Syria: oil and gas - iv_g — LiveJournal. Mineral deposits in Syria Map of mineral resources in Syria in Russian

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great), I. O. Gavritukhin (Historical sketch: Syria from the conquests of Alexander the Great to Arab conquest), M. Yu. Roshchin (Historical sketch: Syria from the Arab conquest to 1970), T. K. Koraev (Historical sketch: Syria in 1970–2014), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed forces), V. S Nechaev (Health), E. A. Alizade. (Literature), T. Kh. Starodub (Architecture and fine arts), D. A. Guseinova (Theater), A. S. Shakhov (Cinema)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), Sh. N. Amirov (Historical sketch: Syria from ancient times to the conquests of Alexander the Great); >>

SYRIA, Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhuriya al-Arabiya al-Suriya).

General information

S. is a state in the South-West. Asia. It borders on Turkey in the north, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south, Israel in the southwest, and Lebanon in the west; in the west it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. Pl. 185.2 thousand km 2. Us. OK. 22.0 million people (2014, UN assessment). The capital is Damascus. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is sire. lb. Adm.-terr. division: 14 governorates (provinces).

Administrative-territorial division (2011)

Governorate (province)	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Damascus (city)	0,1	1,8
Daraa	3,7	1	Daraa
Deir ez-Zor	33,1	1,2	Deir ez-Zor
Idlib	6,1	1,5	Idlib
Latakia	2,3	1	Latakia
Rif Dimashq	18	2,8	Damascus
Tartus	1,9	0,8	Tartus
Aleppo (Aleppo)	18,5	4,9	Aleppo (Aleppo)
Hama	10,2	1,6	Hama
Homs	40,9	1,8	Homs
El Quneitra	1,9	0,1	El Quneitra
Al Hasakah	23,3	1,5	Al Hasakah
Ar-Raqqa	19,6	0,9	Ar-Raqqa
Es-Suwayda	5,6	0,4	Es-Suwayda

S. is a member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945, membership suspended in 2011), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (1972, expelled in 2012), IMF (1947), IBRD (1947).

Political system

S. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted by referendum on February 26, 2012. The form of government is a mixed republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to re-election). The president appoints the cabinet of ministers, determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme commander in chief of the armed forces. forces. According to the Constitution, the President of Syria must be a Muslim.

The highest body of legislators. authorities - unicameral Nar. council (Majlis al-Shaab). Consists of 250 deputies elected by direct vote for 4 years.

The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President.

Leading political parties: Arab Party. socialist Revival (PASV), Progressive National. front, Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes, etc.

Nature

Relief

Shores preim. low, slightly indented by bays. The northern part of the territory is a plateau, descending from northwest to southeast from 1000 to 500–200 m. In the west, two chains of mountains stretch from north to south, separated by tectonics. El-Gab depression with the river valley. El Asi (Orontes). Zap. the chain is made up of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah; altitude up to 1562 m), the eastern range is made up of the Al-Akrad and Ez-Zawiya mountains (altitude up to 877 m). Along the border with Lebanon there is the Anti-Lebanon ridge (up to 2629 m high, Mount Tal'at Musa) and its south. continuation - the Esh-Sheikh ridge with the highest point N. Mount Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) alt. up to 2814 m. Anti-Lebanon has many karst landforms formed in limestone. To the east of the city of Homs stretches the Tadmor mountain range, consisting of low (up to 1387 m) mountains (Esh-Shaumaria, Esh-Shaar, etc.). There is a volcanic site in the southwest. Ed-Duruz massif (altitude up to 1803 m). In the southeast there is part of the Syrian Desert; stratified rocky plains and high plateaus predominate. 500–800 m, takyrs are typical. To the east parts along the river valley The Euphrates is an alluvial lowland. To the northeast of it is the high Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau. 200–450 m with separation remnant hills (Abd al-Aziz mountains up to 920 m high, etc.). Along the Mediterranean coast there is a narrow (10–15 km) coastal lowland, divided by mountain spurs into separate sections. plots.

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of S. is located in the north. on the outskirts of the Precambrian Arabian Platform, in the area of ​​distribution of the Phanerozoic platform cover with a thickness of several. km, composed of shallow-marine terrigenous and carbonate deposits (sandstones, clays, limestones, marls, chalk, etc.) with horizons of flints and phosphorites, as well as salt rocks. The coastal lowlands contain Neogene-Quaternary fluvial, coastal-marine, and aeolian deposits (sands, sandstones, silts, clays, gravels, limestones). In the southwest there are covers of Neogene-Quaternary basalts. In the late Cenozoic west. part of the northern territory experienced uplift; A regional seismically active fault arose (the so-called Levantine fault), along which a rift valley formed, filled with Neogene-Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. There are deposits of cement and construction. limestone, rock salt and gypsum, sand, gravel, etc.

Main the wealth of the subsoil of S. - oil and natural flammable gas, the deposits of which are located in the center, east and northeast, belongs to Persian Gulf oil and gas basin. There are deposits of cement limestone, phosphorites, gypsum, rock salt, and natural builds. materials (dolomite, marble, volcanic tuff, sand, gravel).

Climate

On the territory of the North the climate is subtropical. Mediterranean with winter-spring maximum precipitation and summer drought. On the coast the climate is maritime, cf. January temperatures 12 °C, August 27 °C; precipitation is more than 800 mm per year. In the Ansariya range (Nusairiyah) it is cooler, precipitation is up to 1500 mm per year, and snow falls in Anti-Lebanon in winter. In Damascus wed. January temperatures 6 °C, August 26 °C; precipitation approx. 200 mm per year. To the southeast direction, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 100 mm per year, and its instability from year to year increases. East part of the country has a dry continental climate; Wed temperatures in January are 4–7 °C (characterized by almost annual frosts), in August up to 33 °C (max. 49 °C). Winter sowing Shemal wind and spring Khamsin wind, blowing from the Arabian Desert, are accompanied by sand and dust storms.

Inland waters

Most of the territory has no external drainage; lowland areas are characterized by dry erosional valleys (wadis). The rivers belong to the basins of the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean and Dead Seas. The largest river is the Euphrates (length 675 km in the north) with its tributaries Khabur and Belikh. The Euphrates provides up to 80% of the North's surface runoff resources and is navigable; its flow is regulated by dams, the largest is Tabqa [near the town of Madinat et Thaura (Es-Saura)] with a hydroelectric power station and the El-Assad reservoir. Along the north-east borders of the north flows the river. Tiger. In the north-west there is a significant river. El Asi (Orontes). In the southwest, along the border with Jordan, the river flows. Yarmouk (tributary of the Jordan River), along the border with Lebanon - river. El-Kebir. The river flow is formed entirely within the northern borders. Barada, irrigating the Damascus Ghouta oasis. The maximum river flow occurs in winter; in summer, the rivers experience low water. The largest lake is Homs. Groundwater is widely used through wells and karezes; oases are often associated with their outlets to the surface. Powerful underground aquifers are concentrated in the foothill plains of Anti-Lebanon and in the Damascus region. Annually renewable water resources amount to 16.8 km 3, water availability is low - 882 m 3 / person. in year. Annual water withdrawal 16.7 km 3 , of which 9% is used in housing and communal water supply, 4% - in industry, 87% in villages. x-ve. In North, the issues of sharing the flow of the Euphrates River with Turkey and Iraq have not been resolved.

Soils, flora and fauna

Sandy loamy-loamy deserts with thin gray soils are widespread on the plateau. In the south, rocky-gravelly hamadas predominate, in places with gypsum-bearing and salt-bearing deposits, in the west and in the center. parts are areas of sandy deserts. In the depressions of the relief there are salt marshes. Along the northern Along the northern borders, gray-brown and brown soils are common. The Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau is characterized by light gray soils with a pronounced carbonate horizon. In the coastal lowlands there are brown soils; with height they are replaced by mountain brown and mountain forest soils.

The eastern, arid part of the country is characterized by desert groups with the participation of saxaul, shrubs and subshrubs (saltwort, wormwood), and ephemera. On the Badiyat el-Jazeera plateau, low-grass steppes with bluegrass, sedge and other ephemeroids, including wormwood, are typical. In the Euphrates Valley, areas of riverine forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarix have been preserved. Subtropical forests grow in the mountains and on the coast. pine trees, Cilician fir; small tracts of relict Lebanese cedar have been preserved in the mountains. To the west On the slopes of the Ansariya ridge (En-Nusairiyah), broad-leaved oak forests with the participation of evergreen trees and shrubs are common. The lower parts of the slopes are usually covered by secondary maquis and garigue formations. To the east The slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh (Hermon) ridges are dominated by xeromorphic mountain steppes, turning into pistachio woodlands and shrubs in the mid-mountain zone, and into semi-deserts in the lower mountain zone.

The fauna is diverse. There are 125 species of mammals, including striped hyena, wolf, jackal, caracal, fennec fox; ungulates include antelope, wild ass onager, and many rodents. In the mountains with forest vegetation, the Syrian bear, wild boar, and wild cat are occasionally found, and in the treeless high mountains - the bezoar goat. The avifauna is rich: 360 species of birds, including migratory ones, there are especially many of them in river valleys and on the shores of lakes (storks, herons, ducks); among the birds of prey there are falcons, eagles, and hawks. There are 127 species of reptiles. 16 species of mammals, 15 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles are endangered.

Condition and protection of the environment

In the north, where the most ancient centers of agriculture are located, nature has been greatly changed. Forests occupy only 3% of the territory. Basic eco-friendly problems - overgrazing, deforestation and fragmentation, fires, habitat destruction, especially along river valleys and on the coast. To the east In arid areas, desertification of landscapes, water and wind erosion, and soil degradation occur. The problem of pollution of rivers and reservoirs by municipal and industrial waste is urgent. wastewater, including from oil refineries. The network of protected areas includes 19 objects (according to other data, 23) of uncertain status, occupying 0.6% of the territory; lake Al Jabbul is a wetland of global significance.

Population

The majority of the population of S. (88.2%) are Arabs - Syrians (84.8%), Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, etc. Kurds and Yazidis live in the north (8%), in the northeast (between the Euphrates and Tigris ) - speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​Western. Assyrians (1%) and Turoyos (0.1%), as well as Armenians (0.4%); small communities of speakers of Neo-Assyrian languages ​​also live northeast of Damascus. The country is inhabited by Turks (“Turkmen”; 0.6%), people from the Caucasus (0.5%), Persians (0.3%), gypsies, etc.

The population increased 6.5 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.4 million people in 1950; 12.3 million people in 1990; 21.9 million people in 2012; military actions, according to UN estimates , by the beginning of 2015 led to the flight of over 4 million people from the country). Natural growth of us. 2.1% (2013), which means. birth rate (25 per 1000 inhabitants), 6 times higher than mortality (4 per 1000 inhabitants). Fertility rate 3.1 children per woman; infant mortality rate is 17 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 61%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 35%, people over 65 years old – 4%. Wed. life expectancy is 75 years (men – 72, women – 78). The numerical ratio of men and women is approximately equal. Wed. density of us. OK. 97 people/km 2 (2014). Most densely for selena coast, north. part of the country and the Rif Dimashq governorate (average density 100–250 people/km2), as well as areas near large cities (average density near Homs, Hama, etc. over 1000 people/km2); least – center. and east districts (less than 25 people/km 2). Share of mountains us. 54% (2013). Largest cities (thousand people, 2014): Aleppo (1602.3), Damascus (1569.4), Homs (775.4), Hama (460.6), Latakia (340.2). Economically active us. OK. 5 million people (2013). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 53%, industry – 32.7%, p. farms – 14.3% (2012). Unemployment rate 34.9% (2012; 14.9% in 2011). OK. 12% of us. lives below the poverty line (2006).

Religion

A country with a complex religion. composition, up to 90% of us. which are Muslims (2014, assessment). The vast majority are Sunnis (Sufi brotherhoods are common); The influential Shiite minority includes the Nusayris (or Alawites, more than 10%) and the Imamis (3%). Ismailis make up 1%. The number of drusen is estimated at 3–5%. OK. 10–11% of residents are Christians, mostly. Orthodox, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Antioch with residence in Damascus. The second largest is the Syrian (Syro-Jacobite) Orthodox Church with its center in Damascus, one of the Ancient Eastern (pre-Chalcedonian) churches. There are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholics are divided into Chaldo-Catholics, Syrian-Catholics, Maronites, Greek-Catholics, Armenian-Catholics and Roman-Catholics. The Nestorians are represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East. The Jebel Sinjar region, near the border with Iraq, is home to a small Yazidi community. Few the Jewish community survived in Damascus. Serious damage to religions. minorities in the country are being attacked by weapons. conflict between governments. forces and opposition.

Historical sketch

Territory of Syria before the Arab conquest

The oldest monuments of human activity in the region (ca. 800–350 thousand years ago) belong to the Acheulian [bas. monuments - between the river El-Asi (Orontes) and r. Euphrates, including Umm et Tlel (in the El Koum oasis north of Palmyra; layers about 20 m, up to the Neolithic), etc.]. This is followed by the Yabrud industry, then Hummal and Laminar (ca. 200–150 thousand years ago; from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia). The Moustier era is represented by the Levallois industry (including with pointed points such as Umm et Tlel, etc.); early Upper Paleolithic - by Aurignac and the Ahmar culture (ca. 35-17 thousand years ago), middle and late - by the Kebara culture, on the basis of which the Natufian culture .

The territory of S. is included in the oldest zone of the formation of a producing economy - Fertile Crescent. Among the supporting monuments are doceramic. Neolithic - Mureybit, Tell Abr, Tell Aswad, Ras Shamra, El Kdeir, etc. A number of centers for the appearance of ceramic dishes, which spread from the middle, have been recorded. 7th millennium BC e. Around the end In the 7th millennium, the Hassun culture was recorded in the region, then the influence of the traditions of Samarra spread and the Halaf culture spread, replaced by the culture of the North. Ubeida. From the beginning The 4th millennium marked a new impulse of influences from the South. Mesopotamia, associated with the Sumerian civilization, mountain settlements arise. such as Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar in the northeast of the region, then others, including those associated with the metal trade from Anatolia.

From the beginning 3rd thousand connections with South. Mesopotamia is interrupted, the cultural community “Nineveh 5” is formed with a hierarchy of settlements, proto-cities, temple-administration. centers (see Art. Tell Khazna). Around midday In the 3rd millennium, settlements with a perimeter wall and gate openings (of the “Kranzhügel” type) appeared, correlated with the cities and the beginning of Sir proper. civilization; During the excavations of Tell Beydar (ancient city of Nabad), the oldest cuneiform archive in the region (25th century) was discovered (in the East Semitic language, related to Akkadian). From the beginning 3rd millennium in the mountainous regions framing the Great Mesopotamian Plain, migrants from the Caucasus appear, carriers Kura-Araxes culture. At the same time, the Canaanites settled from the south, another group of Semites moved north, founding the state of Ebla, which competed with the one that arose on Wed. Euphrates Mari. At Sargon the Ancient and his successors, a number of lands were controlled by Akkad.

Around the end In the 3rd millennium, the Amorites settled in the region from the southwest. In con. 19 – beginning 18th centuries in the northeast, the state of Shamshi-Adad I (Subartu) was formed, which soon disintegrated. In the west, the states of Yamhad and Qatna competed with him and with each other. To 2nd half. 1770s – 1760s (under Zimri-Lima) refers to the last flourishing of the state of Mari, crushed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From the 17th century The Hurrians played a prominent role in the region along with the Semites. From the 16th century the struggle for dominance over the region begins Ancient Egypt with Mitanni and Hittite kingdom, in which Assyria also participated. The discovery of the world's oldest alphabet (c. 15th century; see also) is associated with one of the Egyptian (later Hittite) dependent cities of Ugarit. Ugaritic letter). According to Hittite-Egypt. to the world (1270) b. parts of the northern territory remained under the control of the Hittites, the south - the Egyptians. However, soon North. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians. king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–08), and the state of the Hittites, like the Asian. possessions of Egypt, in the end. 13 – beginning 12th centuries fell under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, who destroyed a number of cities in the sir. Mediterranean coast.

K con. 2nd – beginning 1st thousand these zap. the aliens founded the state of Palestine (the territory of the North), which coexisted with the states, where the so-called. Late Hittite dynasties. A number of states also arose, founded by the Arameans (Akhlameans), who penetrated into the region along the Euphrates from the 14th century: Bit Adini (capital in Til Barsib), Bit Bakhiani in the upper reaches of Khabur (capital of Guzan - the site of Tell Halaf), Samal in Cilicia, Bit-Agushi in the region of Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. One of them, with the capital in Aram-Damascus (now Damascus; cultural layer no later than the 4th millennium, first written mention around the middle 3- th thousand), after the campaigns of its kings Reason I and Tabrimmon, it becomes the strongest in the region.

From the end 11th century expansion into the Assyrian region begins. Counteracting this is the so-called. Northern Sir. the alliance was crushed by the Assyrians. king Shalmaneser III at 857–856. T.n. South Syrian An alliance (supported by the rulers of Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Arabian tribes) led by the king of Damascus Hadadezer (Ben Hadad II) managed to stop the Assyrians at the Battle of Karkar (853). However, in 796 Damascus was captured and paid tribute to Assyria. In the 9th–8th centuries. Kingdom of Damascus once fought with Israel. In 734, the Assyrians conquered Arpad (North S.) and a number of other states in the region; resistance of a number of sir. states led by the king of Damascus Reason II, which also relied on an alliance with the kings of Israel, Gaza, and Edom, ended with the capture and destruction of Damascus in 732 Tig Latpalasar III. Reason II was executed, b. Parts of the Aramaic population were resettled inland. regions of Assyria, the region became Assyrian. province.

After the death of Assyria in 612–609, S. became the arena of struggle between Egypt and Babylonia. In 539 Babylon was captured by the Persians and S. entered Achaemenid state. After the battle of Issus (333) troops Alexander the Great occupied S. During the struggle of the Diadochi, S. fell to Antigonus, and after the Battle of Ipsus (301) it became part of the Seleucid state. After 190, its decline and collapse began, in the lands beyond the Euphrates in 132 BC. e. the state of Osroene was formed with its capital in Edessa (then part of Parthian kingdom, Armenia, controlled by Rome, in 244 AD. e. destroyed by the Sassanids), part of the southeast. S. controlled lands Nabatean kingdom. In 83–69 BC. e. the region was captured by Armenians. king Tigran II, in 64 - Gnaeus Pompey, after which in most of the territory of modern. Rome was organized in S. and a number of adjacent lands. Prov. Syria.

From the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) prov. S. was under imp. management and was one of the most important, given its strategic. position (4 legions were stationed here) and economic. potential (highly developed agriculture and crafts, including textiles and glass making). Sire. merchants and artisans were famous in many cities of Rome. empires. Some rome. emperors and members of their families were from S. Despite the strong Hellenization and influence of Rome, especially in polyethnics. cities, local culture continued to develop in S. (mainly based on Aramaic).

From the 1st century S. is one of the centers of the spread of Christianity. On I Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (325) S. was represented by more than 20 bishops, in 451 Antiochian Orthodox Church became autocephalous in the status of patriarchy. From the 4th century the region becomes an important center of monasticism, and the pillarism originated here (see. Simeon the Stylite). In the course of internal Christian disputes (see Christology), S. became one of the centers of miaphysitism, its supporters after persecution under the emperor. Justin I (518–527) founded the Syrian Orthodox Church (finally formed in 629), which spread throughout the Middle and Middle East. East (see Syrian churches).

In 193/194 prov. S. was divided into Coelesyria and Syrophenicia. During the reforms Diocletian they entered the diocese of the East. By 350, the Euphrates Province was separated from Kelesyria. (capital of Hierapolis), after 415 - provinces S. I (capital in Antioch) and S. II [in Apamea (on the Orontes)], in 528 - a small province. Feodoria. The state, centered in Palmyra, which retained its independence for some time, was annexed to Rome ca. 19; became virtually independent in the 260s. under Odenathus; his widow (from 267) Zenobia in 270 brought under her control the territory from Egypt to Asia Minor, but in 272 she was defeated by Rome. army. Rome. Prov. in Osroene, which was one of the arenas of struggle against the Sassanid state, is known no later than the 4th century.

During the next war between Byzantium and the Sassanids in 609, the region was captured by the troops of Khosrow II, but according to a peace treaty with Heraclius I in 628 it was returned to Byzantium.

Syria from the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest

All R. 630s As a result of protracted wars with the Sassanids, the power of Byzantium in the territory of S. will end. weakened, dissatisfaction of local residents with tax oppression and religions intensified. intolerance. In 634, Caliph Abu Bekr transferred from the south. Iraq to Damascus detachment led by an Arab. commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. After victories at Ajnadayn, Fakhla and Marj es-Suffar, his troops entered Bosra (Busra al-Sham). In 635 they captured Damascus, in 637 they occupied Baalbek and Homs. Byzantine. army of approx. 100 thousand people launched a counteroffensive, but in the decisive battle on the river. Yarmouk (636) was put to flight by smaller Muslim forces; the victors recaptured Damascus and Homs. In 638, Jerusalem and Gaza were occupied, then Aleppo (Aleppo), Antioch (Antakya), Hama and Qinnasrin. In the mountainous regions around Latakia, Tripoli and Sidon (now Saida), resistance to the Muslims continued until the middle. 640s Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan moved the capital of the Caliphate and the residence of the Umayyad dynasty from Medina to Damascus, which remained in this status until 750. During this period, S. became political. and the cultural center of a growing state, where part of the military flocked. booty and taxes collected in various areas of the caliphate. Under the Umayyads, there was a process of Arabization of the population, Arab. the nobility turned into large landowners, the majority of the inhabitants of S. converted to Islam, Greek. state the language was replaced by Arabic. language (from the beginning of the 8th century). However, the departments were preserved. Hellenistic elements heritage, because the Arabs gradually adopted culture, social organization and political. system they encountered in sir. cities. Urban planning developed widely, and architecture was influenced by both Byzantine and Sasanian architecture (the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Great Mosque in Aleppo, the country palace of Mshatta, etc.).

All R. 8th century The Umayyad dynasty fell into decline and was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty, which made Baghdad its capital. The population of S. decreased, and a gradual decline of cities began. In the conditions of political and economical instability, Arabization and Islamization continued. lands. With the beginning of the decline of the Abbasid dynasty, the north. S.'s borders became more vulnerable to attacks by the Byzantines. A number of small Muslim and Christian principalities arose in the region, which turned to the military. with help either to Baghdad or to Constantinople. The collapse of the Abbasid state led to the seizure of Syria by Egypt. by the Tulunid emirs in 878, in 935 by the emirs from the Ikhshidid dynasty. In 969 S. became part of the Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate. All R. 10th century all in. The Hamdanid dynasty, whose court was in Aleppo, came to power in S., which led to a short revival of these lands, especially during the reign of Emir Seif ad-Daula (945–967).

