of students’ needs in mastering the material being studied;
determining the content of the material to be mastered by students;
organization of educational and cognitive activities for students to master the material being studied;
giving students’ educational activities an emotionally positive character;
regulation and control of students' educational activities;
assessment of student performance results.

In parallel, students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn consists of the following components:

awareness of the goals and objectives of training;
development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;
understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be learned;
perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material, application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;
manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;
self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activities;
self-assessment of the results of one’s educational and cognitive activities.

The pedagogical process is presented as a system of five elements (N.V. Kuzmina): 1) the purpose of learning (T) (why teach); 2) content of educational information (C) (what to teach); 3) methods, teaching techniques, means of pedagogical communication (M) (how to teach); 4) teacher (II); 5) student (U). Like any large system, it is characterized by the intersection of connections (horizontal, vertical, etc.).

The pedagogical process is a way of organizing educational relations, which consists in the purposeful selection and use of external factors in the development of participants. The pedagogical process is created by the teacher. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what kind of teacher it is created, it will have the same structure.

GOAL -» PRINCIPLES -> CONTENT - METHODS -> MEANS -> FORMS.

The goal reflects the final result of pedagogical interaction that the teacher and student strive for. The principles are intended to determine the main directions for achieving the goal. Content is part of the experience of generations, which is passed on to students to achieve a goal in accordance with the chosen directions. The content of education is a specially selected and recognized by society (state) system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain field.

Methods are the actions of the teacher and the student through which the content is transmitted and received. Means as materialized objective ways of “working” with content are used in unity with methods. The forms of organization of the pedagogical process give it logical completeness and completeness.

The dynamism of the pedagogical process is achieved as a result of the interaction of its three structures: pedagogical, methodological and psychological. We have already examined the pedagogical structure in detail. But the pedagogical process also has its own methodological structure. To create it, the goal is divided into a number of tasks, in accordance with which the successive stages of the activity of the teacher and students are determined. For example, the methodological structure of an excursion includes preparatory instruction, movement to the observation site, observation of the object, recording what was seen, and discussion of the results. The pedagogical and methodological structure of the pedagogical process are organically interconnected. In addition to these two structures, the pedagogical process includes an even more complex structure - psychological: 1) processes of perception, thinking, comprehension, memorization, assimilation of information; 2) students’ expression of interest, inclinations, motivation for learning, dynamics of emotional mood; 3) rises and falls of physical and neuropsychic stress, dynamics of activity, performance and fatigue. Thus, in the psychological structure of a lesson, three psychological substructures can be distinguished: 1) cognitive processes, 2) motivation for learning, 3) tension.

In order for the pedagogical process to “work” and “set into motion”, a component such as management is necessary. Pedagogical management is the process of transferring pedagogical situations, processes from one state to another, corresponding to the goal.

The management process consists of the following components:

goal setting;
information support (diagnosis of students’ characteristics);
formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students;
designing, planning activities to achieve the goal (planning content, methods, means, forms);
project implementation;
monitoring progress;
adjustment;
summarizing.

Modern didactic principles of higher and secondary schools can be formulated as follows:

Developmental and educational training.
Scientific and accessible, feasible difficulty.
Consciousness and creative activity of students under the leadership role of the teacher.
Visualization and development of theoretical thinking.
Systematic and systematic training.
The transition from training to self-education.
The connection between learning and life and professional practice.
Strength of learning outcomes and student cognitive development.
Positive emotional background of learning.
The collective nature of learning and taking into account the individual abilities of students.
Humanization and humanization of learning.
Computerization of training.
Integrative learning, taking into account interdisciplinary connections.
Innovativeness of training.

The most important didactic principles are the following:

training must be scientific and have a worldview orientation;
learning should be characterized by problems;
training must be visual;
learning must be active and conscious;
training must be accessible;
training must be systematic and consistent;
in the learning process, it is necessary to carry out education, development and upbringing of students in organic unity.

In the 60-70s L.V. Zankov formulated new didactic principles:

training must be carried out at a high level of difficulty;
in learning it is necessary to maintain a fast pace in the passage of the material being studied;
mastery of theoretical knowledge has a predominant importance in training.

In higher education didactics, principles of teaching are highlighted that reflect the specific features of the educational process in higher education: ensuring unity in the scientific and educational activities of students (I.I. Kobylyatsky); professional orientation (A.V. Barabanshchikov); professional mobility (Yu.V. Kiselev, V.A. Lisitsyn, etc.); problematic (T.V. Kudryavtsev); emotionality and majority of the entire learning process (R.A. Nizamov, F.I. Naumenko).

