The most important battles of the first period of the Patriotic War of 1812. Mozhaisk deanery

The War of 1812, also known as the Patriotic War of 1812, the war with Napoleon, the invasion of Napoleon, is the first event in the national history of Russia when all layers of Russian society rallied to repel the enemy. It was the popular nature of the war with Napoleon that allowed historians to give it the name of the Patriotic War.

Cause of the war with Napoleon

Napoleon considered England his main enemy, an obstacle to world domination. He could not crush it with military force for geographical reasons: Britain is an island, an amphibious operation would have cost France very dearly, and besides, after the Battle of Trafalgar, England remained the only mistress of the seas. Therefore, Napoleon decided to strangle the enemy economically: to undermine England’s trade by closing all European ports to it. However, the blockade did not bring benefits to France either; it ruined its bourgeoisie. “Napoleon understood that it was the war with England and the blockade associated with it that prevented a radical improvement in the economy of the empire. But in order to end the blockade, it was first necessary to get England to lay down its arms.”* However, the victory over England was hampered by the position of Russia, which in words agreed to comply with the terms of the blockade, but in fact, Napoleon was convinced, did not comply with it. “English goods from Russia along the entire vast western border are leaking into Europe and this reduces the continental blockade to zero, that is, it destroys the only hope of “bringing England to its knees.” The Great Army in Moscow means the submission of the Russian Emperor Alexander, this is the complete implementation of the continental blockade, therefore, victory over England is possible only after victory over Russia.

Subsequently, in Vitebsk, already during the campaign against Moscow, Count Daru frankly declared to Napoleon that neither the armies, nor even many in the emperor’s entourage understood why this difficult war was being waged with Russia, because because of the trade in English goods in Alexander’s possessions, not worth it. (However) Napoleon saw in the consistently carried out economic strangulation of England the only means of finally ensuring the durability of the existence of the great monarchy he created

Background to the War of 1812

1798 - Russia, together with Great Britain, Turkey, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Kingdom of Naples, created the second anti-French coalition
1801, September 26 - Paris Peace Treaty between Russia and France
1805 - England, Russia, Austria, Sweden formed the third anti-French coalition
1805, November 20 - Napoleon defeats the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz
1806, November - the beginning of the war between Russia and Turkey
1807, June 2 - defeat of Russian-Prussian troops at Friedland
1807, June 25 - Treaty of Tilsit between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade
1808, February - the beginning of the Russian-Swedish War, which lasted a year
1808, October 30 - Erfur Union Conference of Russia and France, confirming the Franco-Russian alliance
Late 1809 - early 1810 - Napoleon’s unsuccessful matchmaking with Alexander the First’s sister Anna
1810, December 19 - introduction of new customs tariffs in Russia, beneficial for English goods and disadvantageous for French ones
1812, February - peace agreement between Russia and Sweden
1812, May 16 - Treaty of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey

“Napoleon subsequently said that he should have abandoned the war with Russia at the moment when he learned that neither Turkey nor Sweden would fight with Russia.”

Patriotic War of 1812. Briefly

1812, June 12 (old style) - the French army invaded Russia by crossing the Neman

The French did not see a single soul in the entire vast space beyond the Neman until the very horizon, after the Cossack guards disappeared from sight. “Before us lay a desert, brown, yellowish land with stunted vegetation and distant forests on the horizon,” recalled one of the participants in the hike, and the picture seemed “ominous” even then.

1812, June 12-15 - in four continuous streams, the Napoleonic army crossed the Neman along three new bridges and a fourth old one - at Kovno, Olitt, Merech, Yurburg - regiment after regiment, battery after battery, in a continuous stream crossed the Neman and lined up on the Russian bank.

Napoleon knew that although he had 420 thousand people at hand... the army was far from equal in all its parts, that he could only rely on the French part of his army (in total, the great army consisted of 355 thousand subjects of the French Empire, but among them there were far from all were natural French), and even then not entirely, because young recruits could not be placed next to the seasoned warriors who had been on his campaigns. As for the Westphalians, Saxons, Bavarians, Rhenish, Hanseatic Germans, Italians, Belgians, Dutch, not to mention his forced allies - the Austrians and Prussians, whom he dragged for purposes unknown to them to death in Russia and of whom many do not hate at all Russians, and himself, it is unlikely that they will fight with particular fervor

1812, June 12 - the French in Kovno (now Kaunas)
1812, June 15 - The corps of Jerome Bonaparte and Yu. Poniatowski advanced to Grodno
1812, June 16 - Napoleon in Vilna (Vilnius), where he stayed for 18 days
1812, June 16 - a short battle in Grodno, the Russians blew up bridges across the Lososnya River

Russian commanders

- Barclay de Tolly (1761-1818) - Since the spring of 1812 - commander of the 1st Western Army. At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 - Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army
- Bagration (1765-1812) - chief of the Life Guards of the Jaeger Regiment. At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, the commander of the 2nd Western Army
- Bennigsen (1745-1826) - cavalry general, by order of Kutuzaov - chief of the General Staff of the Russian army
- Kutuzov (1747-1813) - Field Marshal General, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army during the Patriotic War of 1812
- Chichagov (1767-1849) - admiral, naval minister of the Russian Empire from 1802 to 1809
- Wittgenstein (1768-1843) - Field Marshal General, during the War of 1812 - commander of a separate corps in the St. Petersburg direction

1812, June 18 - the French in Grodno
1812, July 6 - Alexander the First announced recruitment into the militia
1812, July 16 - Napoleon in Vitebsk, the armies of Bagration and Barclay retreat to Smolensk
1812, August 3 - connection of the armies of Barclay to Tolly and Bagration near Smolensk
1812, August 4-6 - Battle of Smolensk

At 6 a.m. on August 4, Napoleon ordered the general bombardment and assault of Smolensk to begin. Fierce fighting broke out and lasted until 6 pm. Dokhturov's corps, defending the city together with the division of Konovnitsyn and the Prince of Württemberg, fought with courage and tenacity that amazed the French. In the evening, Napoleon called Marshal Davout and categorically ordered the next day, no matter the cost, to take Smolensk. He had already had the hope earlier, and now it has grown stronger, that this Smolensk battle, in which supposedly the entire Russian army is participating (he knew about Barclay’s finally united with Bagration), will be the decisive battle that the Russians have so far avoided, giving to him without a fight huge parts of his empire. On August 5, the battle resumed. The Russians offered heroic resistance. After a bloody day, night came. The bombing of the city, by order of Napoleon, continued. And suddenly on Wednesday night there were terrible explosions one after another, shaking the earth; The fire that started spread throughout the city. It was the Russians who blew up the powder magazines and set the city on fire: Barclay gave the order to retreat. At dawn, French scouts reported that the city had been abandoned by troops, and Davout entered Smolensk without a fight.

1812, August 8 - Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief instead of Barclay de Tolly
1812, August 23 - Scouts reported to Napoleon that the Russian army had stopped and taken up positions two days earlier and that fortifications had also been built near the village visible in the distance. When asked what the name of the village was, the scouts answered: “Borodino”
1812, August 26 - Battle of Borodino

Kutuzov knew that Napoleon would be destroyed by the impossibility of a long war several thousand kilometers from France, in a deserted, meager, hostile huge country, a lack of food, and an unusual climate. But he knew even more precisely that they would not allow him to give up Moscow without a general battle, despite his Russian surname, just as Barclay was not allowed to do this. And he decided to fight this battle, which was unnecessary, in his deepest conviction. Strategically unnecessary, it was morally and politically inevitable. At 15:00 the Battle of Borodino killed more than 100,000 people on both sides. Napoleon later said: “Of all my battles, the most terrible was the one I fought near Moscow. The French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible...”
— — — — —
The most blatant school linden concerns French losses in the Battle of Borodino. European historiography admits that Napoleon was missing 30 thousand soldiers and officers, of which 10–12 thousand were killed. Nevertheless, on the main monument erected on the Borodino field, 58,478 people are engraved in gold. As Alexey Vasiliev, an expert on the era, admits, we owe the “mistake” to Alexander Schmidt, a Swiss who at the end of 1812 really needed 500 rubles. He turned to Count Fyodor Rostopchin, posing as a former adjutant of Napoleonic Marshal Berthier. Having received the money, the “adjutant” from the lantern compiled a list of losses for the corps of the Great Army, attributing, for example, 5 thousand killed to the Holsteins, who did not participate in the Battle of Borodino at all. The Russian world was happy to be deceived, and when documentary refutations appeared, no one dared to initiate the dismantling of the legend. And it still hasn’t been decided: the figure has been floating around in textbooks for decades, as if Napoleon lost about 60 thousand soldiers. Why deceive children who can open a computer? (“Arguments of the Week”, No. 34(576) dated 08/31/2017)

1812, September 1 - council in Fili. Kutuzov ordered to leave Moscow
1812, September 2 - The Russian army passed through Moscow and reached the Ryazan road
1812, September 2 - Napoleon in Moscow
1812, September 3 - the beginning of a fire in Moscow
1812, September 4-5 - Fire in Moscow.