Syria before the Ottoman conquest

Development of S. in the 10th–11th centuries. was suspended by the conquest of its interior. districts in the 1070s. Seljuks who came from Asia Minor and the north. Mesopotamia. The tribes that entered the territory of S. were part of the state Seljukids, but soon created two states independent of it with capitals in Damascus and Aleppo. However, they failed to penetrate into the south. Northern regions that remained under the rule of local rulers (for example, Tanukids) or were in vassal dependence on Egypt. Fatimidov. The collapse of the Seljuk state and the fight against the Fatimids facilitated the capture of the north-west. S. crusaders (see Crusades) and the formation in 1098 of the Principality of Antioch on its territory. East S. broke up into departments. Arab possessions and Seljuk feudal lords, who waged wars both with the crusaders and among themselves. In 1154 Turk. the ruler of Aleppo, Nur ad-Din, managed to unite most of S. under his rule. After his death (1174), Salah ad-Din annexed the main. part sire. lands to their possessions. In 1188, after the victory at Hittin (1187), he drove the crusaders out of the country. parts of the Antioch prince. Salah ad-Din's successors, the Ayyubids, retained control only over the interior. areas of the north, in the north they were forced to resist the Seljuk Konya (Rum) Sultanate, in the west - the state of the crusaders, in the east - various. Turkic state formations.

In the 2nd half. 13th century S. came under Egyptian rule. Mamluks. In 1260, it was attacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu, repelled by the Mamluk Sultan Kutuz in the battle of Ain Jalut. Gradually the power of the Mamluks increased. The new Sultan Baybars succeeded in the 1260s. occupy strategically important fortified Ismaili points in the mountains of the North. In the beginning. 1290s Sultan al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil captured the last crusader fortresses on Sir. Mediterranean coast. At this time, an effective administration was created on the territory of S. system, trade was restored, the rise of crafts and rural areas began. x-va. Syria reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of Nasir ad-Din Muhammad (1309–40). However, under his immediate successors, as a result of the plague that swept through the North and increased trade competition from the states of Anatolia and the North. Africa began the decline of the Mamluk power, which opened the way for the Mongols under Timur to capture Aleppo and Damascus (1401). Despite the successes of the Mong. troops, to the con. 15th century sir. the lands became the object of claims from the Ottomans, Timurids and Iran. Safavids. Taking advantage of the struggle that the Mamluks were forced to wage against the Portuguese, who were launching raids on the territories adjacent to the Red Sea, the Sultan Ottoman Empire Selim I defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Syria.

Syria until the end of the 19th century

As part of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of S. was divided into 4 vilayets with centers in Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus and Saida (several more provinces were later created, including Akka), which were ruled by pashas who reported directly to the administration of the Sultan. To streamline the collection of taxes and encourage the processing of abandoned lands, special forces were issued. governments. regulations and cadastres, which at first had a beneficial effect on the development c. x-va. However, increasing tax oppression and the growing arbitrariness of local officials gradually led to stagnation in this area. This means in the regional economy. Goal began to play a role. and Brit. maritime trade. By the 18th century Aleppo and Beirut turned into ch. shopping centers in S. Europe. penetration into S. was carried out both through the creation of merchant houses in a number of cities. colonies, which assumed almost complete trade relations with Europe, and through an increased influx of missionaries (mainly Franciscans and Jesuits). Contacts between missionaries and local authorities, as well as the desire of Europeans. powers to establish their spheres of influence in North (the French supported the Maronites, the British - the Druze) led to a gradual stratification of the Sires. society. In this situation, separatist tendencies intensified in the provinces, which sought to become independent from the center. Ottoman government, and internecine wars. As a result of one of these conflicts, the defeated Druze moved to an isolated mountainous area southeast of Damascus, and the area itself was named. Jebel Druz (Ed-Druz, Ed-Duruz). In con. 18th century b. part south S. came under the rule of Akka Pasha Ahmed al-Jazzar. In 1798–99 French. The troops, having failed to capture Egypt, landed on Sir. coast. Al-Jazzar with the help of Britons. The fleet managed to stop the French at Akka and force the imp. Napoleon I Bonaparte to return to France.

During Tur.-Egypt. War of 1831–33 S. was conquered by Egyptian troops. pasha Muhammad Ali. He centralized the administration of the country, favored the development of trade, and the growth of the stock of cultivable lands. However, the introduction of conscription, state. Corvee labor and rising taxes caused repeated uprisings. population (1834, 1837–1838, 1840). The Ottoman Empire and the Europeans that supported it took advantage of the weakening of Egyptian power in the north. powers: in 1840 the power of the Ottoman Sultan was restored in S. At the same time, S. came under the scope of the Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838, which opened the sir. market for european goods, which dealt a serious blow to local production. The emerging trend in this regard towards the transition of agricultural ownership of allotments by townspeople intensified after the law of 1858, which allowed the transfer of communal lands in villages to private ownership, subject to the payment of higher taxes. From ser. 19th century commodity-money relations actively developed in S. There was a specialization of the department. agricultural regions (Northern North - cotton, Hauran - grain, Damascus region - fruits), while the decomposition of subsistence farming intensified. In the last quarter 19th century in exchange for the provision of loans to the Ottoman Empire by the French. companies received numerous concessions in Syria. Franz. capital financed the construction of highways and railways (with the exception of Hijaz), modern. port facilities, organization of regular steamship services, laying telegraph lines.

In connection with the increasing intervention of the deputy. powers in economic and political life S. to the end 19th century Anti-Christian and anti-European sentiments intensified. Local Arab. The elites were also dissatisfied with Ottoman rule. Arab ideas were developed in the circles of the Syrian-Lebanese intelligentsia. nationalism. In the 1870s A society arose led by Ibrahim al-Yazici, whose goal was to fight Ottoman rule. In the 1890s. In Aleppo, Damascus, and Beirut, new organizations appeared that advocated S.'s independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Syria in the 1st quarter of the 20th century

Patriotic sentiments in S. intensified after Young Turk Revolution 1908. Dozens of socio-political organizations were established. newspapers and magazines created legal Arab. patriotic organizations, mass rallies and political disputes. However, it soon became obvious that the changes were limited, and the Young Turks were ready to defend their interests in the main. Turkic-speaking population. Formation of a new political culture was most noticeable among young and European-educated sires. intelligentsia. It was people from Syria (including Abd al-Kerim Qasem al-Khalil, Seif ad-Din al-Khatib, Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi) who made up the majority of the activists of the Lit. formed in 1909 in Istanbul. club. Syrians also predominated in such prominent nationalities. political organizations such as Young Arabia (1911) and the Ottoman Party adm. decentralization (1912). In 1913, they, together with the Lebanese Reform League, convened the Arab. congress However, the inability of the Arab. involve nationalists in their politics. The struggle of the broad masses of the population led to the fact that their social base remained rather narrow.

After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I, S. was turned into a German tour base. command in the Middle East. The 4th Ottoman army was stationed there, led by A. Cemal Pasha, who headed in November. 1914 military-civilian administration and declared war in S. position. Despite the massive repressions that local Christians and Muslims were subjected to during this period. patriots (hundreds of people were executed, thrown into prison, about 10 thousand people were deported), Arab support. nationalism began to grow as a result of a serious crisis in all sectors of the economy, caused by increased taxes on the military. needs and brit. blockade of Mediterranean ports during the war. As a result of massive requisitions of food and raw materials carried out by the tour. authorities, in 1915 in a number of sires. There were food riots in the cities, and a partisan movement began in the mountainous regions. In May 1915 in Damascus, an Arab. nationalists from a number of organizations (including Young Arabia and Al-Ahd) under the leadership. the son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein - Faisal (see Faisal I), signed a protocol on the Arab-British. cooperation in the war against the Ottoman Empire and Germany, subject to the creation of a single independent Arab after the war. state On Sept. 1918 An anti-Ottoman uprising began in the Jebel Druz region, coinciding with the advance of the British towards Damascus. and French troops and Arab. army led by Faisal (entered Oct. 1918). B. Ch. S. fell under the authority of the commander of the allied forces, Brit. Field Marshal E. G. Allenby; in the west, in the coastal region. Latakia, there were French. strength. British-appointed military officer. governor in the east part of S. Faisal first tried to confirm the rights of the Hashemite dynasty to govern all the former Arabs. possessions of the Ottomans in accordance with the earlier promises of Great Britain, then insisted on the creation of a Syrian-Transjordanian state headed by himself (previously, in March 1920, according to a resolution adopted at the General Syrian Congress in Damascus, he was proclaimed the constitutional monarch of an independent Syria .). However, in April 1920 by agreement between the French. and Brit. representatives at the San Remo conference mandated the League of Nations to govern S. and Lebanon was transferred to France, and the administration of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain. In July 1920, the French troops, having overcome the weapons. resistance sir. patriots occupied Damascus and established control over the entire S. Faisal was expelled from the country.

Syria during the French Mandate

During the French period Syria's mandate was divided into five autonomous regions (“states”): Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia (“Alawite state”), Jebel Druz (a Druze region centered in Es-Suwayda) and Alexandretta (now Iskenderun, transferred to Turkey in 1939 ); in the extreme northeast of the country, in the vicinity of Ar-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, a department was allocated. a district governed directly from the center; Mount Lebanon was expanded by annexing the populated region. Shiites of the Bekaa Valley and the Sunni cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, etc. The terms of the mandate were opened by Sir. market for a free European trade. Import of cheap foreign goods dealt a huge blow, sire. textile industry (in 1913–26 the number of weavers in Aleppo decreased by half, and the number of operating looms by 2/3). Franz. financial monopolies had a decisive influence on the economy. life of the country, owned by the French. capital, the Bank of Syria and Lebanon had the right to issue, transport, power plants and water pipelines belonged to the French.

All R. 1920s in S. a number of political parties, including Communist. party [founded in 1924 as a single party sire. and Lebanon. communists; actually Sire. communist party (UPC) since 1944], People's Party or Nar. party (1925), Nat. block (1927). Anti-French flared up all over the country. speeches. In 1922–23, the Druze uprising in the region was suppressed. Jebel Druz. In July 1925, a new rebellion of the Druze began, liberating the entire region in a week and defeating the 4,000-strong detachment of the generals sent against them. Michaud. In October, the leaders of the national movements organized an uprising in Aleppo and Damascus, which was suppressed after two days of artillery. shelling of Damascus (as a result, about 5 thousand people died). Despite the brutality in the fight against the rebels, the French. the government was forced to change the forms of colonial government in Syria. In 1925, the “state of Aleppo” and the “state of Damascus” were united into the “state of Syria.” In April 1928 elections to the Constituent were held. meeting. In May 1930, the Organic Statute (constitution) was adopted in North Korea, which proclaimed it a republic (with the preservation of the French mandate). Under French The regions of Jebel Druz and Latakia remained separate from the north. In the parliamentary elections in November. 1936 victory was won by the National. block. On Dec. 1936 The new parliament elected H. Atasi as president of the country. National liberation movement in S. forced the French. authorities to enter into negotiations with the leaders of the National Party. block on the conclusion of an agreement based on the recognition of independence of S. In December. 1936 Franco-Sir was signed. a treaty that declared the sovereignty of France and did not allow French interference in its internal affairs. affairs of the country and ensuring the unity of S. (Jebel Druz and Latakia were reunited with S.). France was guaranteed the right to station and move troops, as well as create military forces. bases on the territory of North Korea. To eliminate the mandate regime and join the League of Nations, a three-year transition period was envisaged. Sire. Parliament ratified the treaty on December 27, 1936. However, the government of E. Daladier, which came to power in France in January. 1939 abandoned the agreement. In response to the protest demonstrations and strikes that began in S., the French. The administration introduced a state of emergency in the country, the High Commissioner suspended the constitution (repealed in July of the same year) and dissolved parliament (to govern the internal affairs). affairs of the country, the so-called Board of Directors).

Since the beginning of the 2nd World War in September. 1939 war was declared in S. situation, large contingents of the French are stationed on its territory. troops. After the surrender of France in June 1940, the country came under the rule of the Vichy administration; from May 1941, the airfields and transport hubs of S. were used by the Germans. troops. Due to the disruption of traditional trade relations with neighboring countries and the beginning of interruptions in the supply of food and raw materials, economic The situation and living conditions of the population deteriorated sharply. In Feb. 1941 National The bloc, headed by Sh. Kuatli, organized a strike in Damascus, which soon spread to Aleppo, Hama, Homs and Deir ez-Zor. The strike, which lasted 2 months, forced the French. High Commissioner to dissolve the “Board of Directors” and form a Committee headed by the moderate nationalist H. al-Azem, which ruled S. until the fall of 1941. On July 8, 1941, the British joined S. troops and units " Free French" Between Couatli, the Free French administration and the British. Representatives reached an agreement, according to which new parliamentary elections were held in the country in July 1943, which brought victory to the National. bloc (transformed into the National Patriotic Union). According to the agreements concluded on Dec. 1943, French the mandate was cancelled, sir. the government from 1/1/1944 transferred the main adm. functions. The government of independent S. took a number of measures to strengthen its foreign policy. sovereignty of the country. In Feb. 1945 S. declared war on Germany and Japan. In March she took part in the creation Arab League. In October it was accepted as a member of the UN. However, the British continued to remain on the territory of S. and French troops. The French government agreed to withdraw troops only if S. provided it with economic power. and strategic privileges. Refusal sir. government to fulfill these demands caused clashes between the French in May 1945. troops and the population of a number of cities (Damascus, Homs, etc. came under artillery fire). In the fall of 1945, the government of S. demanded that Great Britain and France evacuate their military units, and in January. 1946 appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to make a decision on the immediate withdrawal of troops. 17.4.1946 all foreign. armed forces were withdrawn from the country.

On Dec. 1947 S. rejected the UN resolution on the division of Palestine. In May 1948, after the proclamation of the state of Israel, together with other Arabs. countries launched wars against him. actions (see Arab-Israeli wars). In the beginning. In 1949, armistice agreements were signed between the opponents, and a demilitarized zone was established between Israel and Israel.

Syria after independence

S.'s achievement of independence contributed to the revival of the national economy. economy, industrial development (mainly textile and food) production, the emergence of banks, although the role of foreign. capital (mainly French) remained significant. The beginning of the creation of state sector in the economy was initiated in 1951–1955 by the nationalization (for ransom) of a number of foreign. companies. In 1955–56, agreements were concluded with the British. by Iraq Petroleum Company and Amer. "Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company" about the deduction in favor of S. 50% of the profits they receive for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of S. In 1946, Sir. Parliament adopted a labor law that transferred labor relations to the legal plane. In 1947, a new electoral law was issued, introducing direct elections and secret voting. The situation of the peasant population during this period remained deplorable; most of them were sharecroppers and tenants. This, in particular, determined the internal politics. instability of the state. In the beginning. 1947 The peasant movement, led by A. Haurani, initiated a campaign to change the law on parliamentary elections. In response, Sh. Kuatli introduced a state of emergency and limited the activities of a number of politicians. parties, which allowed the National. the party won the parliamentary elections in July 1947, and Kuatli was re-elected president. On Nov. 1948 His government, accused of incompetence and corruption, was forced to resign. By order of the chief, Gen. regiment headquarters H. al-Zaim, a state of emergency was introduced in the country, the constitution of 1930 was abolished, the activities of the political. parties are completely prohibited. In 1949, al-Zaima proclaimed himself president, but in mid-August he was killed by his opponents in arms. forces during the repeated war. coup led by regiment. S. Hinawi. Hinawi's desire to bring S. closer to Iraq did not find support in high-ranking army circles. On Dec. 1949 The regiment seized power. A. Shishekli, who at first tried to follow the democratic. course (the adoption of a new constitution in 1950, which declared a parliamentary form of government, the provision of broad citizens. rights and carrying out socio-economic. reforms), but already from 1951 (from July 1953 - president) established a military regime. dictatorship. Everything is political. parties, societies. organizations and parliament were dissolved, the constitution was abolished. Uprising in military units in the North. S. in February 1954, supported by people. performances in Damascus, led to the overthrow of Shishekli. The transitional government formed in March 1954, headed by H. Atasi, began to restore democracy. institutions. The 1950 constitution was returned, political activities were allowed. parties. However, thanks to the efforts of conservatives, frightened by desire Parties Arab socialist revival carry out large-scale reforms in the industrial and agricultural sectors, win the presidential elections in August. 1955 Cuatli won again.

In the beginning. 1950s S. was involved in “ cold war" All R. 1950s she joined Egypt in the fight against what was created by Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan under the auspices of the USA and Great Britain Baghdad Pact 1955(later Organizations of the Central dialect, SENTO). In 1955–56, S. reached an agreement with Egypt on the unification of the military. command and creation of a common Military. advice. The Suez crisis of 1956 further strengthened the Syrian-Egyptian relationship. communications. In Feb. 1958 S. and Egypt formed a new state - United Arab Russian Republic(OAR). On Sept. 1958 in Sir. In the UAR region, a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which provided for the confiscation from landowners. parts of the lands and their transfer to landless and land-poor peasants. In July 1961 foreign countries were nationalized. and private commercial banks and largest industrial companies. Everything is political. parties were banned. Against the backdrop of a generally unstable economy. The situation in Egypt (crop failure due to drought, supply interruptions, the desire of the Egyptians to unify the economic structure of both countries, etc.) began a gradual increase in population discontent. Decree of Egypt. President G. A. Nasser on the introduction of state control into S. planning and strengthening the state. sector prepared the way for a new state. coup (carried out on September 28, 1961 by S.’s military command) and S.’s withdrawal from the UAR.

The activities of the new government of M. ad-Dawalibi were aimed at gradually curtailing the economic ones proclaimed during the period of unification. and social reforms. This caused a difference. circles sir. public debate about the ways of further development of the country and the possibilities of restoring the UAR. Attempts to expand the private sector of the economy and rely on large land ownership did not receive the support of the population and led to the entry into politics. the proscenium of representatives of the middle strata of the sir. society. Their increased activity was reflected in strengthening the positions of PASV.

As a result of the war. After the coup of March 8, 1963, the PASV came to power, the government was headed by one of the right-wing leaders of S. - ad-Din Bitar (until October 1964). Under pressure from representatives of the left wing of the PASV, banks and insurance companies were nationalized in 1963, and a new law on agrarian reform was adopted, which lowered the maximum land holdings. By the summer, they convinced the government to allow the creation of nationwide trade unions and the adoption of a new labor law, according to which the role of the state in protecting workers' rights increased. In Jan. 1965 adopted the so-called Ramadan Socialist The decree that placed everything under state control means the most. sir. enterprises. Over the next 6 months, a program of further nationalization was implemented. During its implementation, social contradictions and a crisis within the PASV began to grow (moderate and right-wing Baathists, supported by A. Hafez, opposed the left, led by General S. Jadid). On Dec. In 1965, the right wing of the PASV, with the participation of Hafez, managed to eliminate the leftists from all parties. and state posts But already on February 23, 1966, the left wing of the PASV, supported by the army and trade unions, expelled the right-wing Baathists from the party and from the country. The new government put forward a broad socio-economic program. transformations. Nationalization of large industries followed. enterprises, banks, insurance companies. State The economic sector took a leading position in the country's economy (in 1967 the state sector accounted for 80–85% of industrial output).

In 1966 – beginning. 1967 Tensions increased on the Syrian-Israeli border. In June 1967, the military began. actions as a result of which part of the sir. territories, including the Golan Heights and the Quneitra area, were occupied by the Israelis. These events, as well as the inability of the authorities to ensure the restoration of the economy (a significant part of the Syrian enterprises were destroyed or damaged by Israeli air strikes) significantly undermined the government’s reputation and provoked a wave of protests. At the same time, a split was growing within the ruling elite, which created the conditions for a new state. coup in November 1970, as a result of which the military came to power. PASV wing led by H. Assad.

Syria 1970–2011

With the coming to power of H. Assad, a development strategy was chosen (within the framework of a 5-year plan), which provided for the state. financing and control over the activities of capital-intensive enterprises at the same time. supporting trade and investment in the private sector (especially in construction and agriculture). Sire. private companies benefited from the rise in oil prices that brought prosperity to the Arab world. oil-producing monarchies, from expanding ties with banks and light industry of Lebanon, from strengthening diplomatic relations. contacts and generous economics. assistance from Saudi Arabia. Arabia and Kuwait at the end. 1970s The Arab-Israeli War of 1973 showed a noticeable strengthening of Israel's defense capabilities compared to 1967. However, the use of budget funds by the ruling elite and the rapid enrichment of businessmen associated with top officials provoked accusations of corruption, which, together with the growing competition between the state. and private firms, gave impetus to the activation of various. Islamist movements that began in 1976 anti-government. campaign. In 1977–78, it resulted in a series of attacks on government facilities and the murders of prominent functionaries of S. and PASV.

After clashes between the army and rebels in Aleppo, Hama and Homs in the spring of 1980, the authorities made a number of concessions. At the same time, in July, a decision was made to criminalize membership in the organization Muslim Brothers. In response, in the fall, a group of influential religions. figures formed the Islamic Front to coordinate the actions of the radical opposition. The measures taken by the government are increasing wages at enterprises that are dependent on the center. authorities decreased in favor of the local administration, an increase in fiscal pressure on private companies in the manufacturing industry, monopolization in favor of the state. enterprises (including restrictions for private importers) - caused unrest in Hama in February. 1982, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood (suppressed by the army under the command of the president’s brother, R. Assad). Based on calls for the elimination of corruption, free elections to the Constituent. assembly and liberalization of the constitution, as well as criticism of H. Assad for supporting Iran in the war with Iraq (see. Iran-Iraq War), groups of the Islamic Front and other underground organizations united in the National. Union for the Liberation of Syria.

In the beginning. 1980s Due to the fall in world oil prices, export earnings decreased significantly, while military prices increased sharply. costs due to Israeli aggression in Lebanon. Under these conditions, in Jan. The 1985 PASV congress criticized the inefficiency and corruption of the state. sector and proposed to reorganize the complex system of exchange rates to reduce illegal currency trafficking and losses from black market transactions. In the spring of the same year, Prime Minister. A. R. al-Qasm began negotiations with the West. states and financial organizations to attract investment in the village. x-in and service sector. In 1986, the EEC promised S. appropriate assistance [this was realized only after Damascus supported the international operation in 1990–91. coalition against Iraq (see Kuwait crisis 1990–91)]. Multi-billion dollar subsidies and loans Arab. The monarchies of the Persian Gulf allowed for the rapid growth of the sir. economy (6% in 1990, 8% in 1991), but sharply increased the country's balance of payments deficit. Since 1987, the government has stepped up support for private enterprise and continued the policy of rapprochement with the West (including the settlement of Syrian-Israeli relations). Relations with Jordan improved, on the border with which a free trade zone opened in 2000.

In Feb. 1999 H. Assad was re-elected president (99.9% of the votes in the referendum). But given his advanced age, The issue became the question of a successor: after the removal of R. Assad from the post of vice president, B. Assad became the likely successor to the head of state. In the July 2000 elections (after the death of the president in June), B. Assad took over his father’s post and received the support of 97.3% of the votes.