Recently, ideas have been expressed about identifying a group of principles of teaching in higher education that would synthesize all existing principles:

focus of higher education on the development of the personality of the future specialist;
compliance of the content of university education with modern and projected trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);
the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms of organizing the educational process at a university;
rational use of modern methods and teaching aids at various stages of specialist training;
compliance of the results of training of specialists with the requirements imposed by the specific field of their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.

An important element of modern higher education is methodological training. The development of science and practice has reached such a level that a student is unable to assimilate and remember everything necessary for his future work. Therefore, it is better for him to assimilate such educational material, which, with its minimum amount, will arm him with the maximum amount of information and, on the other hand, will allow him to work successfully in a number of areas in the future. Here the task arises of the most economical selection of scientific knowledge in all subjects of study at the university. But this is not enough. At the same time, it is important to comprehensively develop students’ general intelligence and the ability to solve various problems.

University education and upbringing have their own special principles (unlike school ones), such as, for example:

training in what is needed in practical work after university;
taking into account the age, socio-psychological and individual characteristics of students;
professional orientation of training and education;
organic connection of learning with scientific, social and industrial activities.

a branch of psychological knowledge that studies the patterns of mental activity, the conditions for the formation of personality in the process and result of training and education.

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PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in the conditions of training and education. Closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, psychophysiology.

The structure of teaching includes 3 sections: the psychology of education, the psychology of teaching, and the psychology of teachers.

The subject of educational psychology is the development of personality in the context of the purposeful organization of a child’s activities, children. team. Research in this area is aimed at studying the content of the motivational sphere of the child’s personality, its orientation, value orientations, and morals. installations, etc.; differences in the self-awareness of children raised in different conditions; the structure of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality; conditions and consequences of mental deprivation.

The subject of educational psychology is the development of cognition. activities in systematic conditions. training. That. psychol is revealed. essence of teaching process. Research in this area is aimed at identifying external relationships. and internal factors causing differences in cognition. activities in different conditions didactic systems; the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning; opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child; psycho-ped. criteria for training effectiveness.

The subject of teacher psychology is psychology. aspects of the formation of a prof. ped. activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. Among the most important tasks of this section of P. p. is the determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities for him to overcome ped. stereotypes; studying the emotional stability of a teacher; identifying positive features of the individual communication style between teacher and student.

Results of psycho-ped. research is used in designing the content and methods of education, creating educational systems. benefits, development of diagnostic tools and mental correction. development.

The role of psychology in the practice of teaching and upbringing was realized long before P. p. was formalized as an independent concept. scientific industry. J. A. Komensky, J. Locke, J. J. Rousseau, I. G. Pestalozzi, A. Disterweg and others emphasized the need to build ped. process based on psychol. knowledge about the child.

The work of K. D. Ushinsky was of particular importance for the development of P. p. His works, especially the book. “Man as a subject of education. The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology" (1868-69) created the prerequisites for the emergence of pedagogical pedagogy in Russia.

How they are independent. the area of knowledge of P. p. began to take shape in the middle. 19th century, and developed intensively since the 80s. 19th century

The term "P. P." was proposed by P. F. Kapterev in 1874. Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines that occupied a borderline position between pedagogy and psychology: “pedology” (O. Chrisman, 1892), “experimental”. pedagogy" (E. Meiman, 1907). Let's experiment. Pedagogy and teaching were initially interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L. S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky). During the first third of the 20th century. their meanings were differentiated. Let's experiment. pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying experimental data. psychology to ped. reality; P. p. - as a field of knowledge and psychology. theoretical basis and practical pedagogy.

In the 80s 19th century - 10s 20th century Two trends in the development of mental health have emerged: on the one hand, a comprehensive development of mental problems. child development, his education and upbringing, prof. teacher activities; on the other hand, differentiation of these problems and the corresponding branches of science. The first trend was represented by the works of N. X. Wessel, Kapterev, P. D. Yurkevich, P. F. Les-gaft, V. Henri, E. Claparède, J. Dewey and others. The second emerged with the publication of the works of G. Le Bon “Psychology of Education” (1910) and V. A. Lai “Experimental Didactics” (1903), which recorded the independence of the psychology of education and the psychology of learning. The psychology of the teacher began to take shape later, in the 40s and 50s. 20th century Before this, there was more of a “psychology for teachers”, the task of which was psychology. teacher education.

From the end 19th century experimental centers began to emerge. the study of the psyche, in particular psychic. child development: experimental laboratories. psychology at Harvard University (founded by W. James in 1875), at Clark University (founded by G. S. Hall in 1883), at Novorossiysk University (founded by N. N. Lange in 1896), under Ped. . museum of military training establishments in St. Petersburg (founded by A.P. Nechaev in 1901). In 1912, G. I. Chelpanov founded Psycho. Institute at Moscow un-those.