On the morning of September 5, Napoleon walked around the Kremlin and from the windows of the palace, wherever he looked, the emperor turned pale and silently looked at the fire for a long time, and then said: “What a terrible sight! They set the fire themselves... What determination! What people! These are Scythians!

1812, September 6 - September 22 - Napoleon three times sent envoys to the Tsar and Kutuzov with a proposal for peace. Didn't wait for an answer
1812, October 6 - the beginning of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow
1812, October 7 - The victorious battle of the Russian army of Kutuzov with the French troops of Marshal Murat in the area of the village of Tarutino, Kaluga region
1812, October 12 - the battle of Maloyaroslavets, which forced Napoleon’s army to retreat along the old Smolensk road, already completely destroyed

Generals Dokhturov and Raevsky attacked Maloyaroslavets, which had been occupied the day before by Delzon. Eight times Maloyaroslavets changed hands. Losses on both sides were heavy. The French lost about 5 thousand people in killed alone. The city burned to the ground, catching fire during the battle, so that many hundreds of people, Russians and French, died from fire in the streets, many wounded were burned alive

1812, October 13 - In the morning, Napoleon with a small retinue left the village of Gorodni to inspect the Russian positions, when suddenly Cossacks with pikes at the ready attacked this group of horsemen. Two marshals who were with Napoleon (Murat and Bessieres), General Rapp and several officers crowded around Napoleon and began to fight back. Polish light cavalry and guards rangers arrived in time and saved the emperor.
1812, October 15 - Napoleon ordered a retreat to Smolensk
1812, October 18 - frosts began. Winter came early and cold
1812, October 19 - Wittgenstein's corps, reinforced by St. Petersburg and Novgorod militias and other reinforcements, drove out the troops of Saint-Cyr and Oudinot from Polotsk
1812, October 26 - Wittgenstein occupied Vitebsk
1812, November 6 - Napoleon's army arrived in Dorogobuzh (a city in the Smolensk region), only 50 thousand people remained ready for battle
1812, early November - Chichagov’s Southern Russian army, arriving from Turkey, rushed to the Berezina (a river in Belarus, the right tributary of the Dnieper)
1812, November 14 - Napoleon left Smolensk with only 36 thousand men under arms
1812, November 16-17 - a bloody battle near the village of Krasny (45 km southwest of Smolensk), in which the French suffered huge losses
1812, November 16 - Chichagov's army occupied Minsk
1812, November 22 - Chichagov's army occupied Borisov on the Berezina. There was a bridge across the river in Borisov
1812, November 23 - defeat of the vanguard of Chichagov's army from Marshal Oudinot near Borisov. Borisov again went over to the French
1812, November 26-27 - Napoleon transported the remnants of the army across the Berezina and took them to Vilna
1812, December 6 - Napoleon left the army, going to Paris
1812, December 11 - the Russian army entered Vilna
1812, December 12 - the remnants of Napoleon's army arrived in Kovno
1812, December 15 - the remnants of the French army crossed the Neman, leaving Russian territory
1812, December 25 - Alexander I issued a manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War

“...Now, with heartfelt joy and bitterness to God, We declare gratitude to Our dear loyal subjects, that the event has surpassed even Our very hope, and that what We announced at the opening of this war has been fulfilled beyond measure: there is no longer a single enemy on the face of Our land; or better yet, they all stayed here, but how? Dead, wounded and prisoners. The proud ruler and leader himself could barely ride away with his most important officials, having lost all his army and all the cannons he brought with him, which, more than a thousand, not counting those buried and sunk by him, were recaptured from him, and are in Our hands ... "

Thus ended the Patriotic War of 1812. Then the foreign campaigns of the Russian army began, the purpose of which, according to Alexander the First, was to finish off Napoleon. But that is another story

Reasons for Russia's victory in the war against Napoleon

The nationwide character of the resistance provided
Mass heroism of soldiers and officers
High skill of military leaders
Napoleon's indecisiveness in announcing anti-serfdom laws
Geographical and natural factors

The result of the Patriotic War of 1812

The growth of national self-awareness in Russian society
The beginning of the decline of Napoleon's career
Growing authority of Russia in Europe
The emergence of anti-serfdom, liberal views in Russia

A. Northern "Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow"

As you know, war usually begins when a lot of reasons and circumstances converge at one point, when mutual claims and grievances reach enormous proportions, and the voice of reason is drowned out.

Background

After 1807, Napoleon marched victoriously across Europe and beyond, and only Great Britain did not want to submit to him: it seized French colonies in America and India and dominated the sea, interfering with French trade. The only thing Napoleon could do in such a situation was to declare a continental blockade of Great Britain (after the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, Napoleon lost the opportunity to fight England at sea, where she became almost the only ruler). He decided to disrupt England's trade by closing all European ports to it, dealing a crushing blow to Britain's trade and economy. But the effectiveness of the continental blockade depended on other European states and their compliance with sanctions. Napoleon persistently demanded that Alexander I more consistently implement the continental blockade, but for Russia, Great Britain was the main trading partner, and she did not want to break off trade relations with her.

P. Delaroche "Napoleon Bonaparte"

In 1810, Russia introduced free trade with neutral countries, which allowed it to trade with Great Britain through intermediaries, and also adopted a protective tariff that increased customs rates mainly on imported French goods. Napoleon was outraged by Russian policies. But he also had a personal reason for the war with Russia: in order to confirm the legitimacy of his coronation, he wanted to marry a representative of one of the monarchies, but Alexander I twice rejected his proposals: first for a marriage with his sister Grand Duchess Catherine, and then with Grand Duchess Anna. Napoleon married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I, but declared in 1811: “ In five years I will be the ruler of the whole world. There is only Russia left - I will crush it...." At the same time, Napoleon continued to violate the Truce of Tilsit by occupying Prussia. Alexander demanded that French troops be withdrawn from there. In a word, the military machine began to spin: Napoleon concluded a military treaty with the Austrian Empire, which pledged to provide France with an army of 30 thousand for the war with Russia, then followed by an agreement with Prussia, which provided another 20 thousand soldiers for Napoleon’s army, and the French emperor himself intensively studied the military and economic situation of Russia, preparing for war with it. But Russian intelligence was not asleep either: M.I. Kutuzov successfully concludes a peace treaty with Turkey (ending the 5-year war for Moldova), thereby liberating the Danube Army under the command of Admiral Chichagov; in addition, information about the state of the Grand French Army and its movements was regularly intercepted at the Russian embassy in Paris.

Thus, both sides prepared for war. The size of the French army was, according to various sources, from 400 to 500 thousand soldiers, of which only half were French, the remaining soldiers were 16 nationalities, mainly Germans and Poles. Napoleon's army was well armed and financially secure. Its only weakness was precisely the diversity of its national composition.

The size of the Russian army: the 1st Army of Barclay de Tolly and the 2nd Army of Bagration were 153 thousand soldiers + the 3rd Army of Tormasov 45 thousand + the Danube Army of Admiral Chichagov 55 thousand + the Finnish corps of Steingel 19 thousand + a separate corps of Essen nearby Riga 18 thousand + 20-25 thousand Cossacks = approximately 315 thousand. Technically, Russia did not lag behind France. But embezzlement flourished in the Russian army. England provided Russia with material and financial support.

Barclay de Tolly. Lithograph by A. Munster

Starting the war, Napoleon did not plan to send his troops deep into Russia; his plans were to create a complete continental blockade of England, then include Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania in Poland and create a Polish state as a counterbalance to the Russian Empire, in order to then conclude a military alliance with Russia and move together towards India. Truly Napoleonic plans! Napoleon hoped to end the battle with Russia in the border areas with his victory, so the retreat of Russian troops into the interior of the country took him by surprise.

Alexander I foresaw this circumstance (disastrous for the French army to advance in depth): “ If Emperor Napoleon starts a war against me, then it is possible and even probable that he will beat us if we accept the battle, but this will not yet give him peace. ... We have an immense space behind us, and we will maintain a well-organized army. ... If the lot of arms decides the case against me, then I would rather retreat to Kamchatka than cede my provinces and sign treaties in my capital that are only a respite. The Frenchman is brave, but long hardships and bad climate tire and discourage him. Our climate and our winter will fight for us“, he wrote to the French Ambassador to Russia A. Caulaincourt.