The new head of S. declared his intention to reach a settlement with Israel subject to the withdrawal of its weapons. forces to the borders in 1967, and in 2002 announced readiness without preliminary. restrictions to resume peace negotiations from the point at which his predecessor broke them off. While taking steps towards rapprochement with Iraq, Assad at the same time sought to expand his base. influence in Lebanon went strategic. partnership with Shiite radicals from Hezbollah. In 2003, S. sharply condemned Iraq. NATO campaign, for which she was accused of supporting terrorism and harboring accomplices of Saddam Hussein, which was followed by sanctions from the United States. In October of the same year, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), after the Islamic Jihad terrorist attack in Haifa, carried out an airstrike on camps in the vicinity of Damascus (occupied, according to the Israeli version, by Palestinian radicals, and according to the Syrian version, by refugees). The issue of sanctions against S. escalated in February. 2005 after the explosion of a car in Beirut. Lebanon Prime Minister R. al-Hariri: accusations were made against Damascus, which allegedly sought to destabilize the situation before the parliamentary elections in Lebanon, after September. 2004 The UN called for the withdrawal of Sir. armies from the country (in March 2005, the armed forces of S. implemented the corresponding resolution). In the spring of 2007, presidential elections were held, in which the only candidate, B. Assad, won.

Civil war in Syria

In March 2011, unrest began in Daraa (on the border with Jordan) under anti-corruption slogans, which, after their harsh suppression, continued under new slogans (trial of those responsible for the violence, release of political prisoners, resignation of the governor). The unrest that spread throughout Daraa later spread to other areas (Latakia, Baniyas, Homs, Hama, and some suburbs of Damascus). By April, the confrontation in the south of the North had reached its maximum. incandescence The opposition accused the government of suppressing a protest with hundreds of peaceful victims, the government accused the opposition of extremism and massacres of military personnel. security forces and agencies. Against this background, B. Assad announced a political reforms: the abolition of the state of emergency that had been in force since 1963, the creation of a social assistance fund for the poor, the reduction of conscription military service, and an increase in wages. A commission to investigate the events in Daraa was established, the governor was dismissed, and more than 300 political prisoners were released from prison. However, this did not lead to calm; on the contrary, opposition protests increasingly took the form of weapons. confrontation.

In Feb. In 2012, a new draft constitution was submitted to a referendum, according to which PASV was deprived of its leading and directing status and was obliged to participate in elections on an equal basis with other parties. In May, at the first multi-party parliamentary elections, the National bloc received a majority. unity”, which included PASV and Progressive National. front. Independent parties also entered the parliament (including the opposition “Coalition of Forces for Peaceful Changes” and regional associations). Soon, more than 100 civilians were killed in Al-Hul under unclear circumstances. The authorities blamed opposition provocateurs. The next presidential elections in June 2014 were held in factual conditions. citizen war: according to official According to data, 88.7% of voters voted for B. Assad, but the West, in particular the United States, refused to recognize the voting results. Part of the territory of S. came under the control of various. paramilitary organizations (terrorist Islamic State in the east, the Islamic Front and the al-Nusra Front in the west, the Syrian National Coalition and the Free Army of Syria in the south, Kurdish militias in the north).

At the initiative of the United States, at the NATO summit on September 4–5, 2014, an international coalition against terrorism organization "Islamic State". On September 23, 2014, the US Armed Forces began carrying out air strikes on the positions of the “Islamic State” on the territory of the North. Saud joined the US operation. Arabia, UAE, Jordan; Qatar and Bahrain provided military assistance. 15.3.2015 Turkey gave permission to the United States to use the Incirlik Air Force Base to host Americans. combat unmanned aerial vehicles. From 30.9.2015 according to official B. Assad's request for ground air support. military forces in the fight against the “Islamic State” the military began. Russian operation in St.

Diplomatic Relations between the USSR and S. were established in July 1944. Russian-Sir. Relations are traditionally friendly. Their foundation was laid during the period of close cooperation between the USSR and Slovakia. Relations between Russia and Slovakia are based on the mutual trust of the countries and the general mood of their citizens. In 2005, 2006 and 2008, B. Assad visited Russia. In May 2010, V.V. Putin’s first visit to Damascus in the history of bilateral relations took place. Political Recent interaction has focused on issues of internal Syrian settlement.

Farm

S. is a country of medium economic level. development among the countries of the South-West. Asia. GDP volume is 107.6 billion dollars (2011, at purchasing power parity); based on GDP per capita $5,100. Human development index 0.658 (2013; 119th place among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy - p. farming, fuel industry and trade. In the beginning. 21st century government reforms were aimed at creating a socially oriented market economy under the state. regulation of such areas as finance, energy, railways. and aviation transport. Steps were taken to liberalize the economy, intensify the activities of the private sector, and attract foreigners. investments, etc. So. Damage to the economy (especially in cities) was caused by the war that began in 2011. conflict between governments. troops and rebel groups. The state has grown. debt, economic growth rates have decreased. growth, inflation accelerated, etc.; industrial area was significantly destroyed. infrastructure (the oil industry was hit the hardest). By 2015 it will be destroyed. international promotions terrorist organizations (“Islamic State” and others) disorganized farms. communications, brought the country's economy to the brink of collapse.

In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is 60.2%, industry – 22.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing – 17.6% (2013, estimate).

Industry

The most developed (before the escalation of the armed conflict in mid-2012) industrial sectors: oil and natural gas production and processing, electric power, chemical, construction materials, food and textile.

Oil production 8.2 million tons (2012, estimate; 19.2 million tons in 2010); basic production areas are located in the northeast (including the Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan fields; all in the Al-Hasakah governorate) and in the east of the country (including the Omar, Tanak, El-Ward and other fields in the governorate Deir ez-Zor). The largest refineries are in the cities of Baniyas (installed capacity 6.6 million tons of crude oil per year; Tartus governorate) and Homs (5.3 million tons). The leading company is Al Furat Petroleum (jointly owned by the state-owned General Petroleum Corporation and several foreign companies).

Natural gas production 16.6 billion m3 (2012, estimate); basic deposits – Al-Dubayat and Al-Arak (Homs governorate). Gas processing plants - in the city of Deir ez-Zor (installed capacity of about 4.8 million m 3 per year), as well as near the Omar field (2.4 million m 3), the city of Tadmor (2.2 million m 3, Homs governorate), etc.

Electricity production approx. 44 billion kWh (2010); including at thermal power plants - 94% (the largest is Aleppo, capacity 1065 MW; in Jibrin, Aleppo governorate), at hydroelectric power stations - 6% (the largest is Tabqa on the Euphrates River, capacity 800 MW; near the city . Er-Raqqa).

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by steel smelting (10 thousand tons in 2012, estimate; 70 thousand tons in 2011) and production (mainly based on imported raw materials and semi-finished products) of rolled steel and billets (approx. 130 thousand tons in 2012 , estimate; 890 thousand tons in 2011; factories in the cities of Latakia, Aleppo, etc.).

Mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the electronic industry depend on the supply of components from abroad. Among the enterprises are automobile assembly plants in the cities of Adra (Rif Dimashq governorate) and Hisya (Homs governorate).

Phosphates are mined (1.5 million tons in 2012, estimate; 3.5 million tons in 2011; the main deposits are Alsharqiya and Kneifis, west of Tadmor; most of the products are exported), rock salt, etc. Among the chemical enterprises industry - factories for the production of minerals. fertilizers, sulfur (as a by-product of oil and natural gas refining), sulfuric acid, ammonia, phosphoric acid, plastics, cosmetics, paint and varnish products, detergents, polymer materials, etc. S. is one of the leading Arab. pharmaceutical production countries drugs. In the beginning. 2010s St. acted in S. 50 pharmaceutical companies (approx. 17 thousand employees; main centers - Aleppo and Damascus), providing approx. 90% national medication needs.

The construction materials industry is developed. Production (million tons, 2012, estimate): dolomite 21.2, volcanic tuff 0.5, gypsum 0.3, etc. Production: cement 4 million tons; asphalt 13 thousand tons (2012, estimate; 157 thousand tons in 2010; in the cities of Deir ez-Zor, Kafriya, Latakia governorate, etc.).

The textile industry has traditionally been of great importance (among the centers are Aleppo and Damascus). The industry is represented by cotton ginning. factories, silk spinning factories (main center - Latakia), production of wool and cotton yarn, fabrics, ready-made clothing, etc. The leather and footwear industry specializes in the production of shoes, belts, bags, jackets, etc. Food-flavoring industry (including sugar, oil, tobacco, production of canned vegetables and fruits, drinks). Traditions are widespread. handicrafts: carpet weaving, production of various. artist metal products (including Damascus sabers and knives, copper products), silver and gold jewelry, fabrics (Damascus brocade), furniture (including mahogany, inlaid, painted and carved), etc. .

Agriculture

One of the chapters industries national economy. In the structure of agricultural of land out of 13.9 million hectares, pastures account for 8.2 million hectares, arable land - 4.7 million hectares, perennial plantings - 1.0 million hectares (2011). In the beginning. 2010s the industry satisfied its own. S.'s food needs and provided the light and food processing industries with raw materials.

Crop farming (about 65% of the value of agricultural products) develops on a narrow coastal strip (fruits, olives, tobacco, and cotton are grown on fertile soils in high moisture conditions), as well as in the valleys of the El Asi and Euphrates rivers; Rain-fed (wheat, barley, etc.) and irrigated (including cotton) agriculture is widespread between Damascus and Aleppo, as well as along the border with Turkey. Grown (harvest, million tons in 2012, estimate): wheat 3.6, olives 1.0, tomatoes 0.8, potatoes 0.7, barley 0.7, oranges 0.5, watermelons 0.4, apples 0 ,3, other vegetables and fruits, almonds, pistachios, spices, figs, etc. Viticulture. Ch. technical crops - cotton (raw cotton harvest 359.0 thousand tons, 2012, estimate; main sample in the north of the country) and sugar beets (1027.9 thousand tons).

Livestock farming (about 35% of the value of agricultural products) is extensive; in semi-desert areas it is nomadic and semi-nomadic. Livestock (million heads, 2013, estimate): poultry 21.7, sheep 14.0, goats 2.0, cattle 0.8. Donkeys, camels, horses and mules are also bred. Production (thousand tons, 2012, estimate): milk 2446.0, meat 382.0, wool 22.0; eggs 2457.8 million pcs. Beekeeping. Sericulture (in the Orontes River valley). Fishing (in coastal waters; catch approx. 12 thousand tons per year).

Services sector

The financial system is regulated by the Central Bank of S. (in Damascus) and is represented by several state. (the largest is the Commercial Bank of S., in Damascus) and small private ones (emerged in the early 2000s as part of reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy) commercial banks. banks, there are also international branches. banks (including the National Bank of Qatar). Stock exchange in Damascus (the only one in the country). Foreign tourism (mainly cultural and educational); in 2011 S. visited approx. 2.3 million people (including from Turkey - over 56%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The densest road network is in the west. parts of the country; the total length of roads is 74.3 thousand km (including 66.1 thousand km with hard surface, 2012). Ch. highways (Daraa/border with Jordan - Damascus - Homs - Aleppo, etc.) connect the main. settlements, and also serve for the transit of goods to Turkey and Europe. countries. The total length of railways is 2.8 thousand km (2012). Basic lines: Damascus – Homs – Hama – Aleppo – Maidan Iqbes/border with Turkey; Aleppo – Latakia – Tarsus – Homs; Homs - Palmyra (transportation of phosphorites from deposits near Tadmor to the port of Tartus); Aleppo - Ar-Raqqa - Qamishli / border with Turkey. Intl. airports - in Damascus (the largest in the country), Aleppo, Latakia. Ch. mor. ports: Latakia (freight turnover of about 3.0 million tons in the early 2010s; export of container cargo, import of food, machinery and equipment, textiles, chemicals, etc.) and Tartus (2.0; export of phosphorites ; import of various metals, building materials, food products). The country has an extensive network of oil pipelines connecting fields with terminals at sea. ports (Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus) and refineries, as well as those serving for transit pumping of oil from Iraq and Saud. Arabia. Oil product pipelines run from Homs and Baniyas to Damascus, Aleppo and Latakia. Gas pipelines from fields in the east and center of the north reach Aleppo (further to Turkey) and Homs (further to Tartus and Baniyas); The section of the Pan-Arab gas pipeline (via Damascus and Homs) transports natural gas from Egypt to the port of Baniyas.

International trade

The volume of foreign trade turnover is 11,592 million dollars (2013, estimate), including exports of 2,675 million dollars, imports of 8,917 million dollars (the ongoing crisis in the country led to a significant reduction in volumes; in 2012, the volume of exports amounted to 3,876 million dollars, imports - 10,780 million dollars). Exports are dominated by oil and petroleum products (over 1/3 cost), agricultural products (cotton, diff. vegetables and fruits, wheat, live cattle, meat, wool), consumer goods. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2012 estimate): Iraq 58.4, Saud. Arabia 9.7, Kuwait 6.4. Imported are machinery and equipment, food, metals and products made from them, miscellaneous. chemicals, etc. Ch. suppliers (% of cost): Saudi. Arabia 22.8, UAE 11.2, Iran 8.3.

Armed forces

Armed forces (AF) number 178 thousand people. (all data for 2014) and consist of the Ground Forces (ground forces), air force and air defense, and navy. Military officer formations – up to 100 thousand people. (of which about 8 thousand are in the gendarmerie). Reserve approx. 300 thousand people, including in the North – 275 thousand people. Military annual budget is 2.2 billion dollars. In connection with the active hostilities taking place on the territory of S. since 2015, the numerical strength of its armed forces is undergoing significant changes. changes.

The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country, who determines the basic. directions of military-political course S. and exercises leadership of the Armed Forces through the Defense Ministry and the General Staff. Subordinate to him are the Chief of the General Staff (also the commander of the Ground Forces), commanders of the branches of the Armed Forces and some of the center. MO management.

Direct command of the troops is entrusted to the commanders of the armed forces. Most formations and units are below their normal strength.

NE (110 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. Organizationally, they are consolidated into 3 army corps headquarters, 12 divisions, 13 departments. brigades, 11 departments special regiments appointments. Reserve: tank division headquarters, 4 tank brigades, regiments (31 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 tank). The SV is armed with St. 94 PU operational-tactical. and tactful. missiles, 6 anti-ship missile launchers, 4950 tanks (including 1200 in repair and storage), 590 armored personnel carriers, approx. 2450 infantry fighting vehicles, 1500 armored personnel carriers, St. 3440 field artillery guns (including 2030 towed and 430 self-propelled), approx. 4400 PU ATGM, up to 500 MLRS, St. 410 mortars, 84 air defense systems, more than 4000 MANPADS, 2050 anti-aircraft artillery guns, several. unmanned aircraft, etc.

The Air Force and Air Defense (approx. 56 thousand people) have combat and auxiliary personnel. aviation, as well as air defense forces and means. Basic administrative body and operational control of Air Force units is the headquarters, and in the Air Defense Forces - the department. command; The aviation forces are subordinate to them. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with 20 bombers, 130 fighter-bombers, 310 fighters, 14 reconnaissance, 31 combat training and 25 military transport aircraft, 80 combat and 110 transport helicopters. Airplanes and helicopters mainly obsolete types, ch. arr. MiG-21. The airfield network of the North includes more than 100 airfields, and for the basing of modern. Only 21 airfields are suitable for aircraft. The main ones are: Abu ad-Duhur, Aleppo, Bley, Damascus, Dumayr, En-Nasiriya, Seikal, Tifor. Reinforced concrete has been constructed at all military aviation base airfields. shelters for airplanes. Air defense units are represented by 2 divisions, 25 anti-aircraft missile brigades, radio engineering units. troops. They are armed with approx. 750 PU SAM, approx. 2000 anti-aircraft artillery guns of calibers from 23 to 100 mm.

The Navy (5 thousand people) consists of the fleet, naval aviation, coast guard and defense units, logistics institutions and educational institutions. The ship's composition includes 2 small anti-submarine ships, 16 missile boats, 3 landing ships, 8 minesweepers, 2 hydrographic ships. ships, training ship. Coast Guard and Defense includes infantry. brigade, 12 batteries of anti-ship missile systems P-5 and P-15, 2 art. division (36 130 mm and 12 100 mm guns), coastal observation battalion. The fleet aviation is armed with 13 helicopters. Based in Latakia, Tartus.

Private and non-commissioned officers are trained in schools, officers - in the military. academies and abroad. Regular armed forces are recruited by males aged 19–40 years, service life is 30 months. Mobilization resources 5.1 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.2 million people. One of the priority areas of the military. construction of military-political S.'s management considers deliveries to all types of modern aircraft. military samples equipment and weapons, ch. arr. from abroad. Great efforts are being made to obtain licenses and organize their production within the country.

Healthcare

In S. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 150 doctors, 186 persons cf. honey. staff and midwives (2012); 15 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2010). Total expenditure on health care is 3.4% of GDP (budget financing - 46.1%, private sector - 53.9%) (2012). Legal regulation of the health care system is carried out by the Constitution (1973) and the law on psychiatric care. assistance (2007). State healthcare is free. In war conditions. conflict, it needs to be restored as a structure and medical services. care and health care management systems. The most common infections are tuberculosis and polio (2012). Basic causes of death: injuries and other external factors, malnutrition, tuberculosis (2014).

Sport

National the Olympic Committee was founded in 1947 and recognized by the IOC in 1948. In the same year, S. athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in London; subsequently participated in 11 Olympic Games (1968, 1972, 1980–2014) dept. team and in Rome (1960) as part of the United Arab team. Republic. The first Olympic award (silver medal) was won by J. Atiya (Los Angeles, 1984) in the freestyle wrestling competition in the weight category up to 100 kg. At the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), multiple record holder S. in various. types of athletics and the winner of the World Championship (1995, heptathlon) G. Shuaa won a gold medal in the heptathlon. The bronze Olympic award (Athens, 2004) was awarded to boxer N. al-Shami in the weight category up to 91 kg. Since 1978 sire. athletes participate in the Asian Games (except 1986); 9 gold, 8 silver and 14 bronze medals were won (as of December 1, 2015). Twice Damascus was the capital of the Pan-Arab Games (1976, 1992), sir. the athletes won the team competition. The most popular sports in the country: football, basketball, gymnastics, tennis, weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, swimming, track and field. Since 1972, the men's national team periodically takes part in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Management of education institutions are carried out by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Muslim educational institutions are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Waqf Affairs. Basic regulatory documents: Decree on the Elimination of Illiteracy (1972), laws - obligatory. education (1981), about the activities of the university (2006); resolutions of the Ministry of Education - on preschool education (1989, 1991), on prof. education (2000). The education system includes preschool education (paid), compulsory free 6-year primary education, secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education, secondary vocational education. education (main education based on incomplete secondary school; course up to 3 years), higher education. There is a Center for Vocational and Technical Sciences. education in Aleppo (created in the 1970s with the help of the USSR). On the basis of complete secondary school and secondary vocational training. educational institutions offer 2-year technical training. in-you, which give prof. advanced education. In 2013, 5.3% of children were enrolled in preschool education, 74.2% in primary education, and 44.1% in secondary education. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 96.4% (2015, data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Largest universities, ch. scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Damascus, Latakia, Aleppo and Homs.

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. language (all - Damascus): “Al-Baath” (“Renaissance”, since 1948, organ of PASV; circulation about 65 thousand copies), “Al-Saura” (“Revolution”, since 1963; about 55 thousand copies), “Tishrin” (“October”, since 1975; about 70 thousand copies), “Al-Watan” (“Motherland”, since 2006; about 22 thousand copies), “Nidal al-Shaab" ("Struggle of the People", since 1934; organ of the Central Committee of the Syrian Communist Party). In English. language daily gas comes out. “Syria Times” (Damascus; since 1981; about 12 thousand copies). Weeklies are published in Arabic. language (all from Damascus): “Nidal al-Fillahin” (“Struggle of the Peasants”, since 1965, organ of the General Federation of Peasants of Syria; about 25 thousand copies), “Kifah al-Ummal al-Ishtiraki” (“Socialist . workers' struggle", since 1966, organ of the General Federation of Trade Unions of Syria; about 30 thousand copies). Radio broadcasting since 1946 (carried out by the government service "Directorate-General of Broadcasting and Television"; Damascus), broadcasting television programs since 1960 (government commercial service "Syrian Television"; Damascus). Govt. Sire. Arab. information agency (“Syrian Arab News Agency”; SANA) has been operating since 1966 (founded in 1965, Damascus).

Literature

Literature sir. people are developing into Arabic. language On the territory of the North in the 1st century. n. e. there was a sire. the language in which the literature was created. works (see Syrian literature) and which in the 14th century. The Arab was completely ousted. tongue. Middle-century liter S. – part Arab-Muslim culture. In the 19th century in North, which then also included the territories of Lebanon and Palestine, the period of enlightenment began; the desire to renew literature is inherent in the work of Adib Ishak (the story “Joys for Lovers and Delights for the Nights,” 1874; collected essay “Pearls,” 1909; numerous translations of Western literature). The founders, sire. A. Kh. al-Kabbani and I. Farah became the theater's directors (historical dramas "Cleopatra", 1888; "The Greed of Women", 1889). At the origins of the new sire. prose - the work of F. Marrash (books “The Forest of Law”, 1866, “Travel to Paris”, 1867; the story “Pearls from Shells”, 1872; etc.). An important milestone in the development of sir. prose became works created in the traditions of maqama, but dedicated to pressing problems of sir. societies: N. al-Kasatli, Sh. al-Asali, M. al-Saqal, R. Rizka Sallum (“Diseases of the New Century”, 1909). Patriotic The theme distinguishes tradition. poetic in form. creativity of M. al-Bism, H. ad-Din al-Zarqali, H. Mardam-bek. In the 1920s–50s. Romanticism dominated in S.'s literature, most vividly embodied in the poetry of Sh. Jabri, A. al-Nasir, B. al-Jabal, O. Abu Risha, W. al-Kurunfuli, A. al-Attar, as well as prose by S. Abu Ghanim (collection of stories “Songs of the Night”, 1922), S. al-Kayali (collection “Storm and Light”, 1947), N. al-Ikhtiyar (story “The Return of Christ”, 1930). The emergence of the historical novel - the first major prose novel. genre in S. literature, associated with M. al-Arnaut (novels “The Lord of the Quraysh,” 1929; “Virgin Fatima,” 1942; etc.). Novels in modern times The themes “Greed” (1937), “Fate Plays” (1939), “Rainbow” (1946) are created by Sh. al-Jabiri.

Since the 1930s realism began to take hold, vividly represented by the short stories of A. Khulka (collection “Spring and Autumn”, 1931), M. an-Najjar (collection “In the Palaces of Damascus”, 1937), F. al-Shayib, V. Sakkakini, A. al-Salyama al-Ujayli (collection “The Witch’s Daughter”, 1948), etc. The genre of social comedy took shape in dramaturgy (M. al-Sibai), plays appeared in historical. and legendary stories (A. Mardam-bek, A. Suleiman al-Ahmed, Z. Mirza, O. Abu Risha, etc.). Realism remained the leading trend in prose in the 1950s–60s, addressing complex social problems: M. al-Kayali, H. al-Kayali, S. al-Sharif, Sh. Baghdadi, S. Khauraniya, F. as -Sibai, H. Mina, M. Safadi, H. al-Kayali (novel “Love Letters”, 1956), H. Barakat (novel “Green Peaks”, 1956), A. al-Ujayli (novel “Bashima in Tears”, 1959), etc. “Women’s” prose received the form, represented by the names of S. al-Haffar al-Kuzbari (autobiographical novel “The Diaries of Hala,” 1950), K. al-Khuri (novel “Days Spent with Him,” 1959). In psychology prose of Z. Tamer, marked stylistically. grace, the influence of Europe is noticeable. modernist literature. Existential issues dominated the short stories of the 1960s–1970s: collections of stories by J. Salem (“Poor People,” 1964), H. Haidar (“Wild Goats,” 1978), V. Ikhlasi and others.