In the beginning. 20th century In Russia, 2 congresses were held on P. p. (1906, 1909), three on experiments. pedagogy (1910, 1913, 1916). The 1st Congress showed that the need for pedagogy in psychology. knowledge is very relevant and that in psychology. There are great hopes for studying children. However, at the 2nd Congress, doubts emerged that psychology could generally help in solving ped. tasks. Subsequent congresses strengthened the disappointment in practice. application of psychology. P.'s helplessness was explained by the direct application of data obtained in general psychology to pedagogy. practice and the lack of methods for studying the child that are adequate to the tasks of pedagogy.

During the period of the open crisis of psychology (early 10s - mid 30s of the 20th century), many different types appeared. scientific schools and directions, in which means. The place was occupied by a psychologist-pedologist. problematic.

Within the framework of functional psychology, focused on evolutionary biol. principle of explanation of mental development, the starting position was taken to be the statement that a child in his development goes through all stages of human development (see Biogenetic Law). Therefore, the system of education and training must create conditions under which such a process can be fully realized (Dewey). Despite a simplified understanding of child development and an unrealistic view of education, functionalism enriched teaching with new ideas. It was pointed out the importance for the child’s development of “discovering” new knowledge, posing problems, and being independent. putting forward hypotheses, testing them in external (practical) and internal (mental) terms. During the same period, in behaviorism, ideas about learning processes were based on descriptions of the mechanisms of higher nervous activity in the school of I. P. Pavlov. Behaviorists accepted the “stimulus-response” scheme as the initial universal relationship. In general, functionalism and behaviorism are characterized by a purely pragmatic approach. a view of the goals of education, which is associated with an understanding of the psyche as a system of adaptive mechanisms.

Against pragmatic, biologically oriented concepts in explaining mental health. phenomena came from the school of Gestalt psychology. Its representatives viewed the learning process as a transformation of the child’s personal experience. At the same time, experience was interpreted not as the sum of its different aspects (motor, sensory, ideational), but as a certain structure. New experience acquired by a child in interaction with others leads to a reorganization of the structures of previous experience (K. Koffka). This direction was subject to serious criticism (Vygotsky, Blonsky, etc.), but it aroused interest among specialists: a change in the child’s experience meant a change in internal. the world of the child himself, and not the totality of his reactions or knowledge, skills and abilities.

In 1926, Vygotsky’s book “Ped. psychology,” in which he outlined his understanding of the relationship between training, education and mental health. the development of the child, the functions of his interaction with adults and peers, independent active activity in the learning process, interest as a motivator of this activity. In Vygotsky's subsequent works, his ideas took shape in an expanded concept of learning and development. According to Vygotsky, learning is one of the ways a child masters social experience. Genuine assimilation of social experience, i.e. its transformation into personal is determined by the child’s objective activity and his interaction with adults and peers in play, learning, and forms of work available to him. But systematically and purposeful learning becomes developmental only in the case when it “runs ahead of development” - it focuses not only and not so much on the current level of development, but on its perspective - the zone of proximal development, i.e. those processes and mental education, which are still in their infancy and determine the potential capabilities of the child. The principles of constructing methods for measuring the zone of proximal development were proposed in a number of works by Vygotsky and his collaborators.

30-60s 20th century characterized by the collapse of schools that formed during the crisis and the formation of new directions.

Within the framework of neo-behaviorism, B. Skinner, in the “stimulus-response-reinforcement” scheme, shifted the emphasis from the “stimulus-response” connection to the “reaction-reinforcement” connection. Skinner's ideas formed the basis of a special didactic. systems - programmed training. It made it possible to implement a number of pedagogical provisions that had long been declarative in nature: creating a situation of constant success; discovery of new knowledge by the child himself; individualization of learning through the use of teaching devices and special textbooks.

In cognitive psychology, J. Bruner developed the concept of teaching, in which it is interpreted as a change in the content of objects reflected in the human mind and knowledge about them. Bruner drew attention to the fact that in the process of learning the subject goes beyond the given information: the student constructs models of information when processing it, putting forward hypotheses about the causes and connections of the phenomena being studied.

Under the influence of information approach, the concept of R. Gagne was formed. There are no clearly defined positions regarding the mechanisms of teaching in this concept. However, Gagne introduced the concept of cognitive strategies, on the basis of which the learning process is regulated by the subject himself.