Beginning of the war

The first skirmish with the French (a company of sappers) occurred on June 23, 1812, when they crossed to the Russian coast. And at 6 o’clock in the morning on June 24, 1812, the vanguard of the French troops entered Kovno. In the evening of the same day, Alexander I was informed about Napoleon's invasion. Thus began the Patriotic War of 1812.

Napoleon's army attacked simultaneously in the northern, central and southern directions. For the northern direction, the main task was to capture St. Petersburg (after first occupying Riga). But as a result of the battles near Klyastitsy and on August 17 near Polotsk (a battle between the 1st Russian Infantry Corps under the command of General Wittgenstein and the French corps of Marshal Oudinot and General Saint-Cyr). This battle did not have serious consequences. Over the next two months, the parties did not conduct active hostilities, accumulating forces. Wittgenstein's task was prevent the French from advancing towards St. Petersburg, Saint-Cyr blocked the Russian corps.

The main battles took place in the Moscow direction.

The 1st Western Russian Army was stretched from the Baltic Sea to Belarus (Lida). It was headed by Barclay de Tolly, chief of staff - General A.P. Ermolov. The Russian army was threatened with destruction in parts, because... Napoleonic army advanced rapidly. 2nd Western Army, led by P.I. Bagration, was located near Grodno. Bagration's attempt to connect with Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army was unsuccessful, and he retreated to the south. But the Cossacks of Ataman Platov supported Bagration’s army at Grodno. On July 8, Marshal Davout took Minsk, but Bagration, bypassing Minsk to the south, moved to Bobruisk. According to the plan, two Russian armies were to unite in Vitebsk in order to block the French road to Smolensk. A battle took place near Saltanovka, as a result of which Raevsky delayed Davout’s advance to Smolensk, but the path to Vitebsk was closed.

N. Samokish "The feat of Raevsky's soldiers near Saltanovka"

On July 23, Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army arrived in Vitebsk with the goal of waiting for the 2nd Army. Barclay de Tolly sent Osterman-Tolstoy's 4th Corps to meet the French, which fought near Vitebsk, near Ostrovno. However, the armies still could not reunite, and then Barclay de Tolly retreated from Vitebsk to Smolensk, where both Russian armies united on August 3. On August 13, Napoleon also set out for Smolensk, having rested in Vitebsk.

The 3rd Russian Southern Army was commanded by General Tormasov. The French General Rainier stretched his corps along a line of 179 km: Brest-Kobrin-Pinsk, Tormasov took advantage of the irrational location of the French army and defeated it near Kobrin, but, uniting with the corps of General Schwarzenberg, Rainier attacked Tormasov, and he was forced to retreat to Lutsk.

To Moscow!

Napoleon is credited with the phrase: “ If I take Kyiv, I will take Russia by the feet; if I take possession of St. Petersburg, I will take her by the head; Having occupied Moscow, I will strike her in the heart" Whether Napoleon spoke these words or not is now impossible to establish for sure. But one thing is clear: the main forces of Napoleonic army were aimed at capturing Moscow. On August 16, Napoleon was already at Smolensk with an army of 180 thousand and on the same day he began his assault. Barclay de Tolly did not consider it possible to fight here and retreated with his army from the burning city. The French Marshal Ney was pursuing the retreating Russian army, and the Russians decided to give him battle. On August 19, a bloody battle took place at Valutina Mountain, as a result of which Ney suffered heavy losses and was detained. The battle for Smolensk is the beginning of the people's, Patriotic, war: the population began to leave their homes and burn settlements along the route of the French army. Here Napoleon seriously doubted his brilliant victory and asked General P.A., who was captured in the battle of Valutina Gora. Tuchkova to write a letter to his brother so that he would bring to the attention of Alexander I Napoleon’s desire to make peace. He did not receive a response from Alexander I. Meanwhile, relations between Bagration and Barclay de Tolly after Smolensk became increasingly tense and irreconcilable: each saw his own path to victory over Napoleon. On August 17, the Extraordinary Committee approved Infantry General Kutuzov as the single commander-in-chief, and on August 29, in Tsarevo-Zaimishche, he already received the army. Meanwhile, the French had already entered Vyazma...

V. Kelerman "Moscow militias on the Old Smolensk Road"

M.I. Kutuzov, by that time already a famous military leader and diplomat, who served under Catherine II, Paul I, participated in the Russian-Turkish wars, in the Russian-Polish war, fell into disgrace with Alexander I in 1802, was removed from office and lived in his Goroshki estate in the Zhitomir region. But when Russia joined the coalition to fight Napoleon, he was appointed commander-in-chief of one of the armies and showed himself to be an experienced commander. But after the Austerlitz defeat, which Kutuzov opposed and which Alexander I insisted on, although he did not blame Kutuzov for the defeat, and even awarded him the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st degree, he did not forgive him for the defeat.

At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov was appointed head of the St. Petersburg and then the Moscow militia, but the unsuccessful course of the war showed that an experienced commander of the entire Russian army was needed who enjoyed the trust of society. Alexander I was forced to appoint Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army and militia.

Kutuzov initially continued Barclay de Tolly's strategy - retreat. The words are attributed to him: « We will not defeat Napoleon. We will deceive him».

At the same time, Kutuzov understood the need for a general battle: firstly, this was required by public opinion, which was concerned about the constant retreat of the Russian army; secondly, further retreat would mean the voluntary surrender of Moscow.

On September 3, the Russian army stood near the village of Borodino. Here Kutuzov decided to give a big battle, but in order to distract the French to gain time to prepare fortifications, he ordered General Gorchakov to fight near the village of Shevardino, where there was a fortified redoubt (a closed-type fortification, with a rampart and a ditch, intended for all-round defense). All day on September 5 there was a battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt.

After 12 hours of bloody battle, the French pressed the left flank and center of the Russian positions, but were unable to develop the offensive. The Russian army suffered heavy losses (40-45 thousand killed and wounded), the French - 30-34 thousand. There were almost no prisoners on either side. On September 8, Kutuzov ordered a retreat to Mozhaisk with the confidence that only in this way could the army be saved.

On September 13, a meeting was held in the village of Fili on the further plan of action. Most of the generals spoke in favor of a new battle. Kutuzov interrupted the meeting and ordered a retreat through Moscow along the Ryazan road. By the evening of September 14, Napoleon entered empty Moscow. On that same day, a fire began in Moscow, engulfing almost the entire Zemlyanoy City and White City, as well as the outskirts of the city, destroying three-quarters of the buildings.

A. Smirnov "Fire of Moscow"

There is still no single version about the causes of the fire in Moscow. There are several of them: organized arson by residents when leaving the city, deliberate arson by Russian spies, uncontrolled actions of the French, an accidental fire, the spread of which was facilitated by the general chaos in the abandoned city. Kutuzov directly pointed out that the French burned Moscow. Since the fire had several sources, it is possible that all versions are true.

More than half of the residential buildings, more than 8 thousand retail outlets, 122 churches out of the existing 329 were burned in the fire; Up to 2 thousand wounded Russian soldiers left in Moscow died. The university, theaters, and libraries were destroyed, and the manuscript “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the Trinity Chronicle were burned in the Musin-Pushkin palace. Not the entire population of Moscow left the city, only more than 50 thousand people (out of 270 thousand).

In Moscow, Napoleon, on the one hand, builds a plan for a campaign against St. Petersburg, on the other hand, he makes attempts to make peace with Alexander I, but at the same time remains with his demands (a continental blockade of England, the rejection of Lithuania and the creation of a military alliance with Russia). He makes three offers of truce, but receives no response from Alexander to any of them.

Militia

I. Arkhipov "Militia of 1812"

On July 18, 1812, Alexander I issued a Manifesto and an appeal to the residents of the “Most Throne Capital of our Moscow” with a call to join the militia (temporary armed formations to help the active army to repel the invasion of Napoleonic army). Zemstvo militias were limited to 16 provinces directly adjacent to the theater of operations:

District I - Moscow, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga, Smolensk provinces - was intended to protect Moscow.

District II - St. Petersburg and Novgorod provinces - provided “protection” of the capital.

III district (Volga region) - Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Kostroma, Simbirsk and Vyatka provinces - reserve of the first two militia districts.

The rest of the provinces should remain “inactive” until “there is a need to use them for sacrifices and services equal to the Fatherland.”