In the 1960s “new poetry”, marked by metrical-rhythmic, developed. experiments: N. Kabbani, A. al-Nasir, O. al-Muyassar, H. ad-Din al-Asadi; The work of Adonis gained wide popularity. Romanticization of the past, appeal to mythological. the material is characterized by a rich philosophy. reflections on the dramaturgy of H. Hindawi, M. Haj Hussein S. al-Isa, A. Mardam Beg, O. al-Nas, M. al-Safadi; social themes distinguish the plays of M. al-Sibai and H. al-Kayali (“Knocking on the Door,” 1964; “The Carpenter’s Daughter,” 1968). The creators of the “political theater” were S. Wannus and M. al-Hallaj (the play “Dervishes are looking for the truth”, 1970). Events Arab-Israeli wars found a vivid embodiment in the prose of the 1970–90s, in particular in the works of A. Abu Shanab, A. Orsan (story “Golan Heights”, 1982), I. Luka, N. Said, etc.; they were presented in a modernist vein by M. Yusuf (collection of stories “Faces of the Late Night,” 1974). The novel developed predominantly. in realistic. spirit, gravitating towards panoramic, epic. depiction of human destinies and events (H. Mina, F. Zarzur, I. Masalima, K. Kilyani, A. Nahvi, A. al-Salam al-Ujayli, S. Dikhni, Y. Rifaiya, H. al-Zahabi, A Y. Daud and others). Prose con. 20 – beginning 21st centuries dedicated to the preem. socio-political and patriotic subject; Among its most prominent representatives are H. al-Zahabi, M. al-Khani, Y. Rifaiya, G. al-Samman (novels “Masquerade of the Dead,” 2003; N. Suleiman (novel “Forbidden Souls,” 2012).

Architecture and fine arts

In historical In the past, the territory of S. belonged to different cultural zones and was influenced by many. civilizations: Sumerian-Akkadian and Babylonian-Assyrian, Hittite and Hurrian, ancient Egypt, Aegean and Greco-Roman; south S. was closely connected with the complex of cultures of Arabia. In the 3rd century. BC e. – 3rd century n. e. S. became the area of ​​​​contact between the ancient and Parthian traditions, in the 4th–7th centuries. – Byzantine. and Iranian-Sasanian. This versatility of ancient art. S.'s culture determined its originality, the formation of original schools of architecture, and depicted. and decorative and applied arts.

The most ancient architects. S.'s monuments date back to the 10th–7th millennium BC. e. (Mureibit II, III, c. 9800–8600 BC; Tell Aswad, c. 8700–7000 BC). Among the archaeological finds - “idols” made of limestone, stone and clay figurines of people and animals, clay vessels, baskets, beads made of shells, bones and pebbles. In the settlements of the east. parts of the Northern territory, rectangular 3–4-room houses made of mud brick, with whitewashed walls, sometimes painted with red liquid clay (Bukras, ca. 7400–6200 BC), also stone and terracotta figurines, vessels made of alabaster and marble (Tell Ramad, c. 8200–7800). In the settlements of the 6th millennium BC. e. polished pottery is found, sometimes with incised or stamped ornaments, in the eastern. regions - ceramics from the Samarra culture (Baghuz, Middle Euphrates). In the north-east S. in complexes of the 5th millennium BC. e. terracotta female figurines with a conical “hairstyle” and painted eyes were found (Tell Halaf); in the Palanli cave (north S.) - animal drawings close to the Halaf ceramics style. Eneolithic settlements of the north and north-east parts of the Northern territory had a double line of walls with towers and gates, paved streets, a network of water conduits, gardens, temples, and administration. buildings, multi-room rectangular houses with a center plan. hall and internal courtyard (Habuba-Kabira, c. 3500–3300 BC). Hundreds of “big-eyed idols” (figures made of alabaster with double rings at the top) were inserted into the lime mortar of the mud brick walls of the “Temple of the Eye” (c. 3500–3300 BC) at Tell Brak; the facades were decorated with clay cones and copper plates and gold. From the 2nd half. 4th millennium BC e. artists were created. products made of copper, gold, silver, stone and ceramics. vessels, stone and bone amulets in the form of animals, figurines of people, cylindrical. seals with reliefs (Habuba-Kabira, Jebel Aruda).

) S. The cities had massive walls (in the western regions of stone, in the eastern - of brick), regularly paved streets, houses with courtyards, wells, baths, sewers and a family crypt-treasury. The fortified palaces included complexes of rectangular buildings of various types. appointments grouped around yards of different sizes; Ch. the rooms stood out for their size and richness of decoration (the palace of King Zimri-Lim in Mari, 18th century BC; the royal palace in Ugarit, c. 1400 BC). The walled temples included a courtyard with an altar, an entrance hall and a cella with a dedicatory area. steles and statues of gods. In northern architecture S. in con. 2nd millennium BC e. a type of Syro-Hittite temple and/or bit-hilani palace (Kapara palace-temple in Tell Halaf) developed.

Bronze Age works of art demonstrate a variety of stylistic orientations. Finds in Mari (fragments of paintings, statues, reliefs, etc.) indicate the development of a local version of Mesopotamian depictions. claim, departing from the Old Babylonian canon. Works by Ebla illustrate the process of adaptation and processing of the East. and zap. artist traditions. The sculpture is reminiscent of Sumerian in style and iconography, but with more careful attention to detail. The archaic roughness of the enlarged forms of mythological images. creatures akin to the plastic arts of the Hittites; jewelry with elegance and style. The variety is reminiscent of the products of Ugarit, where most of them come from. monuments of art from S. ser. 2nd millennium BC e. Gold dishes and bowls with chased and engraved reliefs, ivory sculpture inlaid with silver, copper, emerald, glassware, weapons, painted ceramics, etc., partly imported or oriented to Mycenaean or Egyptian. samples, mainly demonstrate Ugaritic style with organic. a synthesis of Eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Syro-Mesopotamian traditions.

The invasions of the Sea Peoples and the expansion of Assyria led to the destruction of many. cities and fundamental changes in art. traditions of S. In the 9th century. BC e. all in. S. Assyrian adm. arise. and artist centers - for example, Til-Barsib (Aramaic Bit-Adini on the Euphrates, now Tell Ahmar) with a palace decorated with monumental stone steles with cult reliefs and wall paintings, anticipating the style of art of Assyria in its heyday; Arslan-Tash - Aramaic and Assyrian. city ​​in the north border of S. (statues, bas-reliefs depicting people and animals, ivory plates with carved Egyptian symbols, scenes and images of the Aegean-Mediterranean circle, 9–8 centuries BC). In the north and northeast of the country at the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. one of the syncretistic variants was formed. Syro-Hittite art, distinguished by the fusion of Hurrian and Hittite features in iconography and the style of archaic, crude images.

Damascus) cities received a regular street layout according to hippodamian system and were fortified with powerful stone walls and a citadel. In the Hellenistic ensemble. cities, along with Greek temples. and local deities, theatres, stadiums, palaestras, meeting houses, agora, etc. occupied an important place. The design and image of the buildings was determined by architectural order. From Rome time, the majestic ruins of Apamea and Palmyra have been preserved (almost destroyed by the so-called Islamic state in 2015). Basic highways (Roman cardo and decumanus), with tetrapylons (Laodicea) at crossroads, often lined with colonnades and porticos, connected ch. mountains gate. In the design of colonnaded streets and communities. buildings, villas, triumphal arches and columns, an important role was given to statues, reliefs, paintings and floor mosaics. Each city had its own characteristics: Philippopolis (now Shahba) in the south. S. is planned according to the Roman type. military camps; Palmyra had a 3-span monumental arch, masking the turn of the processional road to the sanctuary of Bel, etc. The original schools will be depicted. The art of ancient synagogue developed in Philippopolis (floor mosaics), Palmyra (painting and sculpture), and in Dura-Europos (paintings combining features of Parthian-Iranian, Syro-Mesopotamian and Hellenistic art; some frescoes of the synagogue anticipate the style early Byzantine painting).

All in. S., among the ruins of abandoned agricultural farms. centers 4th – 1st third of 7th centuries. (“dead cities”), monuments of late antique and early Byzantine culture have been preserved: Sergilla (4th–5th centuries; remains of city walls, a church, a complex of baths, a dairy, residential buildings, etc.), al-Bara (4–6 centuries; churches, 2 pyramidal tombs with sarcophagi), etc. S. Byzantine architecture. time are distinguished by the severity of forms and restraint of decoration (mon. Kal'at-Sim'an, 5th century). Political and ideological differences prevented the formation of a unified regional architecture. type of temple. In general, the religious architecture of Christian S. evolved from a simple hall church (Kirk-Bizet, 4th century) to large 3-nave church basilicas with a gable roof on wood. rafters or stone vaults (at Kalb Luzech, 4th–5th centuries; church at Brad, 395–402). In the 6th century. domed basilicas, prototypes of cross-domed temples (the church “outside the walls” in Rusafa, 569–582), baptisteries, martyriums, fortified monasteries with bastion towers (on the site of the early Islamic castle Qasr al-Khair East, 728–729) and castles-palaces ( Qasr-ibn-Wardan, 2nd floor 6th century). Marble cladding, mosaic floors, subject paintings, stucco, stone and wood were widely used to decorate the interiors of palaces and temples. carvings, gilding, woven draperies, bronze and silver utensils, furniture. Floor mosaics of Bosra (now Busra al-Sham), Apamea, Hama, rare works of sculpture, the increasing role of ornament mark a turn to the conventional pictorial and decorative form, the language of symbols inherent early Christian art, as well as Hellenized artists. schemes and motives. Works of applied art (silver and gold vessels with chasing and engraving, crosses, figured lamps, patterned silk fabrics, etc.) are distinguished by a combination of early Byzantine and local traditions. After the Muslims. During the conquest of S., the art of Christians existed in monasteries (frescoes of the monastery of Deir Mar Musa, 12th century).

Syro-Byzantine art. the school played a crucial role in the formation of early Islamic culture, especially in the Umayyad era, when the cities of S. generally retained their Roman-Byzantine appearance. During the reconstruction of old buildings, a Muslim center was formed. cities with a cathedral mosque ( Umayyad mosque in Damascus) and the palace adm. complex - Dar al-Imara (Damascus, Hama, Aleppo). In the 1st half. 8th century construction of remote residences and estates – “desert castles” – began; at the basis of their layout one can guess the Roman scheme. fort and byzantium. fortified monastery. The formation of a new artist. concept - an abstract worldview, which later led to the predominant development of calligraphy and ornament - manifested itself in the design of religious and palace buildings (architectural landscapes of smalt mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, c. 715). Surviving examples of monumental painting, sculpture and ornamental decoration demonstrate a complex interweaving of ancient, early Byzantine, Syro-Mesopotamian and Iranian styles. Sasanian traditions (floor frescoes and stuk sculpture from the “desert castle” of Qasr al-Khair Western, 727).

With the Abbasids moving the center of the Caliphate to Iraq, new cities began to be built in the Mesopotamian part of Syria ( Er-Rak ka, founded in 772 on the model of "Madinat al-Salam", see Baghdad). By the 12th–13th centuries. S. cities acquired the Middle Ages. view. Large construction took place in Damascus and Aleppo. Inside the walls with massive entrance gates and watchtowers, the cities were divided into separate ones according to religion. and craft-based residential areas with religious buildings, markets, and societies. bathhouse The city center was grouped around or near the citadel. A feature of S.'s architecture has become cultic and charitable. complexes: rectangular in plan, 2–3-story building with a center. courtyard with ivans on the main axes and a pool in the center, which united a madrasah, maristan (medical hospital) or ribat or taqiya (abode of Sufis) with a prayer house and tomb of the founder (mosque-madrasah-ribat al-Firdaus, 1235, Aleppo). A special place in the Middle Ages. architecture of the north-west S. is occupied by crusader castles, combining the traditions of early Byzantine, late Romanesque, and early Gothic architecture ( Krak des Chevaliers, Margat, both – 12th–13th centuries, Arabic in place. fortresses of the 11th century). During the Mamluk era, northern trade and craft centers (Damascus, Aleppo) expanded greatly.

It will depict blossoming. claim of the Middle Ages. S. coincided with the era of the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Book miniatures in manuscripts collection. fables “Kalila and Dimna” (1220, National Library, Paris; 1354, Bodley Library, Oxford), picaresque short stories “Maqama” by al-Hariri (1222, National Library, Paris), works by al-Hariri Mubashshira about the philosophers of antiquity (early 13th century, Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul) shows several directions: colorful, naively plausible, expressive and humorous scenes. intonation; more refined and complicated compositions; works reminiscent of the Middle Ages. mosaic or Byzantine-influenced. writing manners. The miniature clearly influenced the development of subject and ornamental painting on glass (colored enamels) and glazed ceramics (the main centers are Er-Raqqa, Rusafa), on the decor of bronze products (trays, vessels, incense burners, lamps, etc.), decorated chasing, engraving, carving, silver inlay (Damascus, Aleppo). Middle-century S. craftsmen became famous for making weapons, jewelry, silk patterned fabrics, and wood. carving, painting, inlay. The ubiquitous ornament is geometric. compositions, arabesques (in the form of leafy shoots forming spirals, often with flowers, birds, or a patterned rhombic grid with plant, epigraphic and figurative motifs) - became more and more complex, multi-layered (“pattern within a pattern”) and abstract.

The architecture of S. as part of the Ottoman Empire (1516–1918) acquired the features of a tour. architecture Mosques of this time usually have a small cube. volume with center hemispherical dome and slender needle-shaped minarets. The facades of the buildings are faced with contrasting rows of black and white (or yellowish) stone. The interiors of mosques, madrassas, khans (caravanserais), palaces and rich residential buildings with marble-paved courtyards with fruit trees and bushes, iwans, arcade porticoes, flower beds, pools and fountains are becoming more and more elegant (Azema palaces in Damascus and Hama, 18 c.), decorated with ceramic cladding. panel with growing patterns in sonorous colors. A network of covered markets-passages with mosques, baths, and khans was formed. The street facades of 2-3-story buildings now have windows with shutters and balconies covered with wood. carved mashrabiya grilles. Monumental and decorative art and art. crafts have also undergone this means. changes (large ornament with floral motifs; calligraphic inscriptions). Carving and painting on marble and wood, inlay on wood (camel bone, colored wood, mother-of-pearl, silver) achieved high skill.

In con. 19 – 1st half. 20th centuries changes in art S.'s life led to the development of Europe. forms of architecture and depicts. art (the emergence of oil painting). In the 1920s the reconstruction of cities began (with the participation of French architects J. Sauvage, M. Ecochar, R. Danger) with the preservation of architectural monuments and the emergence of European. quarters (Damascus, general plan 1929). Mn. S. artists and architects studied in Europe; Architects X. Farra, S. Mudarris, B. al-Hakim and others were educated at Damascus University. Since the 1970s, along with the construction of the state. buildings (the municipality in Latakia, 1973, architects A. Dib, K. Seibert; the presidential palace in Damascus, 1990, architect Tange Kenzo, etc.), the construction of new residential areas, hospital complexes, parks, stadiums, university campuses began, museum buildings, and resort buildings on the coast.

Depict. claim S. 1st half. 20th century took shape in the process of European exploration. artist culture and search for national style (painter M. Kirsha, sculptors and painters M. Jalal, M. Fathi, M. Hammad). Sir was founded in 1952. Association of Arts, in 1971 - Sir. branch of the Arab Union. artists. Among the masters are the 2nd floor. 20 – beginning 21st centuries - landscape painters N. Shaura, N. Ismail, artist and art historian A. Bahnassi, representative of the Sir. avant-garde art F. al-Mudarris, portraitist L. Kayali, graphic artists N. Nabaa and N. Ismail, painter-calligrapher M. Ganum. The decorative and applied art of S. preserves tradition. types: embroidery, carpet weaving, weaving, fabric making, chasing and engraving on metal, carving, painting and inlay on wood.

Music

Among the monuments of ancient muses. culture of S. - large floor mosaic of Rome. Villa Maryamin (near Hama, 4th century), depicting rich Roman women playing music; it presents muses. instruments: oud, kamancha, kanun, goblet-shaped drum - darbuka, etc.). Samples of early music sir. no Christians survived; modern sir. “hymns” were influenced by late Greek church music (multiple ratios of rhythmic durations, time signatures and the presence of bourdon - “Ison”) and, on the other hand, maqama (hemiolic, ornamental microchromatics). In the divine service, Western Sir. Church (Antiochian rite) uses the everyday song book (hymnary) “Bet Gezo” (“Repository of Treasures”; edited by Nuri Iskander, 1992), containing approx. 700 notated chants (in modern decoding in 5-line notation). Before the start of armament. conflict in Damascus, the Sir Orchestra functioned. radio (1950) and Syrian Conservatory (1961); An opera troupe was formed at the Higher Institute of Drama and Music “Dar al-Assad” in 2004.

Theater

Until sep. 19th century development of prof. theatrical art in S. was hampered by the negative attitude of Islam towards anthropomorphic images. At the same time, the desire for acting acquired its unique features here, finding ways to survive in an unfavorable environment. Being historically the heir of three great cultures - Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman and Arab-Muslim, S., like other Arabs. countries, developed people. forms of performing arts in which almost all theatrical components are present. This is an ancient art of storytellers, a theater of shadows and puppets Karagyoz, folk scenes. comedy fasl mudhik. All performances are based on the trinity of verbal, musical and plastic. lawsuit These became artists. tradition of the people spectacular forms are included in the arsenal of the sire. theater and in the 21st century.

Along with Egypt, S. was previously another Arab. countries entered into trade and cultural contacts with the West. In the beginning. 18th century missionaries opened schools here where mystery plays and morality plays were performed. Playwright A.H. al-Qabbani adapted world drama to local conditions. Knowing folklore well, he created synthetic performances. genre, organically connecting new forms of theatrical art with the tradition of folk art. spectacles, lit. text with music, singing and dancing. The social urgency of the plays and their wide audience success led to the closure of his theater in 1884 by decree of the tour. Sultan. Al-Kabbani emigrated among other sires. cultural figures whose mass exodus to Egypt in the 1870s and 80s. associated with tur pressure. authorities, the strengthening of the influence of the local clergy and the penetration of large European countries. capital. The “Syrian Arab theater in Egypt” movement arose, the successful representatives of which were playwrights S. al-Naqqash, A. Ishak, Y. al-Hayat and others. Thanks to their efforts, a theater troupe was organized in Alexandria, which staged plays “Harun ar -Rashid" (1850), "The Creation of Good" (1878), "Tyrant" (1879), "Telemaque" (1882), etc. Between the two world wars, people occupied a special place. improvisational forms of performance with pantomime, comic. skits and music. So... contribution to the development of sir. The theater was contributed by the actor and playwright N. al-Reyhani, whose play “Kish-Kish Bey” combined elements of French. vaudeville and national music comedies; Ch. the hero of the play is considered a descendant of the people. character Karagöz. It was based on its popularity in the 1920s. performances “The Barber of Baghdad” and “Jasmina” - fairy tales from “A Thousand and One Nights”. Circle of topics sire. dramas of the 1930s included Arabic stories. and Islamic history, adv. epic and mountains folklore Appeal to the historical events and characters at this stage were associated with the desire to arouse the public's admiration for the past greatness of the Arabs, awakening the national. self-awareness. The winning of independence in 1945 gave new impetus to the professionalization of theater and drama. In 1960, the National Society was created in Damascus. dramatic theater in which young directors A. Fedda, U. Ursan, D. Lachman worked. Social drama conquered the stage; Among the authors – V. Midfai, M. al-Safadi, Y. Maqdisi, M. Udwan, S. Haurania. The dramaturgy of S. Vannus, which explored the relationship between totalitarian power and the silent people, was distinguished by the most acute socially accusatory character. The criticism of the current regime on the theater stage began with Vannus’s play “Party on the Occasion of June 5th” (1968). In his search for rapprochement with the public, his play “The Head of Mamluk Jaber” (1970) directed by Fedda (1973) became a milestone: using the technique of imaginary improvisation, the director introduced into the performance the image of a storyteller who removed the barrier between the stage and the hall, following the tradition of the national. folklore

At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. one of the most pressing problems of stage production. lawsuits S. - disputes about the place and role of people. theatrical tradition, especially folk. comedy, in modern times life of the country. Leading theater figures (including Professor of Damascus University, author of many books and articles about theater H. Kassab-Hassan) advocate the need to preserve the traditions of oral storytelling, develop the “storyteller without borders” movement both in the field of theater and and in educational programs for children, about the creation of an annual festival of traveling storytellers. There are also theaters in the capital: the Workers' Union, al-Qabbani, al-Hamraa, and others. In 2004, after a 14-year break, the theater festival, founded back in 1969 by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Damascus, resumed in Damascus, attracting the attention of young performers ( The topic of the round tables is “Theater and Youth”). Despite the difficult political situation, the S. theater continues to develop. In 2010, dir. U. Ghanem organized the Damascus “Theater Laboratory”, where, based on the artist. research about modern the theater analyzes issues of modern communication. sir. dramaturgy and acting, theater and social reality. Since 2013, seminars have been held (“Working on a dramatic text from Muller to Sarah Kane”, “Chekhov and modern directing”, etc.).

Movie

From 1908 (when the first film screenings took place in the country) until mid. 1910s were demonstrated in the main chronicle and staged French. films after the outbreak of World War I - German. In 1916, the Canakkale Cinema cinema hall was opened in Damascus. The first sire came out in 1928. gaming f. “The Innocent Defendant” by A. Badri. Among the films of the 1930–60s: “Under the Sky of Damascus” by I. Anzur (1934), “Call of Duty” by Badri (1936), “Light and Darkness” by N. Shahbender (1949, the first national sound film), “ Traveler" by Z. Shaua (1950), "Green Valley" by A. Arfan (1961). In 1963, the General Organization of Sirs was formed under the Ministry of Culture. cinema (including cooperation with the USSR in the training of professional national personnel at VGIK; since the late 1990s, it has financed the production of feature films). The struggle of Syrians for their rights was told in the film “The Bus Driver” (1968, Yugoslav dir. B. Vucinich), about the fate of the Palestinian people - “The Deceived” by T. Salih (1972), about the extermination of civilians of a Palestinian village in 1956 - “Kafir Kasem" by B. Alaviya (1975, Mkf Ave. in Moscow). The theme of the Middle East conflict was also raised in the films “Reverse Direction” by M. Haddad (1975), “Heroes Are Born Twice” by S. Dekhni, “Red, White, Black” by B. Safiya (both 1977). In the 1970s - early. 1980s The director worked fruitfully. N. Malikh, who created films about the opposition of the common man to power (“Leopard”, 1972; “Old Photographs”, 1981) and ironically. key, denouncing the pharisaism of an unprincipled careerist (“Mr. Progressist”, 1975). The film “An Incident at Half a Meter” by S. Zikra (1981) criticized part of the national. youth who have withdrawn from confronting negative socio-political phenomena. Autobiographical f. “Dreams of the City” by M. Malas (1983) reflected the events of 1953–58, strengthening the principles of democracy. Satiric. the comedy “Borders” by D. Laham (1987) combined the techniques of narration. fairy tales and sharp journalism in the interpretation of the problems of confrontation between Arab countries. peace. A picture of provincial life was presented by the films of A. L. Abdul Hamid - “Nights of the Jackal” (1989) and “Oral Messages” (1991). A notable event was the historical painting about Kawakibi “Dust of Foreigners” by Zikra (1998). The film “Black Flour” by G. caused a wide resonance. Shmait (2001) about the life of the national. hinterland in the first years after independence. The independence of a student from Damascus is defended by director. V. Rakhib in f. “Dreams” (2003), which tells about the experiences of a young woman leaving her parents’ home. The moral problems of family and personal relationships between men and women were analyzed by Abdul Hamid in the film “Out of Access” (2007). The film “One More Time” by D. Said (2009) is a confession about the relationship between father and son against the backdrop of drama. events in the country. In 1979–2011, an international was held in Damascus. film festival

Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the country's industrialization issues. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the country's socio-economic development.