In Fatherland P. p. starting from the 30s. Research has also been carried out on the procedural aspects of learning and development: relationships in cognition. activity of perception and thinking (S. L. Rubinshtein, S. N. Shebalin), memory and thinking (A. N. Leontyev, L. V. Zankov, A. A. Smirnov, P. I. Zinchenko, etc.), development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin, etc.), mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh. I. Shif, N. A. Menchinskaya, G. S. Kostyuk and others), the emergence and development of knowledge. interests in children (N. G. Morozova and others). By the 40s. There have been many studies devoted to psychology. issues of learning material from various subjects: arithmetic (Menchinskaya), native language and literature (D. N. Bogoyavlensky, L. I. Bozhovich, O. I. Nikiforova, etc.). A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N. A. Rybnikov, L. M. Shvarts, T. G. Egorov, Elkonin, etc.).

In 1932-41, a group of Vygotsky’s students worked in Kharkov under the leadership of Leontyev - Zaporozhets, Bozhovich, P. Ya. Galperin, Zinchenko, V. I. Sonin and others. Subsequently, the work of many of them grew into independent work. directions, original mental concepts were created. child development. In these studies, the content of the concept of a social situation of development was specified, the concepts of “internal position” (Bozhovich), “sensory standard” (Zaporozhets), etc. were introduced.

In the field of training and education of preschool children, it has been shown that the formation of a motor skill can serve as a model for the process of a child mastering any new action, any form of behavior (Zaporozhets). In this case, the first link that determines the entire subsequent process of action formation is the child’s orientation in the conditions of performing the upcoming action. This determines the requirement for ped. process: the adult must organize the child’s full orientation in the situation. Based on the data obtained in the research of Zaporozhets and his students, educational programs for children were drawn up. garden (1962), textbooks and teaching materials were written. manuals for teachers.

Important for preschool. pedagogy had a multifaceted psychol. Elkonin's study of play as one of the forms of child activity. It was shown that play does not arise spontaneously, but is the result of a child’s upbringing and becomes one of the leading conditions for the development of his personality. Based on the results of this study, recommendations are made to educators of children. kindergartens and parents on organizing children's play activities.

The problems of schoolchildren's personality development are at the heart of the research of Bozovic and her colleagues. Their research shows that the process of education and re-education consists, first of all, in creating conditions for the formation of a system of motives in a child, allowing him to regulate his own activities, behavior, and relationships with others.

In the 50s -70s. At the intersection of social psychology and P. p., many studies have been carried out on the structure of children. team, the child’s status among his peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of research relates to the issues of training and raising difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in certain informal associations (D. I. Feldshtein).

During the same period in the Fatherland. P.P. there has been a tendency towards the formulation of complex problems - educational training and educational upbringing. Pedagogical psychologists are actively studying. factors of children's readiness for school education, content and organization of the beginning. education (L. A. Wenger, Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, etc.), psychol. reasons for schoolchildren’s underachievement (N. A. Menchinskaya), psychologist-pedagogist. criteria for teaching effectiveness (I. S. Yakimanskaya).

From the end 50s The development of holistic concepts of education is underway: developmental education (Menchinskaya), teaching. activities (Elkonin, Davydov, A.K. Markova), learning based on the phased formation of mental actions and concepts (Galperin, N.F. Talyzina), problem-based learning (A.M. Matyushkin). In the 80s the concept of the school of dialogue of cultures was formed (V.S. Bibler).

From the end 70s work in scientific and practical fields has intensified. direction - the creation of psychol. services at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of the teaching staff have emerged: the development of conceptual approaches to the activities of the school. psychol. service, equipping it with diagnostics. means, preparation of practical psychologists.

Lit.: Rubinshtein M. M., Essay on pedagogy. psychology in connection with general pedagogy, M., 1913; Vygotsky L.S., Ped. psychology, M., 1926, L with about and t with in A. N., Education as a problem of psychology, VP, 1957, No. 1; Bogoyavlensky D. N., Menchinskaya N. A., Psychology of knowledge acquisition at school, M., 1959; Itelson L. B. Lectures on modern problems of modern times. psychology of learning, Vladimir, 1972, Age and ped. psychology, ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M., 1973, Talyzina N. F., Management of the process of knowledge acquisition, M., 1975; Kru-t s c k i i V. A., Psychology of training and education of schoolchildren, M., 1976; Stone E., Psychopedagogy, trans. from English, M., 1984, Menchinskaya N. A., Problems of learning and mental development of schoolchildren, M., 1989; Socialist. approach in the psychology of learning, ed. M Cole, translated from English. M., 1989, Dubrovina I.V., School workbook. psychologist, M., 1991; Age and ped. psychology Texts, composed by M. O Shuar, M, 1992

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