Drawing of the banner of the St. Petersburg militia

Chiefs of militias of the Patriotic War of 1812

Militia of districts and provinces of Russia	Chiefs
1st (Moscow) militia district	Moscow military governor general, infantry general F.V. Rostopchin (Rastopchin)
Moscow	Lieutenant General I.I. Morkov (Markov)
Tverskaya	Lieutenant General Ya.I. Tyrtov
Yaroslavskaya	Major General Ya.I. Dedyulin
Vladimirskaya	Lieutenant General B.A. Golitsyn
Ryazan	Major General L.D. Izmailov
Tula	Civil Governor, Privy Councilor N.I. Bogdanov from 16.11. 1812 – Major General I.I. Miller
Kaluzhskaya	Lieutenant General V.F. Shepelev
Smolenskaya	Lieutenant General N.P. Lebedev
II (St. Petersburg) militia district	General of Infantry M.I. Kutuzov (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), from 27.8. to 09.22.1812 Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky, then - Senator A.A. Bibikov
St. Petersburg	General of Infantry M.I. Kutuzov (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), from August 8, 1812, Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky
Novgorodskaya	Gene. from infantry N.S. Svechin, from Sep. 1812 Lieutenant General P.I. performed part-time duties. Meller-Zakomelsky, Zherebtsov A.A.
III (Volga region) militia district	Lieutenant General P.A. Tolstoy
Kazanskaya	Major General D.A. Bulygin
Nizhny Novgorod	Valid Chamberlain, Prince G.A. Georgian
Penza	Major General N.F. Kishensky
Kostromskaya	Lieutenant General P.G. Bordakov
Simbirskaya	Valid State Councilor D.V. Tenishev
Vyatskaya	—

The collection of militias was entrusted to the apparatus of state power, the nobility and the church. The military trained warriors, and a collection of funds for the militia was announced. Each landowner had to present a certain number of equipped and armed warriors from his serfs within a specified time frame. Unauthorized joining of the serfs' militia was considered a crime. Selection for the detachment was made by the landowner or peasant communities by lot.

I. Luchaninov "Blessing of the Militia"

There were not enough firearms for the militia; they were primarily allocated for the formation of reserve units of the regular army. Therefore, after the end of the gathering, all the militias, except for the St. Petersburg one, were armed mainly with edged weapons - pikes, spears and axes. Military training of the militia took place according to a shortened recruit training program by officers and lower ranks from the army and Cossack units. In addition to zemstvo (peasant) militias, the formation of Cossack militias began. Some wealthy landowners assembled entire regiments from their serfs or formed them at their own expense.

In some cities and villages adjacent to the Smolensk, Moscow, Kaluga, Tula, Tver, Pskov, Chernigov, Tambov, and Oryol provinces, “cordons” or “guard militias” were formed for self-defense and maintaining internal order.

The convening of the militia allowed the government of Alexander I to mobilize large human and material resources for the war in a short time. After completion of formation, the entire militia was under the unified command of Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov and the supreme leadership of Emperor Alexander I.

S. Gersimov "Kutuzov - Chief of the Militia"

During the period that the Great French Army was in Moscow, the Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tula, Ryazan and Kaluga militias defended the borders of their provinces from enemy foragers and marauders and, together with army partisans, blocked the enemy in Moscow, and when the French retreated, they were pursued by the militias of Moscow, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Tula, Kaluga, St. Petersburg and Novgorod zemstvo provincial troops, Don, Little Russian and Bashkir Cossack regiments, as well as individual battalions, squadrons and detachments. The militia could not be used as an independent fighting force, because they had poor military training and weapons. But they fought against enemy foragers, looters, deserters, and also performed police functions to maintain internal order. They destroyed and captured 10-12 thousand enemy soldiers and officers.

After the end of hostilities on Russian territory, all provincial militias, except Vladimir, Tver and Smolensk, participated in the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. In the spring of 1813, the Moscow and Smolensk troops were disbanded, and by the end of 1814, all other zemstvo troops were disbanded.

Guerrilla warfare

J. Doe "D.V. Davydov"

After the Moscow fire began, guerrilla warfare and passive resistance intensified. The peasants refused to supply the French with food and fodder, went into the forests, burned unharvested grain in the fields so that the enemy would not get anything. Flying partisan detachments were created to operate in the rear and on the enemy’s communication lines in order to impede his supplies and destroy his small detachments. The most famous commanders of the flying detachments were Denis Davydov, Alexander Seslavin, Alexander Figner. Army partisan detachments received full support from the spontaneous peasant partisan movement. It was the violence and looting by the French that sparked the guerrilla war. The partisans made up the first ring of encirclement around Moscow, occupied by the French, and the second ring was made up of militias.

Battle at Tarutino

Kutuzov, retreating, took the army south to the village of Tarutino, closer to Kaluga. Being on the old Kaluga road, Kutuzov's army covered Tula, Kaluga, Bryansk and the grain-producing southern provinces, and threatened the enemy rear between Moscow and Smolensk. He waited, knowing that Napoleon’s army would not last long in Moscow without provisions, and winter was approaching... On October 18, near Tarutino, he gave battle to the French barrier under the command of Murat - and Murat’s retreat marked the fact that the initiative in the war had passed to the Russians.

Beginning of the End

Napoleon was forced to think about wintering his army. Where? “I’m going to look for another position from where it will be more profitable to launch a new campaign, the action of which will be directed towards St. Petersburg or Kyiv" And at this time Kutuzov put under surveillance all possible escape routes for the Napoleonic army from Moscow. Kutuzov's foresight was manifested in the fact that with his Tarutino maneuver he anticipated the movement of French troops to Smolensk through Kaluga.

On October 19, the French army (consisting of 110 thousand) began to leave Moscow along the Old Kaluga Road. Napoleon planned to get to the nearest large food base in Smolensk through an area not devastated by the war - through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked his way. Then Napoleon turned near the village of Troitsky onto the New Kaluga Road (modern Kiev Highway) to bypass Tarutino. However, Kutuzov transferred the army to Maloyaroslavets and cut off the French retreat along the New Kaluga Road.

Beginning his Russian campaign of 1812, on the morning of June 11 (23), he addressed an appeal to the “Great Army” that had already been mobilized and prepared for the invasion. It said:

“Warriors! The Second Polish War begins. The first ended under Friedland and Tilsit... Russia gives us the choice of dishonor or war, it is not in doubt. We will go forward, cross the Neman and bring war into its heart.

The Second Polish War will glorify French weapons as much as the first. But the peace we make will be lasting and will destroy fifty years of proud and misplaced Russian influence in European affairs.”

On the same day, at 9 pm, the crossing of the Neman River began.

Napoleon's crossing of the Neman. Colorized engraving. OK. 1816

A. Albrecht. The Italian corps of Eugene Beauharnais is crossing the Neman. June 30, 1812

Napoleon's "Grand Army" invaded Russia suddenly, without a prior declaration of war. Here lay a “small” military trick. On June 10 (22), the Ambassador of France in St. Petersburg A. Lauriston presented to the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Prince A.I. Saltykov's note. It followed from this that from that time on, Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte “considers himself in a state of war with Russia.” In Vilna, where the Russian sovereign was located, the note was delivered only three days later.

Napoleon rejected the peace proposal, since by that time his vanguard units were already on Russian territory and moving forward. He asked the Russian general:

Tell me, to get to Moscow, which is the best road to take?

To the arrogant question of the Emperor of France, Lieutenant General A.D. Balashov answered dryly and briefly:

Charles XII walked through Poltava...

On June 12 (24), Emperor Alexander I signed the Manifesto on the beginning of the war with France. It called on all sectors of society to defend faith, Fatherland and freedom and resolutely stated:

“...I will not lay down my weapons until not a single enemy warrior remains in My Kingdom.”

The superiority of the “Great Army” in forces, as well as the unsuccessful strategic deployment on the border of the Russian armies, their lack of unified leadership, forced the army commanders to look for a way out of the current situation, which was seen in the speedy connection of the 1st and 2nd Western armies. But this could only be accomplished by retreating deeper into their territory along converging directions.

With rearguard battles, the Russian armies were forced to retreat...

With rearguard battles, the 1st and 2nd Western armies were forced to retreat under the pressure of superior enemy forces. The 1st Western Army left Vilna and retreated to the Dris camp, and soon a gap of 200 km opened between the armies. The main forces of Napoleonic troops rushed into it, which occupied Minsk on June 26 (July 8) and created the threat of defeating the Russian armies one by one.

However, such an offensive movement of the French did not go smoothly for them. On June 16 (28), the rearguard detachment of the major general gave a stubborn battle to the vanguard of the marshal's corps near Vilkomir. On the same day, the general's flying Cossack corps fought with the enemy near Grodno.