Since the 70s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials.

In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries.

Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products.

Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of supplying the latter.

The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 90s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%.

The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people.

Extraction of basic minerals

Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years.

The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%.

The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country.

By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are under development and operation.

Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under risk service contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies.

By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.

Over the past few years, Syria has stepped up its gas production activities. The traditional activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m.

In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Djebissi field. The Palmyra region is considered the most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power station near the city of Hama.

Phosphate mining plays a significant role in the Syrian economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Khneifns and Sharkiyya fields.

Field development is carried out by Romania, Poland, and Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates have a high chlorine content (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special capacities for their washing.

Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400 - 500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are considered to be Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%).

Among other minerals, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined in Syria.

Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant runs on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The Baniyas plant with a capacity of 6 million tons per year is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20–50%). During the 80s, the oil refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular by producing 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year.

The traditional sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for just under 20% of gross manufacturing output. This industry employs more than 50% of the workers employed in all major industry in the country. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the primary use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton production industry. The overwhelming majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They produce mainly sheet linen, flannel, shirting, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of textile enterprises in the public sector is carried out by the General Organization "Unitekstil".

The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based primarily on imported raw materials.

The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and underwear has developed quite significantly in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 factories, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment.

Approximately 1.5 dozen state textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms.

The wide scope of capital construction necessitated the need for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at accelerating the development of the cement industry. The total cement production capacity in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest factories in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons).

The production of building materials is established at a ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary products and at some other enterprises.

The chemical and petrochemical industries play an increasingly important role in the economic life of the country. Among the products they produce, phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted.

Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 80s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year was put into operation. In 1983, a plant for processing 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products.

The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned paints and chemicals company Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products.

Syria devotes an important place to the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce products such as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects in this area are associated with increasing capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib.

The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets.

The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cottonseed, sesame, olive, flaxseed and some other types of vegetable oils

Relatively new sectors of Syrian industry include: mechanical engineering, electronics, and electrical engineering. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is based largely on the use of imported raw materials, materials, components and components, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the relevant enterprises.