After taking Vilna without a fight, Napoleon, changing plans, decided to attack the 2nd Western Army, encircle it and destroy it. For this purpose, the troops of E. Beauharnais (30 thousand people) and J. Bonaparte (55 thousand people) were allocated, and the 50 thousand-strong corps of Marshal L. Davout was ordered, moving east of Minsk, to go to the Russian rear and close the encirclement.

P.I. Bagration managed to avoid the threat of encirclement only through a forced retreat in a southeastern direction. Skillfully maneuvering among the Belarusian forests, the commander quickly withdrew his troops through Bobruisk to Mogilev.

On July 6 (18), Emperor Alexander I addressed the people of Russia with an appeal to gather within the state.

The “Great Army” was melting before our eyes as it moved deeper into Russia. The French emperor had to allocate significant forces against those Russian troops who were on his flanks. On the way to Moscow, the 30,000-strong corps of Ch. Rainier and the 3rd Western Army were left behind. Against the 26 thousandth corps of the lieutenant general, operating in the St. Petersburg direction, the corps of N. Oudinot (38 thousand people) and (30 thousand people) were detached from the main forces. A 55,000-strong corps was sent to capture Riga.

After the French occupied Mogilev, the Russian armies continued to retreat in the direction of Smolensk. During the retreat, several fierce rearguard battles took place - near Mir, Ostrovno and Saltanovka.

A. Adam. Battle of Ostrovno July 27, 1812 1845

In the battle near the town of Mir on June 27 (July 9), the Cossack cavalry of cavalry general M.I. Platova inflicted a brutal defeat on the enemy cavalry. On July 11 (23) near Saltanovka, the 26th Infantry Division of Major General I.F. fought valiantly. Paskevich, which withstood the blow of superior French forces.

N.S. Samokish. The feat of Raevsky's soldiers near Saltanovka. 1912

Smolensk and Polotsk battles, battles at Kobrin and Gorodechny

On July 22 (August 3), the Russian armies united near Smolensk, keeping their main forces combat-ready. The first big battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place here. The Battle of Smolensk lasted three days: from August 4 (16) to August 6 (18).

The Russian regiments repelled all the attacks of the French and retreated only on orders, leaving the enemy a burning city, in which out of 2,250 houses only about 350 survived. Almost all the inhabitants left it with the troops. Courageous resistance near Smolensk thwarted Napoleon's plan to impose a general battle on the main Russian forces in unfavorable conditions for them.

P.A. Krivonogov. Defense of Smolensk. 1966

Failures plagued the advancing “Great Army” not only near Smolensk and Valutina Gora. An attempt by the French to advance in the St. Petersburg direction with the corps of N. Oudinot and L. Saint-Cyr (reinforced by Bavarian troops) ended in defeat during the battles of Klyastitsy and Golovchitsy on July 18-20 (July 30 - August 1). The corps of General S. Rainier failed at Kobrin on July 15 (27) and at Gorodechna on July 31 (August 12), and Marshal J. MacDonald was unable to capture Riga.

Appointment of Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzova

After the battles for Smolensk, the united Russian armies continued to retreat towards Moscow. M.B.’s retreat strategy, unpopular neither in the army nor in Russian society. Barclay de Tolly, leaving significant territory to the enemy forced Emperor Alexander I to establish the post of commander-in-chief of all Russian armies and on August 8 (20) appoint a 66-year-old infantry general to it.

His candidacy was unanimously supported by the Extraordinary Committee for the Selection of the Commander-in-Chief. Commander Kutuzov, who had extensive combat experience, was popular both among the Russian army and among the nobility. The emperor not only placed him at the head of the active army, but also subordinated to him the militias, reserves and civil authorities in the war-affected provinces.

Couriers were sent from the capital to the headquarters of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd Western and Danube armies with notification of the appointment of the commander-in-chief. August 17 (29) M.I. Kutuzov arrived at army headquarters. When Napoleon learned about the appearance of the commander-in-chief, so familiar to him, in the enemy’s camp, he uttered a phrase that became prophetic: “Kutuzov could not come in order to continue the retreat.”

The Russian commander was greeted by the troops with great enthusiasm. The soldiers said: “Kutuzov came to beat the French.” Everyone understood that now the war would take on a completely different character. The troops started talking about an imminent general battle with Napoleon’s “Grand Army” and that the retreat had come to an end.

S.V. Gerasimov. Arrival of M.I. Kutuzov in Tsarevo-Zaimishche. 1957

However, the commander-in-chief refused to give a general battle to the enemy at Tsarevo-Zaimishche, considering the chosen position unfavorable for the Russian troops. Having withdrawn the army for several marches towards Moscow, M.I. Kutuzov stopped in front of the city of Mozhaisk. The vast field near the village of Borodino made it possible to position troops with the greatest advantage and simultaneously block the Old and New Smolensk roads.

August 23 (September 4) Field Marshal M.I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov reported to Emperor Alexander I: “The position in which I stopped at the village of Borodino, 12 versts ahead of Mozhaisk, is one of the best, which can only be found in flat places. The weak point of this position, which is on the left flank, I will try to correct with art. It is desirable that the enemy attack us in this position; then I have great hope of victory.”

The offensive of Napoleon's “Great Army” during the Patriotic War of 1812

Battle for Shevardinsky redoubt

The Battle of Borodino had its own prologue - the battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt on August 24 (September 5) on the extreme left flank of the Russian position. Here the 27th Infantry Division of the Major General and the 5th Jaeger Regiment held the defense. In the second line stood the 4th Cavalry Corps of Major General K.K. Sievers. In total, these troops, under the overall command of a lieutenant general, numbered 8 thousand infantry, 4 thousand cavalry with 36 guns.

A fierce and bloody battle broke out near the unfinished pentagonal earthen redoubt. Three infantry divisions of the corps of Marshal L. Davout and the cavalry corps of generals E. Nansouty and L.-P. approached Shevardino. Montbrun tried to take the redoubt on the move. In total, about 30 thousand infantry, 10 thousand cavalry attacked this field fortification of Russian troops, and the fire of 186 guns fell. That is, at the beginning of the Battle of Shevardin, the French had more than three times superiority in forces and overwhelming superiority in artillery.

More and more troops were drawn into the matter. The firefight over and over again escalated into hand-to-hand combat. The redoubt changed hands three times that day. Taking advantage of their numerical superiority, the French, after a stubborn four-hour battle, still occupied the almost completely destroyed fortification by 8 pm, but were unable to keep it in their hands. Infantry General P.I. Bagration, who personally led the battle, having carried out a strong counterattack at night with the forces of the 2nd Grenadier and 2nd Cuirassier Divisions, again occupied the fortification. During that battle, the French 57th, 61st and 111th line regiments defending in the redoubt suffered significant casualties.

The field fortification was completely destroyed by artillery fire. Kutuzov realized that the redoubt could no longer pose a serious obstacle to Napoleonic troops, and ordered Bagration to retreat to the Semenov flushes. At 11 o'clock in the evening, the Russians left the Shevardinsky redoubt and took the guns with them. Three of them with broken carriages became enemy trophies.

French losses in the Battle of Shevardin amounted to about 5 thousand people, Russian losses were approximately the same. When the next day Napoleon inspected the 61st line regiment, the most damaged in the battle, he asked the regimental commander where one of his two battalions had gone. He replied: “Sire, he is in the redoubt.”

The general battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place on August 26 (September 7) on the Borodino field, famous for Russian weapons. When the “Great Army” approached Borodino, Kutuzov’s army prepared to meet it. Field fortifications were erected on the field at Kurgan Heights (Raevsky's battery) and near the village of Semenovskoye (unfinished Semenovsky, or Bagrationovsky, flashes).

Napoleon brought with him about 135 thousand people with 587 guns. Kutuzov had about 150 thousand people with 624 guns. But this number included 28 thousand poorly armed and untrained warriors of the Smolensk and Moscow militias and about 8 thousand irregular (Cossack) cavalry. The regular troops (113-114 thousand) also included 14.6 thousand recruits. Russian artillery had superiority in the number of large-caliber guns, but 186 of this number were not in combat positions, but in the main artillery reserve.

The battle began at 5 a.m. and lasted until 8 p.m. During the entire day, Napoleon failed to either break through the Russian position in the center or get around it from the flanks. The partial tactical successes of the French army - the Russians retreated about 1 km from their original position - did not become victorious for it. Late in the evening, the frustrated and bloodless French troops were withdrawn to their original positions. The Russian field fortifications they took were so destroyed that there was no longer any point in holding them. Napoleon never managed to defeat the Russian army.

The Battle of Borodino did not become decisive in the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon Bonaparte failed to achieve the main goal of his campaign in Russia - to defeat the Russian army in a general battle. He won tactically, but lost strategically. It is no coincidence that the great Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy considered the Battle of Borodino a moral victory for the Russians.

Since the losses in the battle were enormous and their reserves exhausted, the Russian army withdrew from the Borodino field, retreating to Moscow, while fighting a rearguard action. On September 1 (13), at the military council in Fili, a majority of votes supported the decision of the commander-in-chief “for the sake of preserving the army and Russia” to leave Moscow to the enemy without a fight. The next day, September 2 (14), Russian troops left the capital.

Change of strategic initiative

Under the cover of a rearguard commanded by an infantry general, the Main Russian Army carried out the Tarutino march-maneuver and settled in the Tarutino camp, reliably covering the south of the country.

Napoleon, who occupied Moscow after a catastrophic fire, languished for 36 days in the burnt-out huge city, waiting in vain for an answer to his proposal to Alexander I for peace, naturally, on terms favorable to him: after all, the French “struck Russia in the heart.”

However, during this time, the peasantry of the war-torn Great Russian provinces rose up in a large-scale people's war. Army partisan detachments were active. The active army was replenished by more than a dozen regiments of irregular cavalry, primarily 26 regiments of the Don Cossack militia.

Regiments of the Danube Army were redeployed to the south, to Volhynia, which, united with the 3rd Observation Army under the command of the admiral, carried out successful operations against the enemy. They pushed back the Austrian and Saxon corps of the “Grand Army”, occupied Minsk, where the French rear stores were located, and captured Borisov.

The troops of the French emperor were actually surrounded: Borisov, located in front of them, was occupied by the Russians, Wittgenstein's corps was hanging from the north, and the Main Army was moving from the east. In such a critical situation, Napoleon demonstrated extraordinary energy and high skill as a commander. He distracted the attention of Admiral P.V. Chichagova arranged a false crossing south of Borisov, and he himself was able to transfer the remnants of the troops across two hastily built bridges across the Berezina at Studenka.

Yu. Falat. Bridge over the Berezina. 1890

But crossing the Berezina was a disaster for the “Great Army”. She lost here, according to various estimates, from 25 to 40 thousand people killed, wounded and captured. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to bring out and preserve for the future the flower of his generals, most of the officer corps and the imperial guard.

P. Hess. Crossing the Berezina. 1840s

The liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire from the enemy ended on December 14 (26), when Russian troops occupied the border cities of Bialystok and Brest-Litovsk.

In an order to the army, “the savior of the Fatherland,” Field Marshal Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince of Smolensky, congratulated the troops on the complete expulsion of the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” This is how the Patriotic War of 1812 ended, or, as the great Russian poet A.S. called it. Pushkin, “The Thunderstorm of the Twelfth Year.”

“The enemy with poor remnants fled across our border”

The main result of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the virtual destruction of the “Great Army” of Emperor Napoleon I. His political prestige and the military power of his empire were irreparably damaged.

Unknown artist. Napoleon's departure from the army in 1812

It is believed that out of 608 thousand people who took part in Napoleonic’s Russian campaign, approximately 30 thousand people crossed back across the Neman. Only the corps of the Austrians, Prussians and Saxons operating on the flanks of the “Great Army” suffered minor losses. More than 550 thousand soldiers and officers from Western European countries died on the fields of Russia or were captured. The chief of staff of the Grand Army, Marshal A. Berthier, reported to the French emperor: “The army no longer exists.”

E. Kossak. Napoleon's retreat from Russia. 1827

M.I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov wrote to Alexander I at the end of the war: “The enemy with his poor remnants fled across our border.” His report to the emperor about the results of the 1812 campaign said: “Napoleon entered with 480 thousand, and withdrew about 20 thousand, leaving 150 thousand prisoners and 850 guns in place.”

Retreat of Napoleon's Grand Army from Russia

The official end of the Patriotic War of 1812 is considered to be the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I dated December 25 of the same year. In it, the victorious sovereign publicly announced that he had kept his word not to stop the war “until one of the enemies remains on Our land.”

The collapse of the Napoleonic invasion of Russia and the death of the “Great Army” in its vastness did not yet mean that Napoleonic France was defeated. But the victory of Russian arms in 1812 dramatically changed the political climate in Europe. Soon, the Prussian Kingdom and the Austrian Empire, allies of France, became allies of Russia, whose army became the core of the forces of the 6th anti-French coalition.

Material prepared by the Research Institute (military history)
Military Academy of the General Staff
Armed Forces of the Russian Federation

Russia's war for freedom and independence against the aggression of France and its allies.

It was a consequence of deep political contradictions between the France of Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte, which sought European dominance, and the Russian Empire, which opposed its political and territorial claims.

On the French side, the war was of a coalition nature. The Confederation of the Rhine alone supplied 150 thousand people to Napoleonic army. Eight army corps were composed of foreign contingents. In the Great Army there were about 72 thousand Poles, over 36 thousand Prussians, about 31 thousand Austrians, and a significant number of representatives of other European states. The total strength of the French army was about 1200 thousand people. More than half of it was intended for the invasion of Russia.

By June 1, 1812, Napoleonic invasion forces included the Imperial Guard, 12 infantry corps, cavalry reserve (4 corps), artillery and engineering parks - a total of 678 thousand people and about 2.8 thousand guns.

Napoleon I used the Duchy of Warsaw as a springboard for the attack. His strategic plan was to quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army in a general battle, capture Moscow and impose a peace treaty on the Russian Empire on French terms. The enemy invasion forces were deployed in 2 echelons. The 1st echelon consisted of 3 groups (total 444 thousand people, 940 guns), located between the Neman and Vistula rivers. The 1st group (left wing troops, 218 thousand people, 527 guns) under the direct command of Napoleon I concentrated on the line Elbing (now Elblag), Thorn (now Torun) for an offensive through Kovno (now Kaunas) to Vilna (now Vilnius) . The 2nd group (general E. Beauharnais; 82 thousand people, 208 guns) was intended to attack in the zone between Grodno and Kovno with the aim of separating the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies. The 3rd group (under the command of the brother of Napoleon I - J. Bonaparte; troops of the right wing, 78 thousand people, 159 guns) had the task of moving from Warsaw to Grodno to pull back the Russian 2nd Western Army to facilitate the offensive of the main forces . These troops were supposed to encircle and destroy piece by piece the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies with sweeping blows. On the left wing, the invasion of the 1st group of troops was supported by the Prussian corps (32 thousand people) of Marshal J. MacDonald. On the right wing, the invasion of the 3rd group of troops was supported by the Austrian corps (34 thousand people) of Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg. In the rear, between the Vistula and Oder rivers, there remained the troops of the 2nd echelon (170 thousand people, 432 guns) and the reserve (the corps of Marshal P. Augereau and other troops).

After a series of anti-Napoleonic wars, the Russian Empire remained in international isolation by the beginning of the Patriotic War, also experiencing financial and economic difficulties. In the two pre-war years, its expenses for the needs of the army amounted to more than half of the state budget. Russian troops on the western borders had about 220 thousand people and 942 guns. They were deployed in 3 groups: the 1st Ignite Army (infantry general; 6 infantry, 2 cavalry and 1 Cossack corps; about 128 thousand people, 558 guns) constituted the main forces and was located between Rossieny (now Raseiniai, Lithuania) and Lida; The 2nd Western Army (infantry general; 2 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; about 49 thousand people, 216 guns) concentrated between the Neman and Bug rivers; The 3rd Western Army (cavalry general A.P. Tormasov; 3 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; 43 thousand people, 168 guns) was stationed in the Lutsk area. In the Riga area there was a separate corps (18.5 thousand people) of Lieutenant General I. N. Essen. The nearest reserves (the corps of Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky and Lieutenant General F.F. Ertel) were located in the areas of the cities of Toropets and Mozyr. In the south, in Podolia, the Danube Army (about 30 thousand people) of Admiral P.V. Chichagov was concentrated. The leadership of all armies was carried out by the emperor, who was with his main apartment at the 1st Western Army. The commander-in-chief was not appointed, but Barclay de Tolly, being the Minister of War, had the right to give orders on behalf of the emperor. The Russian armies stretched out on a front stretching over 600 km, and the main forces of the enemy - 300 km. This put Russian troops in a difficult position. By the beginning of the enemy invasion, Alexander I accepted the plan proposed by his military adviser, the Prussian general K. Fuhl. According to his plan, the 1st Western Army, having retreated from the border, was supposed to take refuge in a fortified camp, and the 2nd Western Army would go to the flank and rear of the enemy.

According to the nature of military events in the Patriotic War, 2 periods are distinguished. The 1st period - from the invasion of French troops on June 12 (24) to October 5 (17) - includes defensive actions, the Tarutino flank march-maneuver of Russian troops, their preparation for the offensive and guerrilla operations on enemy communications. 2nd period - from the transition of the Russian army to a counteroffensive on October 6 (18) to the defeat of the enemy and the complete liberation of Russian land on December 14 (26).