3. Pages of history. Syria is a country of ancient civilization. Archaeological excavations indicate that here already several thousand years BC. e. there were human settlements. The ruins of the city of Ugarit, discovered near the town of Ras Shamra (15 km from Latakia), date back to this period. Monuments of material culture found in the sand-covered ancient city of Mari (not far from the Syrian-Iraqi border) show that it existed as early as the 4th millennium BC. e. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. Slave states emerge on Syrian territory. From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. they become the object of the aggressive aspirations of large ancient states. In the XVI - XV centuries. Syria was conquered by the Egyptian pharaohs, and in the 14th century BC. e. – Khetsky state, which arose in Asia Minor. By this time, a new ethnic element had penetrated into the country and became widespread - the Aramean tribes, who spoke a language close to the Amorite. Later, already in the 1st millennium BC. e. the Aramaic language became the language of interethnic communication in a large part of South-West Asia. At the beginning of the 10th century. BC e. A strong slaveholding state emerges in Syria - the Kingdom of Damascus. Since the 8th century. BC e. it is successively part of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the power of Alexander the Great, and the Elliptical state of the Seleucids. In 64 BC. e. Syria is captured by the Romans, who crush the Pamir kingdom, which stretched from Egypt to Asia Minor and occupied a significant part of Syrian history. The ruins of his capital Palmyra have survived to this day. In the IV – VII centuries. – Syria is a province of the Byzantine Empire, and in the 8th century it was conquered by the Arabs. In 601,750 Damascus became the capital of the feudal Umayyad Caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria accepts Arabic and converts to Islam. In the VIII – XI centuries. Due to the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, Syria lost its privileged position, although it continued to play a significant role in the caliphate. In the 10th – 11th centuries, most of it came under the rule of the Seljuk Turks. In the 11th – 13th centuries, Syria was subjected to invasions by European knights - the crusaders, who created their principalities on its territory. From 1920 to 1943, Syria was a French mandate territory. In 1925 - 1927, the national liberation movement of the Syrians grew into a nationwide anti-imperialist uprising, brutally suppressed by the French colonialists. At the beginning of the Second World War, the country came under the control of fascist countries, but already in the summer of 1941, troops from England and France entered its territory. In November of the same year, France was forced to recognize the independence of Syria. In February 1958, Syria and Egypt united into the United Arab Republic (UAR), but in the fall of 1961, Syria seceded from the republic and became known as the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). On July 5, 1967, Israel began its aggression against Syria and captured the Dutch heights. In 1973 there was a new outbreak of hostilities. In 1974, in accordance with the agreement, part of the Syrian Arab Republic was returned, while the other part remained with Israel. The new border between these countries runs on the Dutch heights. 5. Economic-geographical and political-geographical position The Syrian Arab Republic is located in South-West Asia, or as it is commonly called, in the Middle East. Its territory is 185.2 thousand square meters. km (Golan Heights - about 1370 sq. km, occupied by Israel since 1967). The EGP and GGP of Syria are relatively favorable, it has its pros and cons. In the north, Syria borders with Turkey (border length 845 km), in the west with Lebanon (356 km) and Israel (74 km), in the east with Iraq (596 km), in the south with Jordan (356 km). In the northwest, for 183 km, the country's territory is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which Syria can carry out foreign economic relations. These are the advantages of the EGP and GGP of Syria. The climatic conditions in Syria are not favorable. The climate of Syria is subtropical, Mediterranean type. In the area of ​​the Mediterranean coast, the climate is maritime, with high rainfall; in the center of the country it is dry, continental. In the central part of the country, dry and hot summers give way to cold, harsh winters. There are sharp fluctuations in winter and summer temperatures, temperature fluctuations at night and during the day. High average annual air temperatures are typical for almost the entire country (for the Mediterranean coast + 19 degrees, the southeastern part of Syria - more than + 20 degrees, the rest of + 15-20 degrees). Only in mountainous areas located at an altitude of more than 1000 meters above sea level, the average annual temperature does not reach +15 degrees. Precipitation is distributed extremely unevenly across the country. Their greatest number is typical for the western and northern regions of the country, and in the eastern and southern regions their number sharply decreases. The greatest amount of precipitation is typical for the Mediterranean coast of Syria (600-900 mm per year, and on the slopes of the Ansaria mountain range - 1500 mm) and the mountainous regions of the country (over 1000 mm per year). In areas located inland, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 500 mm per year, because... mountain barriers prevent moist sea winds from penetrating there. On the steppe plateaus in the southeastern part of Syria, precipitation is reduced to 250-100 mm. In Syria, the prevailing winds are western and northwestern directions, which carry moisture from the Mediterranean Sea. However, in spring, early summer and autumn, a hot wind blows from the Arabian desert - khamsin. It carries with it a huge amount of sandy dust and raises the temperature by 10 - 15 degrees. Syria is not rich in mineral resources. Its territory contains mainly oil and phosphorite deposits. Therefore, Syria has to export raw materials. Syria also occupies an unfavorable position in relation to hot spots. Until recently, it itself was a hot spot. Syria's EGP has changed over time. The latest changes occurred in 1974, when Syria entered into an agreement with Israel, and part of its territory went to Israel. 6. Nature Most of Syria is an elevated plateau, the height of which above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 m. The western part of the plateau has a rather pronounced mountainous terrain. Here there are 2 ridges of mountain ranges, separated by a longitudinal depression - the Syrian graben 15-20 km wide; The El Asi (Orontes) river flows along its bottom. One of these massifs, located in the west, is called Ansaria, its highest point reaches 1562 m. This massif is almost parallel to the sea coast of the country. To the east of the El-Ghab depression stretches a group of mountain ranges: Jebel Akard, Ez-Zawiya, Jebel al-Sharqi and others. The slopes of these massifs drop steeply towards the El-Gab tectonic depression. In the northeast direction, low ridges extend from the Jebel al-Sharqi mountain range, some of which reach the Euphrates. These are the so-called Palmyrene mountain folds. The eastern, most of the territory of Syria, is occupied by a plateau 500-800 m high. Its southeastern part is called the Syrian Desert (a plateau with a monotonous landscape, also extending into the territory of Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia; its height above sea level is 650 m), and the northeastern one is the Jedira Desert. The surface of the desert is covered with a network of small valleys - wadis, often lost in vast depressions, in poorly defined folds of the relief. On the plateau there are groups of extinct volcanoes and individual flat-topped massifs. In the southwest of Syria, on the border with Jordan, the Ed-Druz massif stands out, in current Syrian cartography called Jebel al-Arab. The highest peak of this massif, Mount El Jeina, reaches 1803 m. Separated by mountain ranges from the interior of the country, the coastal plain, stretching from the Turkish border to Lebanon, is a narrow strip of land (no more than 32 km at its widest part), which is several In some places it almost completely disappears when the mountains directly reach the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers of Syria mainly belong to the basins of the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. The largest river in Syria is the Euphrates (in Arabic - Shattel-Firat). It starts in Turkey and crosses Syria from northwest to southeast for 675 km, after which it heads to Iraq. The width of the Euphrates Valley in Syria ranges from 4 to 15 km. In Syria, the Euphrates receives 2 left tributaries: Khabur (460 km) and Belikh (105 km). In previous years, the water level was mostly unstable, and frequent floods occurred, especially during the snowmelt period. However, since 1973, a giant dam built with the assistance of the USSR has made it possible to regulate the river’s flow. El Asi is the second largest river in Syria. It originates in Lebanon (in the Baalbek mountains) and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. El Asi flows through Syria for 325 km, crossing the country from south to north. This river is fed by mountain springs, melted snow and has significant reserves of water. The fertile plains of Homs, Hama, and El-Ghab are irrigated by the waters of this river. In some places the river forms lakes and swamps. The largest lake is Homs, the swamps are Asharna and Ghab. Syria's state border with Turkey and Iraq runs along the Tigris River (in Arabic Ed-Dijla) for 50 km. In the southwest of Syria flows the Barada River (71 km), which flows into Lake Buhair al-Utaiba. The waters of the Barada River irrigate the territory of the Damascus Ghouta oasis, where the capital of Syria, Damascus, is located. Syria also owns the right bank of the Yarmouk River, which borders Jordan. The vegetation in most of the country is desert and semi-desert in nature. It is represented by cereals, prickly herbs and shrubs, wormwood, astragalus, and spring ephemerals. The coastal strip of Syria is dominated by Mediterranean vegetation: evergreen oaks, laurels, myrtles, oleanders, and small cedar groves. There are many plantings of olive and mulberry trees, figs, citrus fruits, and grapes. Evergreen oaks and cypresses grow in the mountains; the higher parts of the mountains are covered with alpine vegetation. On the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge there are broad-leaved oak forests, as well as shrubs and low trees - scrub oaks and junipers, cypresses, pines, and cedar groves. The eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh ranges are dominated by shrubby mountain steppes, turning into semi-deserts in the lower mountain belt. The oases in the southeast are dominated by date palms and citrus fruits. Horticulture and viticulture are developed, cotton and subtropical crops are cultivated. In the Euphrates Valley, the remains of floodplain forests of poplar, tamarisk, and weeping Babylonian willow have been preserved. The fauna of Syria is relatively poor. The existence of small animals such as porcupine, hedgehog, squirrel, and hare is maintained at a minimum level. The most common species are rodents (gerbils, jerboas), predators (striped hyena, steppe lynx, panther, jackal), ungulates (onager, antelope, gazelle), reptiles (agama lizard, steppe boa), many snakes and chameleons. Many migratory birds settle for the winter in the Euphrates Valley and in some other areas of the country where there are open bodies of water. There you can find colonies of flamingos and storks. Seagulls and herons also nest there. Ducks, geese, and pelicans live on the banks of rivers and lakes. There are many birds in cities and villages - sparrows, pigeons, larks, cuckoos. Common birds of prey include eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls. 7. Population The demographic factor in Syria is having an increasingly active impact on the socio-economic development of the country and on addressing issues such as the growing needs for housing, medical care, employment, education, food, energy supply, etc. As of mid-1996, the country's population was 16,098 thousand people, including 8,075 thousand men and 8,023 thousand women. Among Arab countries, Syria stands out for having one of the highest birth rates (replacement rate over 3), high population growth (more than 3% per year) and belongs to the second type of reproduction, i.e., with high birth rates and relatively low mortality. An analysis of the dynamics of the demographic system over recent decades shows the intensity of population growth rates, accompanied by a constant decrease in the mortality rate for all age groups and an increase in average life expectancy. The age structure of the Syrian population retains features characteristic of most developing countries. In the mid-90s, people under the age of 14 made up 44.8% of the population, from 15 to 64 years old - 52%, from 65 years old and older - 4%. Thus, the age structure has the appearance of a regular pyramid, wide at the bottom (groups from 0 to 14 years old) and sharply narrowing at the top (persons over 65 years old). The average population density of Syria is 74 people per 1 sq. km. The current demographic situation in the country is directly related to the process of urbanization. Urban population growth occurs primarily in large cities. This situation is explained by the fact that recently there has been a significant outflow of rural residents to large cities and regional centers. An increase in the number of members of peasant families is not, as a rule, accompanied by an expansion of land allotment, as a result of which the labor productivity of those employed in the family farm decreases, periods of forced unemployment lengthen, dependence on side earnings increases, etc. The natural increase in the rural population increases the size of the agrarian overpopulation and encourages rural residents to migrate to cities. The ratio between the economically active and total population of the country is expressed by a threefold preponderance of the latter. This phenomenon is inherent in the demographic situation in the country throughout the last 20 years. In practice, this means that for every employed person there are on average three dependents. Such a high “demographic load” determines the relatively low level of the population involved in production and the low coefficient of productive use of national labor resources. Since by 2000 Syria, according to the plans of its leadership, should become a country of complete literacy (primary education is already considered compulsory) and since with an increase in the educational and cultural level in society there is a certain tendency towards a reduction in the birth rate, Syrian demographers suggest some possible slowdown in growth rates population of the country. But there are also a number of factors that have the opposite effect on these rates. Thus, these include, for example, urbanization, since in urban conditions the health care system functions much better than in rural areas, and, consequently, the mortality rate in general, and in children in particular, decreases. Eliminating illiteracy, especially among women, leads to the same results, since it has been established that children of an illiterate mother, who also does not possess basic sanitary and hygienic skills, die due to lack of proper care 2 times more often than those of a literate mother. The vast majority of the Syrian population (up to 90%) are Arabs. Syrian statistics do not keep records of the population by nationality, but, according to some data, in the mountainous regions of the country, east and northeast of Aleppo, there are at least 700 thousand. Kurds are the largest national minority in Syria. The country is also home to about 120 thousand Armenians - descendants of ancient settlers and refugees from Turkey, living mainly in Aleppo, Damascus and Hasakah. In addition, about 4 thousand Jews live in Syria, mainly in Damascus and Aleppo. Circassians, Assyrians, Turkmens, Turks, and Aisors also live. The official language is Arabic. Administratively, the country is divided into 14 governorates (muhafazat). 8. Economy Syria inherited an extremely backward economy from its colonial past. Foreign capital, mainly French, which controlled the main sectors of the country's economy, hampered the development of productive forces and production relations. Agriculture, the basis of the Syrian economy, was characterized by a low level of productive forces and the dominance of semi-feudal relations. Industrial production in the country was very poorly developed: it was represented mainly by light industry. After Syria gained political independence in 1946, the country began to take measures aimed at eliminating the severe consequences of colonialism, and the development of the national economy began. Syria was the first country in the Arab East to take the path of nationalizing enterprises owned by foreign monopoly capital. Under popular pressure, already in the early 50s, many railways and foreign electricity production companies were nationalized, and the share of foreign capital in local companies was limited to 50%. As a result, already at the end of 1957, almost all sectors of the economy that had previously been dominated by foreign capital (tobacco companies, railways, power plants, bank of issue, etc.) became state property. In 1963, all foreign and local banks, as well as insurance companies, were completely nationalized. As a result, the public sector has assumed a dominant position in Syria. Currently, it accounts for about 50% of national income, approximately 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets. At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies is prohibited. However, in recent years, the Syrian leadership has taken steps to liberalize the economy and enhance the activities of the private sector, which accounts for 25% of the cost of industrial production and which occupies a dominant position in agriculture, retail trade, and the service sector , motor transport, housing construction. For the purpose of economic development of the country, foreign capital is attracted, primarily in the form of financial assistance from oil-producing Arab countries and a number of Western states. The annual increase in gross national product (GNP) is 5 – 7%. Foreign exchange reserves – 4 billion US dollars. External debt (excluding military debt) – 6 billion US dollars. 8.1. Industry Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the country's industrialization issues. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the country's socio-economic development. Since the 70s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials. In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries. Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products. Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of supplying the latter. The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 90s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%. The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people. Mining of main minerals (thousand tons) | |1980 |1985 |1990 |1995 | |Oil, million tons |8.3 |8.5 |27.3 |34.3 | |Phosphates |1319 |1224 |1469 |1598 | |Rock salt |90 |106 |74 |111 | |Natural asphalt |89 |62 |67 |108 | |Gypsum |… |128 |183 |336 | |Building stone, cube. m |1991 |576 |1276 |1358 | Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years. The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%. The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country. By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are under development and operation. Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under risk service contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies. By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon. Over the past few years, Syria has stepped up its gas production activities. The traditional activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m. In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Djebissi field. The Palmyra region is considered the most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power station near the city of Hama. Phosphate mining plays a significant role in the Syrian economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Khneifns and Sharkiyya fields. Field development is carried out by Romania, Poland, and Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates have a high chlorine content (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special capacities for their washing. Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400 - 500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are considered to be Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%). Among other minerals, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined in Syria. Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant runs on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The Baniyas plant with a capacity of 6 million tons per year is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20–50%). During the 80s, the oil refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular by producing 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year. The traditional sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for just under 20% of gross manufacturing output. This industry employs more than 50% of the workers employed in all major industry in the country. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the primary use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton production industry. The overwhelming majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They produce mainly sheet linen, flannel, shirting, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of textile enterprises in the public sector is carried out by the General Organization "Unitekstil". The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based primarily on imported raw materials. The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and underwear has developed quite significantly in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 factories, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment. Approximately 1.5 dozen state textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms. The wide scope of capital construction necessitated the need for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at accelerating the development of the cement industry. The total cement production capacity in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest factories in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons). The production of building materials is established at a ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary products and at some other enterprises. The chemical and petrochemical industries play an increasingly important role in the economic life of the country. Among the products they produce, phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted. Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 80s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year was put into operation. In 1983, a plant for processing 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products. The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned paints and chemicals company Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products. Syria devotes an important place to the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce products such as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects in this area are associated with increasing capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib. The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets. The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cottonseed, sesame, olive, flaxseed and some other types of vegetable oils. Relatively new branches of Syrian industry include: mechanical engineering, electronics, and electrical engineering. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is based largely on the use of imported raw materials, materials, components and components, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the relevant enterprises. 8.2. Agriculture Although absolute indicators characterizing the state of agriculture are growing, relative indicators are noticeably decreasing, reflecting the process of economic diversification, indicating the transformation of the country from an agricultural one to an agro-industrial one. The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) is 17%, its products account for 15% of the country's exports, but it still employs the majority of the population - 53%. Land suitable for agriculture in Syria amounts to 6.1 million hectares. At the same time, irrigated lands reach 1.09 million hectares, rainfed lands - about 3.4 million hectares, 1.5 million hectares are allocated for fallow, and more than 500 thousand hectares are not cultivated. Pastures spread over 8.3 million hectares, forest lands over 523 thousand hectares, rocky soils and sandstones over 3 million hectares, swamps and lakes over 116 thousand hectares. Conditions for agricultural production are only relatively favorable and stable harvests are obtained only from irrigated areas. In order to better use the land fund and to determine priority areas in the development of agriculture, Syria was divided into 5 “agricultural stabilization zones” depending on the amount of precipitation and the duration of the rainy season. The first zone includes territories with precipitation over 350 mm and is divided into 2 areas: with precipitation over 600 mm and with precipitation within 350 - 600 mm, where it is possible to collect 2 harvests of wheat, legumes and other summer crops per season 1 time in 3 of the year. The second zone covers areas with precipitation of 250 - 350 mm, where conditions are created for collecting 2 harvests of barley in one season, and wheat, legumes and other summer crops are also grown. The third zone extends to areas with precipitation of at least 250 mm for at least six months, which ensures the collection of 1-2 barley harvests at least once every 3 years. The fourth zone includes lands where precipitation does not exceed 200–250 mm for six months and where barley and forage grasses are grown. The fifth zone includes areas where rain-fed agriculture is impossible. Such a classification of lands was the first step towards identifying the most promising lands, through the intensification of which success in the rise of agriculture can be ensured. Another direction in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production is strengthening its material and technical base by accumulating funds in capitalist-type farms, cooperative and state ones. Nowadays, serious changes have been achieved in the agricultural sector in terms of its technical equipment. There are about 50 thousand tractors of various capacities and 3 thousand combines. In addition, 80 thousand pumps, 65 thousand modern plows, more than 6 thousand seeders, 3 thousand stationary threshers, 25 thousand mechanical sprinklers and about 1 thousand sprayers, not counting thousands of manual ones, are used. An important event was the laws on the organization of agrarian relations and on agrarian reform (1958), which limited the degree of feudal exploitation of peasants, regulated rent, hiring procedures, and stipulated some measures of social protection for ordinary commodity producers. Syrian agriculture is developing as a non-monocultural orientation - 75 types of crops are harvested annually - and provides a wide range of food and industrial crops. Cultivated lands are distributed under different types of products as follows: - - up to 50% are cereals; - 3% pulses; - 5% vegetables and melons; - 4% technical - 1% fodder - 11% fruit. Almost 1/3 of the cultivated area remains fallow. In crop production, the most common type of commercial product is cereals, the largest areas under which are occupied by wheat, the main food crop. The historical wheat growing areas are the northeastern regions - Hasakah, Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa, including the plains of Al-Jazeera, Hauran, as well as Homs and Hama. Wheat is sown mainly in dry land, the yields of which are largely dependent on weather conditions and are therefore unstable. However, there is a tendency towards slow yield growth due to the adoption of more advanced technologies, improved soil cultivation, the use of varietal seeds, and the introduction of new social forms of production organization. The next most important crop in the country's grain balance is barley, the main cultivation areas of which are formed around Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Hasak, Deir ez-Zor on land that is somewhat even larger than the area under wheat. The third place in the production of grains, although in significantly smaller quantities compared to the above-mentioned crops, is occupied by corn, the area under which tends to increase. Sorghum has long occupied a prominent place in the country's grain balance. For decades, it was one of the most common crops cultivated in the foothills in rain-fed areas. Its popularity was determined by the high degree of cereal utilization and resistance to weather conditions. However, due to rising living standards and changing nutrition standards, this plant is gradually being forced out of peasant fields. Since the 70s, persistent attempts have been made to cultivate rice in Syria. The main experiments with this crop are carried out on abundantly irrigated lands in the Euphrates Valley in specially created farms as part of a pilot project. Predominantly early ripening forms with good taste are being introduced. The inclusion of rice in the local cereal assortment is caused by its high marketability, the need to reduce imports and diversify the diet of the population. However, so far, despite favorable forecasts, there is no noticeable evidence in Syria of the completion of experiments and the transition to rice production on an expanded basis. Leguminous crops are cultivated in relatively small quantities, mainly for domestic consumption. The most popular crop is lentils, which are unpretentious to growing conditions; food and feed varieties of which are constantly in high demand on the market. The main area of ​​its production is Aleppo governorate, although focal crops are also found in other areas. A large place in the crops of grain legumes is given to peas, which in some years surpass lentils in terms of such an indicator as cropland. Other types of legumes are also cultivated for food purposes, in particular beans, beans, and some local varieties of legumes. The structure of agricultural production includes the production of grasses, which form a certain share of the feed fund. The main grass crop is vetch, harvested for grain and hay. Its cultivation areas stretch from north to south along the Aleppo-Derya line. In addition to the vetch, Arabian lupine is widespread. On a smaller scale, the production of alfalfa and clover is practiced, the crops of which occupy mainly the inter-row spaces in garden farms. In general, 40 - 60 thousand people are annually planted with forage grasses in Syria. ha. Syria produces 12 types of industrial crops. Among them, the leading role belongs to cotton. Over the past 10 years, the area under cotton has amounted to 140–180 thousand hectares, although previously it was significantly small. The largest areas of crops are located in the Euphrates Valley; approximately a quarter of the gross cotton harvest occurs in the foothills area between Aleppo and Homs; a relatively small part of the crop is harvested from plantations in the Latakia governorate. Since the beginning of the 80s, there has been a consistent increase in harvests, which do not fall below 400 thousand tons. The second largest crop under cultivation is sesame, cultivated mainly in the Euphrates Valley, between Raqqa and Abu Kemal and partly in the governorates of Homs, Hama, and Latakia. Syria is known as a major producer of world-famous varieties of tobacco, and tobacco growing is an important branch of agriculture. About 14 thousand hectares are occupied by tobacco crops, and its production averages 20 thousand tons and is concentrated mainly in the Latakia governorate. Tobaccos of the “Latakian” group are especially valued in European markets, and a variety of local tobacco, tumbak, is used by nargile smokers in many Eastern countries. Beet growing is also a promising branch of agriculture. The country faces an acute problem of increasing sugar production, and therefore expanding crops and increasing yields is an urgent task. In the mid-70s, the demand prevailed to increase beet plantings by reducing the area under other crops, in particular cotton. Nowadays, beets are grown in the western part of the country - Homs, El-Gaba, Tell Salhab, as well as in the east, in the Euphrates Valley, on areas of 30 - 33 thousand hectares. Sugar cane is also cultivated on land of comparable size. Other industrial crops are also grown, in particular sunflowers, peanuts, Indian sorghum, used for knitting mats and brooms, caraway seeds, anise, and some others on small areas. Syria is a large producer of vegetable and melon crops, of which the list of only the main ones includes up to 25 species. Cultivated forms differ in terms of ripening, and therefore enter the market evenly throughout a significant part of the year. The area occupied by them is stable and averages 260 thousand hectares over a number of years. Based on the size of the allotted wedge (about 70%), watermelons, tomatoes, potatoes, melons, cucumbers, cabbage, and okra stand out sharply. Their harvest is sold mainly on the domestic market. Syria is also a traditional center of horticulture, where 20 types of fruit crops are cultivated on an area exceeding 600 thousand hectares. The most ancient and widespread is the olive culture, which is extremely diverse in quality and appearance, the plantings of which are systematically growing and now reach 400 thousand hectares. The areas of its production stretch along the coast, located in the foothills, partly on mountain slopes. Syria is one of the largest centers of viticulture. The main plantations of this crop (67 thousand hectares) are concentrated in the governorates of Aleppo, Idlib, Es-Suwayda, and Homs. The most popular are local varieties with large, light berries and high taste. There are more than 50 million vines in the country. Among other horticultural crops, the most common are pistachios, apples, almonds, dates, and cherries. Growing attention is being paid to apricot, a promising export crop whose processed products - apricots and dried apricots - have medicinal properties. Of the citrus fruits, for which up to 20 thousand hectares are allocated, oranges stand out. Livestock farming is the second most important agricultural sector in Syria, developing, however, mainly on an extensive basis. The country's dairy herd numbers about 500 thousand heads, of which 60% are dairy cows. In general, the number of cattle, including camels, ranges from 700 to 800 thousand heads. Small cattle are represented mainly by goats, the number of which is 1 - 1.2 million, and sheep, the number of which is extremely unstable and varies from 10 to 12 million heads in different years. There are also other types of livestock used for transporting goods or as tax, in particular horses and mules, the herd of which is declining and now amounts to 30 and 20 thousand heads, respectively, as well as donkeys, the number of which is maintained at the level of 190 - 200 thousand. Poultry farming as a highly profitable industry received an impetus for development in the 70s, when poultry farms of the capitalist type began to intensively take shape, most of them falling into the category of suburban farms. The total number of livestock now reaches 19 million. Geese and ducks are bred in small quantities, and turkeys and pigeons are bred in relatively large quantities. The base for the development of beekeeping in the form of 120 - 150 thousand hives is also preserved; individual farms also do not abandon the traditional occupation for Syria in previous times associated with the breeding of silkworms. Fishing still occupies a modest place in the structure of agricultural production, although in recent years there has been an increase in the catch, now exceeding 11 thousand. tons per year. At the same time, sea fishing is losing ground to river fishing, which provides more than 75% of the total production of fisheries. 9. Transport Transport in Syria is poorly developed. Road transport plays a vital role in the transportation of goods and passengers within the country. The movement of passenger and cargo flows is now carried out along a single network of roads, which continues to be improved. Historically, the road system was mainly concentrated in the western part of the country along the Mediterranean coast and along the north-south axis, which met economic needs and was determined by the level of economic development of the territories located here. The main transport arteries of the country stretch from the Turkish border to the Jordanian along the line Bab-el-Khawa - Hama - Homs - Damascus - Daraa (470 km), from the Turkish border to the Lebanese - Kassab - Latakia - Baniyas - Tartus (170 km) and further to Tripoli, Beirut, Saidu, from the Lebanese border to the Iraqi one - Damascus - Abu Shamat (300 km) to Baghdad. In the 70s and 80s, the length of roads with improved surfaces increased significantly. Nowadays, the length of asphalt concrete highways reaches almost 40 thousand km. The development of the road network was accompanied by an increase in the vehicle fleet. In the second half of the 90s, there were up to 490 thousand transport units of all types in the country. Compared to 1980, by the end of the decade the number of pickups, minibuses, and trucks had increased significantly. 35% of vehicles and about 50% of passenger cars are concentrated in Damascus and the capital governorate. The country's vehicle fleet is diverse. There is a large share of Japanese cars in it, and there is a certain number of cars of Western European brands. Rail transport in the national transport system ranks second after road transport, although it appeared in Syria much earlier: the first Damascus-Beirut railway line was opened in 1885. Historically, two centers of railway construction developed in Syria: in the southern part, connected with Lebanon, a narrow gauge was laid, in the north a standard gauge was used. As a result, the road network was artificially broken. In 1995, the Syrian government bought out all the existing railways that were in the hands of foreign capital and later began building a network of roads that met international standards. Currently, the construction of the Tartus-Latakia line is underway, and the construction of the Damascus-Deraa and Deir ez-Zor-Abu Kamal railways is planned. The total length of the country's railways is now about 3 thousand km. Aviation transport began to develop in Syria in the second half of the 60s. The limited national territory and the relatively small needs for transporting people and cargo by air are factors that significantly constrain the use of air transport on domestic routes. Nevertheless, local air routes connect not only Damascus, Aleppo, El-Qamishli, Latakia, Deir ez-Zor, Tadmor, Homs, where there are corresponding airfields and flight support services, but also some other settlements in which takeoff and landing facilities have been built sites. Moreover, all flights are carried out from the center to the periphery and back along linear routes, and provincial cities are not connected with each other. Civil aviation, which was initially created through the efforts of the state, is under the jurisdiction of the state organization “El-Khutut El-Jawiya Essuriyya” - “Sirienair”. In the mid-90s, the national aircraft fleet consisted of 12 aircraft, serviced by Syrian crews. By the beginning of the 80s, Damascus International Airport (about 30 km from the capital) was fully operational, equipped with the latest technology and capable of receiving the most modern airliners, including Airbuses, and processing large quantities of cargo. The airfield has two runways 2.6 and 2.7 km long and 60 m wide. The airport's capacity is 2 million passengers per year. Water transport has not become widespread in Syria. Despite the presence of inland reservoirs and rivers, there is practically no river navigation in the country due to the irregularity of flow and the turbulent nature of the rivers. Even on the most full-flowing Euphrates, river transportation is carried out mainly on short routes. Syria's own maritime transport, although landlocked, is in its infancy and consists mainly of a few medium-tonnage bulk carriers moving within the Mediterranean basin. The functions of the small fleet are limited to cabotage transportation in the sea section from Turkey to Lebanon. The main volume of trade export-import operations is carried out through Latakia and Tartus - large national ports, as well as Baniyas, used as an oil terminal. Pipeline transport is represented primarily by oil pipelines for the transit pumping of crude oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean coast. The three routes on the Kirkuk-Tripoli route were built at different times in the 30s, 40s and 60s. In the 50s, the Kirkuk - Baniyas and Abqaiq - Saida lines were laid. The duplication of oil pipelines was caused by the low throughput of the first lines, a disadvantage that was eliminated by increasing the diameters of subsequent ones. The country has created a network of inland oil pipelines to transport liquid carbohydrates from production sites to processing sites in Homs and Baniyas and for delivery to the oil terminal at the port of Baniyas. In 1968, the main line Karachuk - Homs - Tartus was built with a length of 650 km and a throughput capacity of 8 million tons per year. 10. Foreign economic relations Foreign trade plays a big role in the economic life of Syria. The weak development of industry makes the country extremely dependent on the import of a wide range of industrial goods. Syria completely covers its needs for machinery and equipment, means of transport, ferrous metals and many other types of industrial products through imports. On the other hand, due to the one-sided development of agriculture, Syria depends on the export of many types of agricultural products. General trade results, million sires. f., current prices |Year |Export |Import |Turnover |Balance |% coverage | | | | | | |import | | | | | | |export | |1970 |775 |1365 |2140 |-590 |56.8 | |1975 |3440 |6236 |9676 |-2796 |55.2 | |1980 |8273 |16188 |24461 |-7915 |51.1 | |1985 |6427 |15570 |21997 |-9143 |41.3 | |1990 |47282 |26936 |74218 |+20346 |175.5 | |1995 |44562 |52856 |97418 |-8294 |84.3 | The main export items were and remain food, raw materials and fuel, which in the 70s - 90s accounted for an average of over 75% of the total export value. An increasingly prominent role in Syria's exports is played by the export of chemical goods, equipment and finished industrial products. The country's exports included such products as dyes, plastics, detergents, perfumes, equipment for digging wells, winches, electrical equipment and household appliances, metal products, etc. But in the commodity structure of industrial exports, the main place was occupied by cotton yarn, shoes, and various textiles. goods, food industry products, cement, etc., that is, technologically simple goods. Despite the fact that the export of fuel has taken the main place in the country's exports, Syria is still forced to import oil and petroleum products in ever-increasing quantities. This is explained by the fact that the country for a long time received light oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and therefore its plants were built with the expectation of processing imported light oil, and not its own heavy oil. Another important import item is finished industrial products, the import of which accounts for on average 20–22% of the total import value. The main place in it is occupied by the rolling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, metal structures, scientific instruments and instruments. Developed capitalist states in the 70s - 90s occupied a leading place in Syria's foreign trade. They accounted for over 50% of the total value of Syrian trade. Syria supplies these countries with oil, some agricultural goods (dried onions, legumes, tobacco, cotton) and finished industrial products (cotton fabrics and yarn, clothing, handicrafts, perfumes). Syrian imports from this group of states are wide and varied - from various machines and equipment to household electrical appliances and lighters. Syria's largest trading partners are the states of the European Community (EU), primarily Italy, Germany, France - 35-40% of Syria's total trade. The US accounts for 4–5% of the total value of Syrian trade, and Japan 3–4%. Syria is also taking steps to develop trade relations with other groups of states, primarily with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are regular buyers of not only traditional Syrian export goods, but also oil and petroleum products, industrial and consumer goods (artificial fabrics, sulfuric and sulfurous acids , triple superphosphate, transformers, etc.). In solving the problems of expanding trade turnover and increasing exports, Syria pays special attention to the development of trade and economic relations with developing countries. Syria's main trading partners among the liberated states have traditionally been Arab countries. A characteristic feature of Syria's foreign trade policy in the 70s - 90s was protectionism. The country applied various forms of foreign trade regulation, but the most important were licensing, exchange controls and non-tariff restrictions. Along with trade, Syria also uses other forms of economic relations with foreign countries. The most widespread are credit and financial cooperation, the participation of foreign firms and companies in the development of the country's natural resources, the construction of various production facilities, the purchase and implementation of modern technology, the provision of engineering services, the creation of mixed enterprises, and the training of Syrian specialists. At the same time, Syria practices concluding intergovernmental agreements on economic, credit, financial, scientific and technical cooperation on a bilateral and multilateral basis. Recently, tourism has been actively developing (profit in 1995 - 150 million US dollars) 11. Cities. 11.1 Damascus. Damascus is especially good in spring. The gardens of the oasis are buried in a white and pink veil of blossoms. A light breeze carries the subtlest aromas of herbs and flowers. The Arabs say that when the Prophet Muhammad created pictures of paradise, he took Ghouta as a model. In the center of this huge flowering garden at the foot of Mount Kasyun lies the most ancient capital of the world. The city keeps many unsolved secrets in its depths. In ancient times it was called “the beautiful and sacred light of the East.” He played an exceptional role in the formation of many civilizations. “Damascus looked upon the ruins of a hundred empires... old Damascus should rightfully be called the eternal city,” wrote Mark Twain. This city is an important page in the ancient history of the Middle East. It is mentioned in Egyptian texts of the 18th dynasty of the pharaohs, on Assyrian tablets, and in the Bible. But the city truly went down in history during the era of Solomon. During this period, it became the capital of the Aramaic state. From that distant era, only one material monument remains - a basalt slab with a bas-relief. It was discovered during the restoration of the Umayyad mosque. The slab stood at the base of the wall of the northern part of the city. The bas-relief depicts a sphinx with a goatee, folded wings and a double crown on her head. A small apron hangs between its clawed paws. Judging by the nature of the execution, the work belongs to Phoenician masters. In the southwest of the city wall rises the Nur-ed-Din Tower, a typical Muslim fortification structure. The blocks of the lower part are much larger than those that lie above. The tower, preserved since 1168, bears traces of numerous reconstructions. On the site of two ancient Roman gates, Nur-ed-Din built the so-called Small and Southern Gates. Above the latter is a slab with a Kufic inscription stating that the atabek collects a fee from merchants going to Iraq and returning back. The gate is still decorated with a semicircular arch. The modern Christian district of Damascus, Bab Toum, is widely known for its hospital, shops, and clean, green streets. Its name comes from the name of the gate built under the Ayyubids on the site of the ancient Roman ones in 1128. The monumental gate, which attracts the attention of tourists, is an example of Muslim fortification architecture. They stand almost in the center of the modern city, and once served a protective function. The remains of the destroyed battlement wall adjacent to the gate have been preserved. The people called the northern gate - Bab es-Salami - the Gate of Salvation: it was especially difficult for the enemy to penetrate the city through them, since the high-water Barada and numerous trees interfered. Adjacent to the Bab Sharqi gate is an area with narrow streets, old houses made of clay and stone with a characteristic overhanging second floor. The sound of hammers can be heard from small workshops. Famous Damascus artisans live here. The fame of their products has long been worldwide. Boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl are interspersed with huge or very small tray dishes. Turned pitchers with thin necks stand next to a coffee pot and cups in yellow metal stands with oriental designs. A tourist who accidentally gets here can see robes embroidered with gold threads, the famous damask brocade, and pointed leather slippers with curved toes. The numerous mosques of Damascus create a unique flavor. In 1213, the Ayyubids built their first mosque - Jami Muzaffari, which repeated the Umayyad mosque in plan. There is also a courtyard with a swimming pool in the center, surrounded by porticoes with ancient Corinthian columns. The courtyard is a piece of living nature - a necessary part of mosques. The Koran says: “And let plants and waters unite with human creation, as part of one nature, erected by the hand of Allah...” A square minaret rises above the northern entrance of the mosque. The prayer hall is divided by two rows of arcades, which create a feeling of lightness and airiness. Above each of the seven doors there is a wooden rubber grate. On the stone mihrab there remains a trace of an ornament once painted with oil paint. The Jami at-Tabua Mosque was built in 1234, burned down in 1299, and then rebuilt. Once upon a time there was a caravanserai in its place, which was notorious. It was liquidated, again using the plan of the Umayyad mosque, and Jami at-Tabua was built. The spacious courtyard is surrounded by porticoes. A prayer hall stretches along the southern wall. What is striking is the poverty of the interior, bare walls, lack of decoration, which is very typical of the architecture of that period. Only the mihrab of this mosque is revered as one of the most perfect mihrabs in Damascus. It stands out against the background of dull walls with its fine stone carvings and bright floral and geometric patterns. The sides are decorated with thin twisted columns. Above the mihrab itself there is a voluminous arch, decorated with an interlacing of flower garlands. Under the arch there are two square carved plates, between them there is a medallion made with great skill. The heart of Damascus is the Umayyad Mosque. Its extensive courtyard is limited by a vaulted gallery on three sides. In the fourth there is a prayer hall. We pass a domed pavilion with thin columns where the treasury was once kept. Heading to the prayer hall, we pass by a traditional fountain and ablution pool. Two rows of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which were once gilded, form three aisles. There is a massive dome above the center of the hall. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with inlay and carvings. This is a brilliant example of Muslim applied art. A round staircase leads to a white marble pulpit. In the eastern part of the prayer hall there is a marble pavilion in which, according to legend, the head of John the Baptist rests. The tomb of the saint is equally respected by both Christians and Muslims. The tombstone is a masterpiece of oriental art, as is the large mihrab at the southern wall. Speaking about the Umayyad Mosque, one cannot fail to mention its three minarets. In the south-eastern corner of the Christian temple, a tower has been preserved, the so-called Jesus Minaret. The southwestern minaret, built, like the first, on one of the towers of the former Temple of Jupiter, arose in the 15th century and retains features of the Egyptian style. And finally, in the northern part is the Bride’s Minaret, the oldest, created in the Umayyad period, with the exception of the upper part, which arose in recent times. Through the northern door, decorated with bronze reliefs, we leave the courtyard of the mosque. We walk along the Byzantine colonnade, passing two ancient madrassas. Before us is the tomb of Salah ad-Din, a talented commander and ruler who liberated this land from the crusaders. Under the corrugated dome there are two tombstones - Salah ad-Din and his companion. The frieze of the building is decorated with verses from the Koran, made in the manner of Kufic writing, and all four sides are decorated with stone carvings repeating geometric motifs. The tomb as a whole is an example of decorative art from the Ayyubid period. Its appearance changed somewhat at the end of the 19th century. Almost every stone in Damascus bears the stamp of history. It is strange that behind these ancient walls a completely modern city is noisy. From the Hamidiye market we get to another one - Souq al-Harir. There was once a famous silk bazaar here. And nearby are the domes of the old Khan Gumrok, where, after long caravan journeys, merchants and travelers found peace and relaxation. Adjacent to this inn are the 17th-century baths, now partially dismantled and converted into market premises. Among the historical monuments of old Damascus, the Azema Palace, built in the 18th century by one of the rulers of Damascus, occupies a special place. The palace is unique in that it provides examples of all types of Syrian decorative art. Having examined it, you can get a complete picture of the arrangement of rooms and the interior decoration of the famous Syrian palaces, their male and female halves, and the beauty of the high walls, decorated with inlaid wood and marble. You can listen to the melodious murmur of the fountains in the small courtyard and sit in the shade of lemon and orange trees. Nowadays a folk art museum has been created here. The number of visitors is growing from year to year. From Mount Qasyoun you can see the whole of Damascus. In the center is a gray mass of closely huddled houses, high arrows of minarets and towers. Closer to the outskirts there are streets surrounded by greenery. Once upon a time there were magnificent gardens here, and there is still a mention of them in the names of the avenues. For example, Abu Rummani is one of the most beautiful streets in the city. Her mansions are hidden among the trees, and each is completely different from the other. They are decorated with cast-iron gratings, wavy ribbons of balconies, picturesque tiny courtyards with bright spots of well-groomed flower beds. Almost every street or district of Damascus bears traces of history. This is Maliki Street, lined with multi-storey modern buildings and overlooking the square where there is a monument to the fighter for the national independence of Syria, Colonel Maliki. The architecture of Damascus is a unique synthesis of the latest international trends with elements of oriental decor. The buildings of the old part of the city are unique. They are distinguished by massive walls and huge portals. In the 1930s, reinforced concrete structures began to be used in construction. This is how the Oryan Palace hotel was built, facing the mountains with wide verandas. The hotel rooms are connected to the outside world by a glazed door with an openwork barrier, which is very practical in hot climates. Open verandas cascade down. Their iron grilles are simple in design, as is the slab of the crowning cornice, which blocks the sheer rays of the sun. Damascus is rich not only in traces and finds of thousands. It is the capital of a young country, open to modern cultural, economic and social aspirations, a country walking the path of peace and progress. The leading sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry. Damask fabrics have always been the glory of the country. The large state-owned plants “Khumasiya” and “Debs” are also known abroad. Wandering in the narrow streets adjacent to Hamidiyya, you can come across the following sight: a gray-haired man in a loose shirt sits at a primitive machine, his hands move quickly, and before our eyes meters of blue silk fabric, in demand among tourists, appear before our eyes. Such craft enterprises still exist. And there are quite a few of them yet. The most beautiful landscapes and ancient architectural monuments in the vicinity of Damascus, once seen, cannot be forgotten. This most beautiful sight gave rise to many poetic lines, and among them the verses of the most popular modern Arab poet Rashid al-Yassin: O Damascus, I admire you! I love the spaciousness of your morning streets, the splashes of the first rays and the scent of gardens, and when in the evenings over the caps of the mountains the crimson sunset blazes, illuminating the golden minaret in the distance, O Damascus, I admire you! The lyrical mood is born not only among poets. Damascus, the ancient and modern capital, remains in the heart of everyone who has visited here. 11.2 Latakia. Latakia is the largest port in Syria. The life of the port reflects the life of the country. New trends are pushing aside old traditions. Every morning, huge trucks carrying technical equipment for construction sites, timber, cars and other Syrian imports leave the port gates. They travel deep into the country: to Aleppo, Deir ez-Zor, far to the north, where the oil refining and oil production industry is developing. The bustle, the usual business noise, the roar in the port give way to relative silence: it’s time for lunch. Workers go to the tap and wash their hands and faces. Having laid a scarf on the ground, they kneel, turn their faces towards Mecca and begin prayer. Then they slowly unwrap the bundle of food: unleavened flatbread, olives, a little laban (thick sour milk). The sacred hour of eating has arrived. Small traders deliver “Arab sandwiches” on homemade carts. This is the most popular food in Syria. There are fruits on the trays, and in summer there is a chilled date drink in jugs. The ice is crushed and placed in these jugs right here, right on the pavement. Like most seaside towns, the streets of Latakia run upward towards the hill where the Crusader fortress once stood. The red glare of the rising sun plays in the windows of the houses. Lots of new buildings. In recent years, the city has changed beyond recognition. The houses are multi-story, with tiers of balconies. The first floors attract attention with numerous display windows of new stores. Relatively wide streets with architecturally interesting houses crowd the old town. But they are all directed towards the sea, the layout has remained the same since Hellenic times. The history of the city goes back to an even more distant era. During the time of the Phoenicians there was a small harbor here. Ancient coins brought to us the image of a ship passing under the Latakian lighthouse, loaded with bread. The city at that distant time was the center of the Phoenician state of Ugarit and was located seven kilometers from the modern city. Then it was alternately owned by the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. Alexander the Great conquered it after his victory at Issus. During the Seleucid period, it became one of the largest in the country along with Antioch and Apamea. Latakia the city was named by Seleucus I in honor of his mother. The city flourished during the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Beautiful buildings and temples were surrounded by green gardens and vineyards. The old part of the city is still decorated with the Triumphal Arch, through which the valiant Roman legionaries passed, the chariots of the emperors passed, accompanied by slaves in chains. Among the fragments of the arch's ornament are the helmets of legionnaires and their weapons. The ancient colonnade has also been preserved. It offers views of the city and the sea. The sky is visible between the slender columns. At different times of the day, the circle of columns is illuminated differently by the sun, creating a feeling of perpetual motion. The construction site was chosen impeccably. In the 5th – 6th centuries, the city was shaken by two strong earthquakes, which destroyed many buildings, temples, colonnades, which were the pride of the inhabitants. The city also suffered during numerous new attempts to take control of it. Arab caliphs and Byzantine emperors, Seljuk Turks and crusaders fought for it. The city was attacked, robbed, burned, but he continued to live. During the French Mandate it becomes the capital of the Alawite state. When the last French soldier left the land of Latakia, the city was reborn to a new life. Traces of past eras, side by side with modernity, create an originality of a special kind. In the old part of the city there are narrow streets and long blank stone fences. From time to time, figures covered from head to toe in black flash under the arches. This area has preserved the features of the first centuries of Islam. Above the labyrinth of streets and dead ends rises the most beautiful mosque in the city - Moghrabi, or Moroccan, built in the last century. Twenty-eight steps lead up. In the small courtyard there is a fountain and the remains of an antique column. The walls of the prayer hall are decorated with typical Muslim ornaments: intertwined plant branches, flowers of fairy gardens, but nowhere is there a single figure of a person or animal. The floors are marble with an alternating black and white pattern. Around the courtyard there are small rooms-cells. This is a madrasah. Behind the walls of Mograbi is an old cemetery. On the opposite side of the street is a tiny hotel with modest rooms around a courtyard. From the top platform of Mograbi you can see the whole of Latakia. New features are visible. The buildings of two faculties of the University of Latakia have recently been erected. Several new hotels have appeared. The mild Mediterranean climate, historical monuments, and sea beaches contribute to the development of tourism, which in the near future should become an important source of foreign currency. The doors of the cafe are welcomingly open, where oriental cuisine is presented in all its diversity. The fleet of passenger cars, brightly colored and loud, has increased. Just like many centuries ago, the busiest place in the city in the early morning is the market. Under wooden canopies covered with mats, piles of apples, oranges, lemons are laid out, the indispensable greens without which not a single Syrian meal is complete. Buyers are mostly men. This is their family responsibility. The wife at home is busy taking care of her numerous offspring, and the husband, with a bag in his hand, walks around the market rows, concentrates and calmly prices the prices, clicks his tongue disapprovingly, feels the goods, and all this slowly, with knowledge of the matter and a certain pleasure. As the sun sets, the city becomes empty. He goes to sleep early. The only light is from street lamps and shops, where even at late hours trade is carried out, catering to arriving sailors. It’s hard to believe that just an hour ago the embankment was crowded with a crowd of people walking - whole families, flocks of pretty girls and separate groups of boys. If a girl and a boy go together, then they are certainly engaged. The young man only looks at the girl he likes from afar; he has no right to address her, much less walk along the embankment together. Parents often choose brides and grooms for their children, and they obediently agree. And often the bride and groom meet for the first time at their wedding. Divorce in Latakia is an extremely rare phenomenon. Everything is interesting in Latakia - its history, monuments of the past, traditions, and life of today. And everyone should visit this city. 11.3. Aleppo. Throughout its history, Aleppo witnessed a huge number of tragedies and was the scene of many fierce clashes and devastating raids of ancient peoples. Moaning and crying accompanied the crowds of those being taken into slavery. The walls of the ancient citadel could tell many stories about the courage of the city's inhabitants. During the period from X to XV alone, dozens of raids were carried out on the city. But the city continued to live, resisting not only the conquerors, but also the earthquakes that left their traces on it. The life of Syria over many centuries is reflected in the Aleppo Museum. It is located in the city center, in a bright house surrounded by a small garden. The fate of this building is symbolic. It was built during the French Mandate and was intended for the city municipality. However, political events have changed a lot. The Syrians began to govern the city, and by decision of the national city council the building was transferred to the museum. At the entrance to the museum, 3 huge figures made of gray stone support the portico. This is a triad from the ancient Aramaic city of Guzan - statues of two gods and a goddess. The massive feet of the gods trample the backs of animals. The composition is extremely expressive. The lions' mouths are grinning viciously, their eyes are sparkling, and the bull's horns are threateningly pointed forward. Disproportionally huge, with bright whites and black obsidianon pupils, the eyes of the gods make an indelible impression. Antiquity itself looks at us with these mystical eyes. The sculptures once supported the portico of the palace of an Aramean ruler. On the dress of the female deity Ishtar there is a cuneiform text: “This is the palace of Kapara. My grandfather and father died and became immortal, but they could not do what I did. If anyone erases my name in order to put his own, then let his seven sons be burned before Haddad (the main god of Guzana).” From the gates of the museum you can walk to the walls of the citadel, from which you can see the whole of Aleppo - a gray-yellow city, with arrows of minarets, domes of mosques, multi-story modern houses, the styles of eras are intricately mixed here. Aleppo has the world's longest covered market, which has remained largely unchanged for centuries. There is still a corporate system for selling spices, textiles, ropes, tents and other things in this huge market. What can you find here! In the gold rows you will be offered rings and earrings - ancient and latest models, chased belts, temple jewelry. Overhanging thick vaults create a special atmosphere. It is cool in summer, warm and dry in winter. The market stalls have not been rebuilt at all since the 15th century. And these shops look really unique. The narrow and long openings of the entrances are framed by wooden doors with colored patterns painted on them. To the side lies a huge castle, whose place has long been in a museum. The feeling of returning to the deep Middle Ages is complemented by the sight of the massive gate of the khan - an old caravanserai on the territory of the market. The vast courtyard where laden camels once stood is empty. The windows on the galleries surrounding the courtyard on four sides are boarded up. Now there are warehouses there. Not far from the market are the ancient gates of the city. There are many mosques and madrassas here. A beautiful portal decorated with stone carvings. This is the Sharafiya madrasah, built in 1242. Now this building houses a library, famous for storing rare manuscripts. There are white squares on the gray stones of the patio. One small one is in the center, the other larger one borders the first one. Among the numerous mosques, a special place is occupied by the Great Umayyad Mosque, which arose on the territory of a Christian temple, which in turn was built on the site of a pagan one, which is very typical for Syria. Above the mosque rises a slender square minaret, still considered the best in the city. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with expensive wood inlaid with ivory. Aleppo is the center of extensive agricultural areas. Therefore, it is here that numerous enterprises for processing olives, sugar beets, and producing juices, butter, and cheese are concentrated. The Aleppo brewery, which produces ASH-Sharq beer, is known throughout the country. The tractor plant is very popular, the products of which can be seen in the fields of the country. Aleppo is widely known for its cultural traditions. Many artists and composers, poets and writers came from this city. The concerts of the young composer, musician and singer Abed Azri invariably attract attention. This talented singer, with a beautiful and strong voice, has set to music several texts from the ancient epic poem of Gilgamesh, some Sufi poems, and modern poems by Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi poets. Abed Azri's music always draws on the best examples of Arabic poetry. And if poetry remains purely national, then music, in his opinion, should change and correspond to the spirit of the times: “We should not go back and use only our traditions. We must develop national music and, by developing it, bring it closer to life.” This is the artistic credo of Abed Azri. 12. What's interesting? 12.1 Krak de Chevalais – the castle of the knights. Syria is the only country in the east that has preserved crusader castles. They rise on the coast and in the mountains, presenting a unique architecture, being monuments to a distant, troubled time of battles and religious fanaticism of the famous crusades. Approaching the Krak des Chevaliers castle, you forget for a moment that you live in the 20th century. A narrow drawbridge, iron gates, numerous passages, and towers make you forget reality. It seems that you are about to hear the sound of horse hooves, the ringing of swords and the voices of knights. Krak des Chevaliers is the only restored crusader castle in Syria. It stands on a busy highway, 25 kilometers from the Latakia-Homs road. The citadel rises on a mountain, which overlooks a large area all the way to the sea. The site was carefully chosen by ancient architects. From the top platform you can see any movement on the road. Each of the fortress buildings is very unique in its architecture, interior, and the role it played in the life of the knights. The 12th-century chapel with lancet windows is a characteristic basilica of Western European type and does not resemble the Byzantine churches often found in Syria. During restoration work, a fresco depicting the Virgin Mary and Jesus was found here. The knights turned their gaze to her, begging for protection and patronage. With the exception of the fresco, the only bright spot, the interior of the chapel is restrained and spare. It reflects the atmosphere of life in the fortress. In the center of the fortress there is a semicircular tower with lower and upper halls. Light enters it through three huge windows. The adjacent buildings are a classic example of fortification art, with all the innovations that eastern architecture did not know. This is a terrace with crenellated parapets. This is a glacis - a flat stone embankment in front of the outer moat of the fortress, protecting Krak des Chevaliers from earthquakes and mines. It is not surprising that the fortress could not be taken during any siege. The stone towers of the fortress hide many unsolved secrets. One of these towers is called by the Arabs “the tower of the king’s daughter.” At the base it had a secret door. Another secret door led from the central tower to the moat. Halls with massive supporting pillars give way to a vaulted hall where there is a huge oven for baking bread. There are a lot of storage and residential premises on the numerous floors of the towers. In the courtyard of the fortress, overgrown with grass, there is water in huge tanks. By the way, these tanks are unique structures both in size and in the nature of their architecture. In the fortress they served not only as reservoirs, but also as anti-seismic structures, and sometimes served as storage and production facilities. Krak des Chevaliers gives a complete picture of the peculiarities of the original, gradually disappearing architecture. But how did the inhabitants of such castles live, what did they love and what were their hobbies? The ascetic life of the fortress, the monotony of this life, the constant longing for the homeland were expressed in poetry, only a few examples of which have survived to our time. Somewhere in Europe there remained a Beautiful Lady - an object of love and endless worship. Passion and a sense of duty fought in the knight’s soul, which found expression in the famous “Song of the Crusade” by Canon de Bethune, a direct participant in two campaigns: Alas, Love, why did you tell me to cross the threshold of the Most Beautiful One, who knew how to hold me for so many years for the last time? at your feet! And now the time for our separation has come... What am I saying? Only the body leaves, God called him to his service, And the heart belongs to her entirely. Grieving for her with an orphaned soul, I go to the holy land to the east. 12.2. “A city that has never been conquered since the creation of the world” The news does not leave the pages of the newspapers: “A stunning discovery in Ebla!”, “Archaeological discoveries in Northern Syria require a revision of ancient history,” “The history of the third millennium must be rewritten!” What happened? The lands south of the city of Aleppo are deserted. The dusty red hill of Tell Mardike, which had never before attracted attention, became world famous. Archaeologists from the University of Rome and representatives of the Syrian Archaeological Department, as a result of their work, discovered the ancient city of Ebla, the name of which was found in ancient Eastern writings. The climax of the excavations came when archaeologists opened part of the royal palace and found its archives. They were in that wing of the vast building where the king of ancient Elba received guests. The last “guest” of the archive room was fire, which destroyed the wooden shelves on which numerous tablets stood in a vertical position. The fired clay was not damaged. Long centuries, sand and dust covered the priceless property with a durable blanket. The Eblaite language turned out to be one of the Semitic languages. A dictionary of Eblaite and Sumerian words was found and this made the documents easier to read. This language is close to Phoenician, but is more than a thousand years older than it. The contents of the found tablets were especially important, as they recreated the history of the state. The tablets made it possible to reconstruct the life of the mysterious Ebla from 2400 to 2250 BC. e. Ebla was the capital of a large and highly cultural state, stretching from the eastern borders of Egypt to the Persian Gulf and covering the territory of modern Turkey. Economic contacts connected Ebla with the largest cities of the ancient world, with the island of Cyprus. The Ebla archive contains numerous records of commercial transactions and contracts. Administrative and legal texts made it possible to imagine how the city and the territory under its control were governed, how the economy, finance, trade, and tax system were organized. Ebla was a major trading center, widely known in the Eastern world. Under the authority of a special office there was a huge number of officials who checked the quality of goods sent and received and determined delivery times. A special information service reported where there is a need for this type of product. Ebla established a monopoly on the purchase and sale of the most valuable goods: precious metals, fabrics, wood, pottery. The state received large incomes from trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. A completely new, previously unknown state formation of the ancient East was discovered in Ebla. The ruler of Ebla depended on the council of elders, which included representatives of the richest families. The heir to the throne did not come to power immediately. He began his career as an ambassador to some state, as the governor of a city, and only then, if he turned out to be truly worthy, was he trusted to manage Ebla. He resolved important financial issues and concluded international treaties. The country paid great attention to education. The state strictly controlled teaching, the methods of which were borrowed from Mesopotamia. Numerous student works have survived to this day. By the way, the schools of Ebla in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Future civil servants were trained. Intense excavations yielded brilliant results. Under the Acropolis of Ebla, a part of the city was discovered with a monumental palace complex, spacious halls, a wooden colonnade, and a grand staircase. The unique fortification, palace, temple architecture, and remarkable monuments of fine art proved that the culture of Ebla, which developed under the influence of the more developed Mesopotamian culture, had in many ways its own, original character. One of the examples of applied art is a limestone bowl found during excavations. It has a quadrangular shape and was intended for ritual purposes. Basalt sculptures of deities, fragments of stones depicting processions of people following a fantastic animal, numerous interior details made with great art - all this is a small part of the wealth still hidden underground. Ebla did not have its own army. When necessary, it was hired. With the help of mercenaries, competing shopping centers were also captured. The tablets said that this is how the city on the middle reaches of the Euphrates was conquered, paying Ebla a huge ransom amount in gold and silver. However, Ebla was unable to defend itself with the help of mercenary troops. The tragedy occurred in 2250 BC. e. The troops of the Akkadian state moved to the rich, prosperous Ebla under the leadership of the commander Naram-sin. Ebla was captured and burned. Naram-sin was infinitely proud of his victory and left behind an inscription that said that the glory of the kingdom of Ebla is the glory of “a city that has never been defeated since the creation of the world.” Excavations continue. Ebla is now recognized as the most amazing archaeological find of our time. “We are expecting sensational finds,” said Arif Banassi, director of the Syrian Archaeological Authority. 12.3. Dead cities of Syria. There are more than a hundred dead cities in northern Syria. These once thriving centers are located in relatively remote mountainous areas, which saved them from complete destruction. Each of these cities is a page in the history of Syria. The heyday of many of them dates back to the 4th-5th centuries, the time of the recognition and establishment of Christianity. On the territory of the dead cities there are many churches and monasteries, the construction of which was dictated rather by religious fervor and the spirit of independence in the face of the imperial church. Christian inscriptions and symbols are preserved on the walls of houses, rich and poor, and on numerous tombs. The fall of these cities is associated with the Persian campaigns. First of all, such rich commercial centers as Bread, Antioch, and Apamea were robbed. The Persians typically used scorched earth tactics in their wars against the Byzantine Empire. They deliberately destroyed vineyards, destroyed stone terraces, and cut down olive groves. During the period of the Arab conquests, this area was already abandoned. The once intensive trade in olive oil and wine has become impossible. The Mongol conquests, culminating with Tamerlane's campaign, completed the destruction. Due to the wars and their constant threat, the population moved to larger cities in Syria. Earthquakes contributed to the destruction of cities, but many did not disappear from the face of the earth, having survived all the vicissitudes of fate and time. One of these cities is El Bara. And cities such as Apamea, Mari, Palmyra, Maharet are not just preserved monuments of unique architecture that remain unattainable examples. The life of these cities reflected the culture, politics, and ideology of their time. They are associated with the rise of creative thought, achievements in the field of science, philosophy, and poetics. Apamea. Apamea - a city of ruins, disappearing under the onslaught of time, hides in the mountains. Small sections of the old Roman road that once connected the once beautiful city with Antioch have been preserved. This dead city is especially loved by modern Syrians. The first name of the city is Farnace. Seleucus, a brave and talented associate of the great commander Alexander the Great, married the beautiful Apamea, daughter of the Persian commander Spitam. After the death of Alexander, the huge empire fell apart, part of which passed into the hands of Seleucus. The second city after Antioch, the largest center of the Seleucid Empire, was named in honor of his beloved wife. Apamea became the largest strategic point of the empire. The famous historian Strabo mentions the stud farm of Apamea, which numbered 30 thousand mares and 300 stallions, as well as 500 elephants located here. In 64, during the Roman invasion, Pompey destroyed the city, but in the Byzantine era Apamea flourished again. At this time, the city was expanded and a slender colonnade arose on the main street, the remains of which still exist to this day. In 540, the city was captured and burned by the Persian king Khosrow I. This was followed by several strong earthquakes, the largest of which occurred in 1152. The population, exhausted by endless military skirmishes and severe earthquakes, left the city. When the wars died down, Apamea was almost completely destroyed, abandoned by everyone; overgrown roads and paths leading to the city. The modern road to Apamea is dusty, narrow, rocky. There is no paved highway leading here, as, for example, to Palmyra, there is no flow of tourists. You are greeted by silence - that special silence that accompanies ruins. At first it is difficult to navigate in the chaos of noble ruins, but gradually you begin to distinguish the remains of the walls that surrounded the city, the skeletons of round towers, between which stone gates still remain. The main street, lined with snow-white Corinthian columns from the Roman period, clearly stands out against the background of the ruins. In the center of the colonnade are two columns with projections, on which sculptures of famous citizens once stood. The sculptures are gone, but the names remain. This is Antony Pius and Lucius Verus. Thanks to their efforts, the colonnade was created. Adjacent to the main street are the ruins of a large building - a former temple erected in honor of the main god revered here - the god of luck. Behind the temple is a forum. The layout of the city is typically Hellenistic: the streets converge at right angles, forming peculiar cells. Some streets have canopies supported by columns. The slender columns at the base are somewhat thickened and covered with carvings with a repeating motif of eternal flowering. Marie. In the period from 1933 to 1934, excavations took place near the town of Abu Kemal. Abu Kemal and the slope of Tell Hariri, on which the town was located, began to resemble a beehive. And January 23, 1934 was an unforgettable day: as a result of excavations, the city of Mari appeared from under a dense layer of earth. Scholars have long been familiar with this name from numerous inscriptions found in Babylon and Assyria. One of the texts said that Mari was the tenth city founded after the Flood. Excavations continued for several years. The walls of the city appeared. But the most striking thing was the palace. “We discovered 69 rooms and palaces during the excavation process, and an even larger part remained underground,” wrote André Paré, a French archaeologist. And that was just the beginning. Later, 138 rooms were discovered, and the Temple of Dragon and the ziggurat, a typically Mesopotamian tower, appeared before the eyes of archaeologists. Finally, the palace of the kings of Mari was completely cleared in all its grandeur: a huge building with an area of ​​4 hectares, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. Aerial photography of the huge palace gave a striking effect. It was an outstanding discovery. Numerous trucks were coming from Tell Hariri, kicking up dust. They were carrying a precious cargo: 24 thousand documents - cuneiform tablets from the archives of the palace (the library of the Assyrian ruler Ashurbanipal contained only 22 thousand clay tablets). The architectural ensemble of the palace was the pearl of the ancient East. Travelers from distant countries came to see this miracle. “I saw Marie,” writes an admiring merchant from the ancient Phoenician port of Ugarit. Mari was the capital of a state stretching to the Persian Gulf in the east, an intermediary between the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. This important commercial center controlled the caravan trade routes that connected the countries of the ancient world. The people who inhabited the kingdom of Mari managed to maintain independence for a long time, constantly strengthening and expanding their territory. Money flowed into the treasury from taxes levied on caravans. A well-developed farming system ensured excellent harvests. All these factors contributed to the prosperity of the civilization that existed in the second millennium BC. e. The royal palace was surrounded by a protective wall. The only gate on the northern side provided the most reliable protection. Numerous passages led to a large courtyard. The official and administrative life of the state took place here; here the king received ambassadors and couriers. The audience chamber could accommodate hundreds of people. A wide corridor led to the royal apartments. To the throne room. None of the known ancient royal palaces was as large as the Mari Palace, or so talentedly decorated. Numerous paintings were very impressive. It seems as if the paints on the murals were applied just yesterday. A fragment of the king's ritual procession is painted on the wall. The face of each person participating in the procession is individual. The face of the priest is especially interesting - with a large nose and tightly compressed lips. As already mentioned, the palace of King Mari had a lot of rooms. Officials, nobles, and scribes had special rooms. There was a foreign department and a trade department. More than one hundred officials were involved in recording the revenues and goods imported and exported from the state. Records on this issue took up a thousand tablets. The royal archives of Marie are of particular value. Events of distant years are revealed when reading numerous letters and accounts, busily inscribed on clay by scribes. The tablets required the tireless work of scientists who deciphered archive materials over several years. A large number of documents were translated and published, each of which represents a small piece of a huge mosaic panel that told us about the state of Marie. The capital lived a busy life. News arrived here extremely quickly, because there was a kind of telegraph. Important messages were conveyed using signal fires. The state of Mari lay at the intersection of the great caravan routes from west to east and from north to south. Correspondence was carried out using clay tablets. They recorded various life events, talked about religious holidays, about priests with their magic formulas and fortune telling by the stars. However, the citizens of Mari were forced to defend themselves and their territory. For numerous nomadic tribes, the rich and prosperous Mari was a great temptation. In addition, famous conquerors encroached on the sovereignty of a powerful state. Sargon of Akkadian managed to conquer Mari and completed the destruction of the army of Hammurabi from Babylon around 1700 BC. e. During excavations, traces of terrible damage inflicted on the capital were discovered. But it was not possible to wipe the city off the face of the earth. Five-meter walls remained. “You can use the kitchens and bathrooms of the palace. There is not even a need to restore them,” Parro wrote. And this is 4 thousand years after the destruction! Clay water pipes and even charcoal in extinct stoves are perfectly preserved. The city is dead, the state has disappeared, but a rich culture cannot be destroyed. It was adopted by other nations. Its influence on the civilizations of the East is strong. Palmyra. On an autumn day in 271, Rome rejoiced. Emperor Aurelian returned home in triumph. The procession moved slowly through the city to the enthusiastic shouts of the crowd. Aurelian's closed and arrogant face, however, could not hide his joy. Behind the emperor's chariot was a crowd of exhausted prisoners. The people looked with curiosity at the woman shackled in gold chains. Her worn-out feet walked on the stones with difficulty. But neither long tangled hair nor rags could hide her amazing beauty. Contemporaries claimed that she was more beautiful than Cleopatra. The name of the Palmyra queen Zenobia, walking behind the chariot, was known throughout the East. And in intelligence and courage, this proud woman was superior to many men. They did not dare to execute her, because she aroused too deep respect. As the texts mention, Zenobia ended her days as a prisoner. Mentions of the city are found on an Assyrian tablet from the 2nd millennium BC. e. and on a tablet from Marie. The Akkadian text tells us that the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I marched on Tadmor (Palmyra) to fight the Arameans. The predecessors of the Arameans were the Canaanites, who introduced the cult of the god Bol, who became the main god of Palmyra. Later he assimilated with Bel, the main god of Babylon. During the early Roman period, the number of Arabs and Aramaes was equal in Palmyra. The tribes that settled in the city were Arab, spoke Arabic, and wrote in the army language. The Arabs felt like masters of these places. They came and built their homes in Palmyra, and this happened long before Islam. Further, until the 1st century BC. e., there is no information about Palmyra. True, the Old Testament mentions that Palmyra was ruled by Solomon, who reconstructed this city. The pre-Islamic poet al-Nabiha in the poem “Al-Daleyya” recalls the Arabic legend about how the genie built Palmyra for King Solomon: “God ordered Solomon: Get up and go to the people, help them free themselves from mistakes, let the genie know what I have given he has the right to build beautiful stone buildings and columns of Tadmor." The city was destroyed, but was soon rebuilt. The name is "Tadmor". By which it is known to the Arabs and other Semitic peoples, it is of unknown origin. Under the Latin name “Palmyra” the city was widely known in the Greco-Roman period. For some time, Palmyra was in the hands of the Seleucids and gained independence in 64 BC. e., while the rest of Syria became a Roman province. From that moment on, the city played the role of a buffer state between the Persians and Romans. Its favorable geographical and political position allowed it to be a link between Mediterranean culture and the culture of the Persian Gulf. By 1940, it had become a rich shopping center. Pearls, glassware, wines, Chinese silk, Indian ivory, Persian carpets, and statues from Phenicia were brought here. Countless caravans rushed to the amazing city. The wealth of the city attracted the greedy attention of Rome. In one of the texts dating back to 41 BC. e., it is said that Anthony. The proconsul of Rome in Egypt organized the robbery of the city: “When Anthony sent his horsemen to Palmyra and ordered it to be plundered, he had nothing to accuse the Palmyrans of, for they are honest and engaged in trade, buying goods in India, Arabia, Persia and selling them to the Romans.” . During this period, the city was not fortified and in case of danger, the residents, taking their goods, went to the left bank of the Euphrates. However, Palmyra truly submitted to Rome only in the first century AD. It became part of the Roman province of Syria, being autonomous and representing an oligarchic republic. In the 60s of the 2nd century, Palmyra again became virtually independent. In 267, the ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, was killed. The Palmyra crown passed to his youngest son, still an infant, who inherited all titles and titles from his father. Zenobia, who became regent under her son, seized power into her own hands. An educated, strong-willed, extremely proud and intelligent beauty, she was also extremely ambitious. After the death of Claudius II, the Roman Empire experienced a severe crisis. Rome had difficulty repelling the Gothic raids. Zenobia chose this particular period to invade Egypt. Having defeated the Roman troops in Egypt, she also carried out her plans to capture all of Western Asia. In the summer of 271, Zenobia and her son proclaimed themselves empress and emperor of the East. This was the time of Zenobia's greatest glory. Palmyra minted coins with images of her and her son. In the fall of 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian began military operations against Zenobia. They unfolded primarily in Egypt. Since Palmyra's dominance was not particularly popular, Aurelian won quickly. He returned all the cities. Conquered by Palmyra, he reached Syria without much difficulty. Aurelian crossed the Orontes and won two decisive battles. Zenobia's troops fled to Palmyra, finding refuge behind its mighty walls. The city was besieged. At night, Zenobia fled the city on a camel, trying to get to Persia and get the help of her former ally, but was captured. Palmyra surrendered. Zenobia followed Aurelian's chariot as a prisoner in the procession of triumph. In Homs, Zenobia's advisors were executed, among whom was Cassius Longinus, a philosopher and orator, head of the Neoplatonist school and Zenobia's close associate. As soon as the winner reached Europe, Palmyra rebelled and the Roman garrison led by the governor was killed. Aurelian was forced to return, which resulted in the sack of the city and the destruction of its walls. In the struggle against Rome, Palmyra lost its former glory. At the beginning of the 12th century, the influence of Palmyra intensified again. At the end of this century it was annexed to the Emirate of Homs. Arab castles grew up around one after another. But the city again loses its importance after the invasion of Timur and the fall of the large northern cities on the Euphrates, which were connected with it by trade relations. Earthquakes and Bedouin raids complete the work of its destruction and devastation. So a new acquaintance with Palmyra (already with its ruins) occurs only in the 17th-18th centuries. The earliest scientific expedition to Palmyra was carried out by two Englishmen, who published their sketches in the collection “The Ruins of Palmyra”. It was followed by Waddington's expedition. A German expedition visited here in 1902. English travelers, authors of “The Ruins of Palmyra,” reported that they found only 18 houses in Palmyra. They had to live in the courtyard of the Temple of Baal. But gradually a newly rebuilt city grew nearby. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Palmyra attracted great interest and a large influx of visitors. The ruins of the ancient city are scattered over a large area between the temple of Baal in the east and the foot of the hills in the west, connected by long colonnades to the Triumphal Gate. Most of the large buildings are located at the southern part of the colonnade. This is a theater, a senate, an agora with four portals. The fortress wall has almost been leveled to the ground, but it is still possible to determine the boundaries of the ancient city. From the top of the hill you can take in the entire ensemble of ruins and imagine ancient Palmyra with its luxurious buildings and green spaces. This is the Palmyra that has repeatedly appeared as a beautiful mirage in the lines of many lyrical poems. The Temple of Baal was located on an artificial hill that hid the remains of an earlier pagan temple. Its plan is typically eastern in nature: a quadrangular courtyard with covered galleries, in the center is the temple itself, in front of which there is an altar for sacrifices, a room for refreshments and a sacred pool. Each side is flanked by two rows of columns that were once decorated with gilded bronze capitals. In the southern and eastern sides of the temple there are two niches with images of Palmyra gods. This phenomenon is typically Syrian. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans placed the gods in niches, but placed them on a pedestal. The temple was closely connected with the life of the city and its ordinary residents. This is evidenced by partially preserved inscriptions on the walls: “Allah, have pity on Abd al-Samad, the son of Obeid, and on Muhammad, the son of Yazid, and forgive them their sins, past and present. Have mercy. Allah, any of those who, after reading the inscription, say: Amen! On the eastern wall there is an inscription - an edict from the ruler of Damascus Az-Zahir, confirming the right of the inhabitants of Palmyra to graze cattle on the Terebinth Hills. The first houses of Palmyra were built around a spring near the temple of Baal. But most of the buildings that remain today were built during the heyday of the city. In addition to the main temple of the god Baal in Palmyra, there were temples dedicated to other gods. A temple was discovered dedicated to the god Nabo, the son of Marduk - the Babylonian god - lord of the heavens. The plan of the found temple is typically Syrian: a monumental entrance, a courtyard surrounded by a covered gallery, and a temple in the center. There is a small altar in the courtyard. Architectural fragments of the temple's interior indicate strong Mesopotamian influence. During the Roman period, the Syrians became acquainted with such a form of temple as the basilica. Such a structure was discovered in Palmyra near the Temple of Baal Shamin. The basilica is one of the earliest buildings used for Christian worship. It has a nave and side aisles, used as a court of justice and a place for trading. The Palmyra Basilica also includes a rectangular hall ending in a niche. Its portico is supported by six columns. The construction of the Basilica dates back to the 5th century. A spacious public square, the agora was once surrounded by columns. Its northern side was intended for major officials, the western side for military leaders, the southern side for caravan leaders and the eastern side for senators. Built in the 2nd century, it was destroyed at the same time. Zenobia used her stone to build a defensive wall. Two fountains in the corners of the northern portico, a semi-basement room and the remains of a platform from which speakers spoke have been preserved. The central gate was decorated with images of members of the family of Septimius Severus and other Syrian and Roman emperors. Palmyra is surrounded by a protective wall built of huge stones. Its length exceeds 12 kilometers. It acquired its original form during the reign of Odaenathus and Zenobia and was strengthened by square bastions. During the siege of the city by Aurelian in 272, the wall was destroyed. But in the 6th century it was restored by Emperor Justinian and in this form has been partially preserved to this day. There are four types of burials preserved in Palmyra. These are tower graves, house graves, underground graves, or hypogea, and individual burials. The oldest type of burial grounds are towers. They are a typically Palmyran invention. These are usually square buildings of several floors with stairs. At first, their design was very simple - with niches opened at ground level, but from the 1st century AD, the Palmyrans began to pay more attention to their interior. The base of the tower became stepped, the facade was decorated with balconies. Particular attention was paid to the first floor: there are Corinthian pilasters, colored friezes, and painted ceilings. When the first floor was filled, the second was built, and so on. The tower was a kind of family crypt. The influence of the Greek tradition is noticeable in the design of the tower burials. However, in sculpture Palmyra created her own style. The most interesting among the underground burials is the Tomb of the Three Brothers. The Palmyrene inscription on the door indicates that three brothers - Namain, Male and Saedi - dug this grave in the middle of the 2nd century. The walls and brick vaults of the grave are covered with plaster. Along the walls there are six rows of niches in which the dead were placed. Three beautiful white sarcophagi in the side compartment were reminiscent of the Hellenistic source of Palmyraan art. On the wall there are perfectly preserved frescoes of the Greco-Syrian style. The burial vault is decorated with blue hexagons and gilded rosettes. At the end of the 2nd century, another type of burial appeared in Palmyra. These are tomb houses. They were one-story, with a carefully decorated entrance. The door was certainly closed with a stone slab. Along the walls were niches with sculptures of the dead. There were a lot of such burial grounds in Palmyra, but only one was well preserved - the house of Maron. It was built by Julius Arlius Maron in March 236. Later it was used as a residential building, destroying the niches and disfiguring the interior. Individual burials are the cheapest. They consisted of a simple rectangular pit two by two meters. The walls were usually lined with limestone. The dead were placed in a clay coffin, with a stone placed on top, and this was considered quite sufficient. 14. Print. The Syrian pound lasts until old age Mikhail SNEGIREV iHOSTRANETS #21 06/28/95 Guests from Russia on the ancient Syrian land are now represented mainly by “shuttle traders”. Accordingly, Russians’ acquaintance with Syria so far suffers from one-sidedness: “ours” have more or less mastered only markets, warehouses and ready-made clothing factories there. Which is a bit of a shame. Over its long history, this country has seen the Romans, Crusaders, Ottomans, French colonialists and Soviet military specialists. Invasions from so many different cultures have left Syria with much to see. If you are not interested in looking at mossy ruins, it’s as if this country has resorts on the Mediterranean Sea especially for you. But no matter what you come to Syria for: for a touch of history, for the sun and sea, or for business, you cannot avoid meeting the Syrian pound. The fact is that although the import and export of foreign currency in Syria is not limited, payments in it on the territory of the country are strictly prohibited. In order for a foreigner to feel like a person with money there, he must first exchange his dollars (or other hard currency) for local pounds. Formally, the right to carry out such operations in the country belongs only to government-authorized banks. The vast majority of them belong to the state. Banks are open from 9.00 to 19.00, lunch break is from 14.00 to 15.00. They work all days of the week except Friday, which in Syria, in accordance with Muslim rules, is considered a day off. There are bank exchange offices in large upscale hotels, but unlike other countries they do not work around the clock: they close at 19.00-20.00. All private citizens in Syria formally face imprisonment for exchanging currency (a foreigner who catches the eye of a police officer doing this will be deported). However, since Syria is an eastern country, a lot of things happen there that are not exactly as the law dictates. Private currency exchange is so widespread that it can hardly be called a “black market.” Banks change money at a rate close to the official one. Last week it was slightly less than 42 Syrian pounds per $1. At any bazaar, having recognized you as a foreigner, a local gentleman will certainly approach you with an offer to exchange dollars for pounds at a rate of approximately 1:50. According to reviews from experienced Russian "shuttle traders", Syrian currency traders, unlike their colleagues in many other countries, work honestly: they do not cheat or cheat. They just try to make the actual exchange somewhere in a secluded place, away from the eyes of the police. You don't have to go to the market. If you are traveling around Syria as part of a tourist group, then the same service and at the same rate will almost certainly be provided to you by a representative of the local travel agency hosting you. Given this state of affairs, the vast majority of visitors from Russia do not go to banks in Syria at all. Syrian pounds are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 25, 100 and 500 pounds. The proud title of “legal tender” is also given to coins in denominations of 1 pound, half pound and even smaller ones, but due to too little purchasing power they are rarely found in circulation. The inscriptions on the banknotes, in addition to Arabic, are also in English. However, you will look in vain for the English word pound. Since the time when France ruled Syria under the mandate of the League of Nations (between the First and Second World Wars), the French name livre has been assigned to the Syrian currency. Externally, Syrian paper money is quite large in size, most often very worn and dirty. According to local custom, banknotes are not withdrawn from circulation until they literally fall apart from disrepair. This may be why local money changers (both official and from the “black market”) have no complaints about the appearance of foreign banknotes. No counterfeits of Syrian pounds have been recorded. In the sphere of trade and services in Syria, they flatly refuse to accept payment in dollars or any other currency other than pounds. In this country there is only one type of establishment, where, on the contrary, they accept exclusively hard currency - duty free shop. Unlike other countries, they are not only located at the international airport, but operate on the same principle: any goods purchased there must be taken out of the country and used only outside its borders. This is achieved this way. You cannot take goods purchased there with you. They are packaged, labeled with your name, delivered to the airport in time for your flight, and handed to you just before you leave Syria. It is allowed to export local banknotes from Syria in an amount of no more than 2,000 pounds. Syria lures tourists Foreigner #20 05/29/96 The Syrian government has set a goal of increasing the number of tourists coming to the country to four million by the year 2000. To attract such a number of vacationers to the country, the country's authorities are going to build two tourist villages on the Mediterranean coast. The first of them will be located not far from Latakia, the surroundings of which are simply crammed with all sorts of ancient monuments dating back more than one thousand years. The most fashionable Syrian resorts are also located here. The other is near Tartus, the site of ancient Phoenician settlements, the ruins of which have survived to this day. There are also many architectural monuments here, reminiscent of the Crusaders’ stay in these places. In addition, the number of hotels will be increased, especially five-star ones, of which there are only 11 in all of Syria so far. Living "dead" cities Irina MAK Foreigner #21 06-06-98 Tourists rarely get to the Halebiyah fortress, built on the Euphrates during the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, when the Romans adopted Christianity, the fortress became an object of pilgrimage and remains standing to this day. But this attraction is located in Syria, to put it mildly, which has not been very open to the world in recent decades, and there are almost no tourists there. Syria is a natural architectural reserve. “Dead” cities, early Christian churches, albeit converted into mosques, and castles of the Crusaders have reached us. If anyone gets here, they see the standard set: Damascus, Aleppo, Palmyra. That's all. The Muslim fort of Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi in the desert is a mystery for tourists, although it is only 30 kilometers from the nearest road. Further to the northwest lie the ruins of St. Simeon, where there is a pillar on top of which this Byzantine saint sat for decades. Around the pillar was the largest Christian basilica, older than European medieval cathedrals. The theater in basalt Bosra is one of the rare well-preserved ones. And the wall surrounding the huge temple of Bel was recently a shelter for houses. People were relocated to make room for tourists. Today you can explore it all alone. Last year, only 200,000 foreigners visited Syria. A quarter of them are Russians who came here on business. But this situation will not last long. The trend towards greater openness that has emerged in Syria in recent years will be long-term. Jordan, for example, where ten years ago you could explore the ruins of Petra alone, is introducing measures to control attendance. Syria remains that rare place where you can still feel the excitement of a pioneer. Bye. Gazprom became interested in the reconstruction of the Kirkuk (Iraq) – Banias (Syria) oil pipeline E. Suponina Time MN 03.12.98 The pipeline has not functioned since 1982, when the Syrians supported Iran in the war with Iraq. The Gulf War postponed the issue until sanctions were lifted. But this fall, Iraq and Syria began negotiations on resuming oil pumping through the pipeline in volumes of up to 300 thousand barrels per day. There are plans to build another pipe. In total, up to 1.4 million barrels of Iraqi oil can flow through Syria every day. The project caused a negative reaction from the United States, which indicated that it was impossible to export Iraqi oil via this route due to international sanctions. According to information available to Vremya, OJSC Gazprom is interested in the section from the Syrian-Iraqi border to the port of Banias on the Mediterranean Sea. Gazprom's participation in the modernization of the port terminal and refinery is being discussed. Syria's own oil production is about 580 thousand barrels per day. The Syrian Embassy in Russia confirmed the information available to the Vremya MN newspaper, refusing to comment on it. The issue will be dealt with, oddly enough, by the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia S. Stepashin. A correspondent for the newspaper Vremya MN managed to find out that work in Syria could be carried out by a Gazprom subsidiary, Stroytransgaz CJSC, whose representatives recently visited the country. The company will take part in tenders for the construction of gas lines both inside Syria and to Lebanon. Success in Syria would come in handy given the stalled cooperation between Gazprom and Israel. The Gazprom Foreign Economic Relations Department told us that “negotiations with the Israelis are ongoing.” However, even during R. Vyakhirev’s visit to Israel in October of this year, the Israeli leadership, according to the local newspaper Globes, indicated the need to “wait for the development of affairs in Russia.” In Syria, Gazprom has a greater chance of success, if only because Russia there, unlike the United States, is historically “loved.” Here (as in Iran), Gazprom intends to test a concept developed several years ago. Its essence lies in the fact that the company intends to engage not only in gas supplies, but also to participate in investing and constructing facilities abroad. List of used literature 1. “Arab countries. Story. Economy". Edited by E.A. Lebedev. M: “Science”, 1970. 2. “Countries of the World: A Brief Political and Economic Directory.” Edited by I.S. Ivanov. M: “Republic”, 1997, 3. “Countries and peoples. General review. Southwest Asia." M: “Science”, 1979. 4. “Economic geography of the countries of the Near and Middle East.” Edited by P. Pobedina, V.P. Smirnov, V.V. Tsybulsky. M: “Enlightenment”, 1970. 5. Druzhinina N. A. “Syria old and new.” M: “enlightenment”, 1975. 6. “CD encyclopedia of Cyril Mifodiy”, 1998. 7. Electronic magazine “Foreigner”, and other INTERNET resources. 8. "CD atlas of the world", 1996. Contents. 1.Flag 1 2.Coat of arms 2 3.Pages of history 3 4.Map (city and industry) 4 5.EGP and GGP 5 6.Nature of the country 6 7.Population 8 8.Economy 10 8.1. Industry 11 8.2. Agriculture 15 9. Transport 18 10. Foreign economic relations 20 11. Cities 22 11.1. Damascus 22 11.2. Latakia 26 11.3. Aleppo 28 12. What's interesting? 30 12.1. Krak des Chevaliers - Castle of the Knights 30 12. 2. “The city that has never been conquered since the creation of the world” 31 12.3. Dead cities 33 13. Printing 40 14. References 44 -----------------------