The pretext for the attack on the Russian Empire was Alexander I’s alleged violation of the main, in the opinion of Napoleon I, provision - “to be in an eternal alliance with France and in the war with England,” which manifested itself in the sabotage of the continental blockade by the Russian Empire. On June 10 (22), Napoleon I, through the ambassador in St. Petersburg J. A. Lauriston, officially declared war on Russia, and on June 12 (24), the French army began crossing the Neman across 4 bridges (near Kovno and other cities). Having received news of the invasion of French troops, Alexander I attempted to resolve the conflict peacefully, calling on the French emperor to “withdraw his troops from Russian territory.” However, Napoleon I rejected this proposal.

Under pressure from superior enemy forces, the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat into the interior of the country. The 1st Western Army left Vilna and retreated to the Drissa camp (near the city of Drissa, now Verhnedvinsk, Belarus), increasing the gap with the 2nd Western Army to 200 km. The main enemy forces rushed into it on June 26 (July 8), occupying Minsk and creating the threat of defeating the Russian armies one by one. The 1st and 2nd Western Armies, intending to unite, retreated in converging directions: the 1st Western Army from Drissa through Polotsk to Vitebsk (to cover the St. Petersburg direction, the corps of Lieutenant General, from November General of Infantry P.Kh. Wittgenstein), and the 2nd Western Army from Slonim to Nesvizh, Bobruisk, Mstislavl.

The war shook up the entire Russian society: peasants, merchants, commoners. By mid-summer, self-defense units began to spontaneously form in the occupied territory to protect their villages from French raids. foragers and marauders (see Looting). Having assessed the significance, the Russian military command took measures to expand and organize it. For this purpose, army partisan detachments were created in the 1st and 2nd Western armies on the basis of regular troops. In addition, according to the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I of July 6 (18), recruitment into the people's militia was carried out in Central Russia and the Volga region. Its creation, recruitment, financing and supply were led by the Special Committee. The Orthodox Church made a significant contribution to the fight against foreign invaders, calling on the people to protect their state and religious shrines, collecting about 2.5 million rubles for the needs of the Russian army (from the church treasury and as a result of donations from parishioners).

On July 8 (20), the French occupied Mogilev and did not allow the Russian armies to unite in the Orsha region. Only thanks to persistent rearguard battles and maneuver did the Russian armies unite near Smolensk on July 22 (August 3). By this time, Wittgenstein’s corps had retreated to a line north of Polotsk and, having pinned down the enemy’s forces, weakened his main group. The 3rd Western Army, after the battles on July 15 (27) near Kobrin, and on July 31 (August 12) near Gorodechnaya (now both cities are in the Brest region, Belarus), where it inflicted great damage on the enemy, defended itself on the river. Styr.

The beginning of the war upset the strategic plan of Napoleon I. The Grand Army lost up to 150 thousand people killed, wounded, sick and deserters. Its combat effectiveness and discipline began to decline, and the pace of the offensive slowed down. On July 17 (29), Napoleon I was forced to give the order to stop his army for 7-8 days in the area from Velizh to Mogilev to rest and await the arrival of reserves and rear forces. Submitting to the will of Alexander I, who demanded active action, the military council of the 1st and 2nd Western armies decided to take advantage of the dispersed position of the enemy and break the front of his main forces with a counterattack in the direction of Rudnya and Porechye (now the city of Demidov). On July 26 (August 7), Russian troops launched a counteroffensive, but due to poor organization and lack of coordination, it did not bring the expected results. Napoleon I used the battles that ensued near Rudnya and Porechye to suddenly transport his troops across the Dnieper, threatening to capture Smolensk. The troops of the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat to Smolensk in order to reach the Moscow road before the enemy. During the Battle of Smolensk in 1812, the Russian armies, through active defense and skillful maneuver of reserves, managed to avoid a general battle imposed by Napoleon I in unfavorable conditions and on the night of August 6 (18) retreat to Dorogobuzh. The enemy continued to advance on Moscow.

The length of the retreat caused grumbling among the soldiers and officers of the Russian army and general discontent in Russian society. The departure from Smolensk exacerbated hostile relations between P. I. Bagration and M. B. Barclay de Tolly. This forced Alexander I to establish the post of commander-in-chief of all active Russian armies and appoint to it the infantry general (from August 19 (31) Field Marshal General) M. I. Kutuzov, the head of the St. Petersburg and Moscow militias. Kutuzov arrived in the army on August 17 (29) and took over the main command.

Having found a position near Tsarev Zaymishcha (now a village in the Vyazemsky district of the Smolensk region), where Barclay de Tolly on August 19 (31) intended to give the enemy a battle that was unfavorable and the army’s forces were insufficient, Kutuzov withdrew his troops to several crossings to the east and stopped in front of Mozhaisk, near the village Borodino, on a field that made it possible to position troops advantageously and block the Old and New Smolensk roads. The arriving reserves under the command of the general from infantry, the Moscow and Smolensk militias made it possible to increase the forces of the Russian army to 132 thousand people and 624 guns. Napoleon I had a force of about 135 thousand people and 587 guns. Neither side achieved its goals: Napoleon I was unable to defeat the Russian army, Kutuzov was unable to block the path of the Great Army to Moscow. The Napoleonic army, having lost about 50 thousand people (according to French data, over 30 thousand people) and most of the cavalry, turned out to be seriously weakened. Kutuzov, having received information about the losses of the Russian army (44 thousand people), refused to continue the battle and gave the order to retreat.

By retreating to Moscow, he hoped to partially make up for the losses suffered and fight a new battle. But the position chosen by cavalry general L.L. Bennigsen near the walls of Moscow turned out to be extremely unfavorable. Taking into account that the first actions of the partisans showed high efficiency, Kutuzov ordered to take them under the control of the General Staff of the field army, entrusting their leadership to the duty general of staff, General-L. P. P. Konovnitsyna. At a military council in the village of Fili (now within the boundaries of Moscow) on September 1 (13), Kutuzov ordered to leave Moscow without a fight. Most of the population left the city along with the troops. On the very first day the French entered Moscow, fires began, lasting until September 8 (20) and devastating the city. While the French were in Moscow, partisan detachments surrounded the city in an almost continuous mobile ring, not allowing enemy foragers to move further than 15-30 km from it. The most active were the actions of the army partisan detachments, I. S. Dorokhov, A. N. Seslavin and A. S. Figner.

Leaving Moscow, Russian troops retreated along the Ryazan road. After walking 30 km, they crossed the Moscow River and turned west. Then, with a forced march, they crossed to the Tula road and on September 6 (18) concentrated in the Podolsk area. After 3 days they were already on the Kaluga road and on September 9 (21) they stopped at a camp near the village of Krasnaya Pakhra (since July 1, 2012, within Moscow). Having completed 2 more transitions, Russian troops concentrated on September 21 (October 3) near the village of Tarutino (now a village in the Zhukovsky district of the Kaluga region). As a result of a skillfully organized and executed marching maneuver, they broke away from the enemy and took up an advantageous position for a counterattack.

The active participation of the population in the partisan movement turned the war from a confrontation between regular armies into a people's war. The main forces of the Great Army and all its communications from Moscow to Smolensk were under the threat of attacks from Russian troops. The French lost their freedom of maneuver and activity. The routes to the provinces south of Moscow that were not devastated by the war were closed to them. The “small war” launched by Kutuzov further complicated the enemy’s position. Bold operations of army and peasant partisan detachments disrupted the supply of French troops. Realizing the critical situation, Napoleon I sent General J. Lauriston to the headquarters of the Russian commander-in-chief with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected them, saying that the war was just beginning and would not stop until the enemy was completely expelled from Russia.

The Russian army located in the Tarutino camp reliably covered the south of the country: Kaluga with military reserves concentrated there, Tula and Bryansk with weapons and foundries. At the same time, reliable communications were ensured with the 3rd Western and Danube armies. In the Tarutino camp, the troops were reorganized, re-equipped (their number was increased to 120 thousand people), and supplied with weapons, ammunition and food. There was now 2 times more artillery than the enemy, and 3.5 times more cavalry. The provincial militia numbered 100 thousand people. They covered Moscow in a semicircle along the line Klin, Kolomna, Aleksin. Under Tarutin, M.I. Kutuzov developed a plan for encircling and defeating the Great Army in the area between the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers with the main forces of the active army, the Danube Army of P.V. Chichagov and the corps of P.H. Wittgenstein.