Syria in maps October 2nd, 2015

A small guide to the physical, economic, social geography of the Syrian Arab Republic. Especially for armchair analysts.

Territory: 185.18 thousand sq. km. Most of the country's territory lies on an arid plateau, which is dotted with mountain ranges. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

Coastline length: about 175 km.

Subtropical Mediterranean climate on the coast and dry continental in the interior.

The average January temperature ranges from +4 °C in the eastern regions to +12 °C on the coast. The average temperature in July ranges from +33 °C to +26 °C, respectively.

Population: 22 million (2011 estimate). To date, between 3 and 4 million people have fled the country.

GDP: 107.4 billion dollars (as of 2011).

Physical card.

Another physical map.

Population density.

Transport infrastructure. Link .

Oil and gas. Deposits, infrastructure, pipelines.

The largest deposits are located in the extreme northeast of the country. The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

In addition to oil, the country has large reserves of phosphorites. Their deposit is being developed in the Khneifis area.

Other mineral resources include deposits of chromium, uranium, iron ore, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, and dolomite. But they are relatively small.

Oil production and consumption in dynamics.

Economic zones of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

Only a third of the country's territory is suitable for agriculture. Most of the fertile land is located in the coastal strip, another part stretches in a strip from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the border with Turkey. The third fertile zone is the Euphrates River valley.

Dynamics of public debt since 2010.

Page 1

Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the country's industrialization issues. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the country's socio-economic development.

Since the 70s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials.

In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries.

Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products.

Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of providing the latter.

The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 90s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%.

The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people.

Extraction of basic minerals

(thousand tons)

Oil, million tons
Rock salt
Natural asphalt
Building stone, cube. m

Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years.

The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%.

The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country.

By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are under development and operation.

Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under the terms of “risk service” contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies.

Medical-geographical characteristics
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