The first blow was struck on October 6 (18) against the vanguard of the French army on the Chernishnya River (Battle of Tarutino 1812). The troops of Marshal I. Murat lost 2.5 thousand killed and 2 thousand prisoners in this battle. Napoleon I was forced to leave Moscow on October 7 (19), and advanced detachments of Russian troops entered it on October 10 (22). The French lost about 5 thousand people and began to retreat along the Old Smolensk Road, which they had destroyed. The Tarutino battle and the battle of Maloyaroslavets marked a radical turning point in the war. The strategic initiative finally passed into the hands of the Russian command. From that time on, the fighting of Russian troops and partisans acquired an active character and included such methods of armed struggle as parallel pursuit and encirclement of enemy troops. The persecution was carried out in several directions: a detachment of Major General P.V. Golenishchev-Kutuzov operated north of the Smolensk road; along the Smolensk road - the Cossack regiments of the cavalry general; south of the Smolensk road - the vanguard of M. A. Miloradovich and the main forces of the Russian army. Having overtaken the enemy's rearguard near Vyazma, Russian troops defeated him on October 22 (November 3) - the French lost about 8.5 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, then in battles near Dorogobuzh, near Dukhovshchina, near the village of Lyakhovo (now Glinsky district of Smolensk region) - more than 10 thousand people.

The surviving part of Napoleon's army retreated to Smolensk, but there were no food supplies or reserves there. Napoleon I hastily began to withdraw his troops further. But in the battles near Krasnoye and then near Molodechno, Russian troops defeated the French. Scattered enemy units retreated to the river along the road to Borisov. The 3rd Western Army was approaching there to join the corps of P.H. Wittgenstein. Her troops occupied Minsk on November 4 (16), and on November 9 (21), P. V. Chichagov’s army approached Borisov and, after a battle with the detachment of General Ya. Kh. Dombrovsky, occupied the city and the right bank of the Berezina. Wittgenstein's corps, after a stubborn battle with the French corps of Marshal L. Saint-Cyr, captured Polotsk on October 8 (20). Having crossed the Western Dvina, Russian troops occupied Lepel (now Vitebsk region, Belarus) and defeated the French at Chashniki. With the approach of Russian troops to the Berezina, a “sack” was formed in the Borisov area, in which the retreating French troops were surrounded. However, Wittgenstein's indecision and Chichagov's mistakes made it possible for Napoleon I to prepare a crossing across the Berezina and avoid the complete destruction of his army. Having reached Smorgon (now Grodno region, Belarus), on November 23 (December 5), Napoleon I left for Paris, and the remnants of his army were almost completely destroyed.

On December 14 (26), Russian troops occupied Bialystok and Brest-Litovsk (now Brest), completing the liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire. On December 21, 1812 (January 2, 1813), M.I. Kutuzov, in an order to the army, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from the country and called on “to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.”

The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 preserved the independence of Russia, and the defeat of the Great Army not only dealt a crushing blow to the military power of Napoleonic France, but also played a decisive role in the liberation of a number of European states from French expansion, strengthened the liberation struggle of the Spanish people, etc. As a result of the Russian army in 1813 -14 and the liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe, the Napoleonic empire collapsed. The victory in the Patriotic War was at the same time used to strengthen autocracy both in the Russian Empire and in Europe. Alexander I headed the Holy Alliance created by European monarchs, whose activities were aimed at suppressing the revolutionary, republican and liberation movements in Europe. The Napoleonic army lost over 500 thousand people in Russia, all the cavalry and almost all the artillery (only the corps of J. MacDonald and K. Schwarzenberg survived); Russian troops - about 300 thousand people.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is distinguished by its large spatial scope, tension, and variety of strategic and tactical forms of armed struggle. The military art of Napoleon I, which surpassed that of all the armies of Europe at that time, collapsed in a clash with the Russian army. Russian strategy surpassed Napoleonic strategy, designed for a short-term campaign. M.I. Kutuzov skillfully used the popular nature of the war and, taking into account political and strategic factors, implemented his plan to fight the Napoleonic army. The experience of the Patriotic War contributed to the consolidation of column and loose formation tactics in the actions of troops, increasing the role of aimed fire, improving the interaction of infantry, cavalry and artillery; The form of organization of military formations - divisions and corps - was firmly established. The reserve became an integral part of the battle formation, and the role of artillery in battle increased.

The Patriotic War of 1812 occupies an important place in the history of Russia. She demonstrated the unity of all classes in the fight against foreigners. aggression, was the most important factor in the formation of Russian self-awareness. people. Under the influence of the victory over Napoleon I, the ideology of the Decembrists began to take shape. The experience of the war was summarized in the works of domestic and foreign military historians; the patriotism of the Russian people and army inspired the creativity of Russian writers, artists, and composers. The victory in the Patriotic War was associated with the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow and numerous churches throughout the Russian Empire; military trophies were kept in the Kazan Cathedral. The events of the Patriotic War are captured in numerous monuments on the Borodino field, in Maloyaroslavets and Tarutino, reflected in triumphal arches in Moscow and St. Petersburg, paintings of the Winter Palace, the panorama “Battle of Borodino” in Moscow, etc. A huge amount of memoir literature has been preserved about the Patriotic War.

Additional literature:

Akhsharumov D.I. Description of the War of 1812. St. Petersburg, 1819;

Buturlin D.P. The history of Emperor Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1837-1838. Part 1-2;

Okunev N.A. Discourse on the great military actions, battles and battles that took place during the invasion of Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1841;

Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky A.I. Description of the Patriotic War of 1812. 3rd ed. St. Petersburg, 1843;

Bogdanovich M.I. History of the Patriotic War of 1812 according to reliable sources. St. Petersburg, 1859-1860. T. 1-3;

Patriotic War of 1812: Materials of the Military Scientific Archive. Dept. 1-2. St. Petersburg, 1900-1914. [Vol. 1-22];

Patriotic War and Russian society, 1812-1912. M., 1911-1912. T. 1-7;

Great Patriotic War: 1812 St. Petersburg, 1912;

Zhilin P.A. Counter-offensive of the Russian army in 1812. 2nd ed. M., 1953;

aka. The death of Napoleonic army in Russia. 2nd ed. M., 1974;

aka. Patriotic War of 1812. 3rd ed. M., 1988;

M.I. Kutuzov: [Documents and materials]. M., 1954-1955. T. 4. Parts 1-2;

1812: Sat. articles. M., 1962;

Babkin V.I. People's militia in the Patriotic War of 1812. M., 1962;

Beskrovny L.G. Patriotic War of 1812. M., 1962;

Korneychik E.I. The Belarusian people in the Patriotic War of 1812. Minsk, 1962;

Sirotkin V.G. Duel of two diplomacy: Russia and France in 1801-1812. M., 1966;

aka. Alexander the First and Napoleon: a duel on the eve of the war. M., 2012;

Tartakovsky A.G. 1812 and Russian memoirs: Experience in source study. M., 1980;

Abalikhin B.S., Dunaevsky V.A. 1812 at the crossroads of the opinions of Soviet historians, 1917-1987. M., 1990;

1812. Memoirs of soldiers of the Russian army: From the collection of the Department of Written Sources of the State Historical Museum. M., 1991;

Tarle E.V. Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812. M., 1992;

aka. 1812: El. works. M., 1994;

1812 in the memoirs of contemporaries. M., 1995;

Gulyaev Yu.N., Soglaev V.T. Field Marshal Kutuzov: [Historical and biographical sketch]. M., 1995;

Russian archive: History of the Fatherland in evidence and documents of the 18th-20th centuries. M., 1996. Issue. 7;

Kircheisen F. Napoleon I: In 2 vols. M., 1997;

Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns: The triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 1999;

Sokolov O.V. Napoleon's army. St. Petersburg, 1999;

Shein I.A. The War of 1812 in Russian historiography. M., 2002.

Already in Moscow, this war would not turn into a brilliant victory for him, but a shameful flight from Russia the distraught soldiers of his once great army, which conquered all of Europe? In 1807, after the defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the French near Friedland, Emperor Alexander I was forced to sign the unfavorable and humiliating Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon. At that moment, no one thought that in a few years Russian troops would drive Napoleon’s army to Paris, and Russia would take a leading position in European politics.

Causes and course of the Patriotic War of 1812

Main reasons

Violation by both Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia sabotaged the continental blockade of England, which was disadvantageous for itself. France, in violation of the treaty, stationed troops in Prussia, annexing the Duchy of Oldenburg.
The policy towards European states pursued by Napoleon without taking into account the interests of Russia.
An indirect reason can also be considered that Bonaparte twice made attempts to marry the sisters of Alexander the First, but both times he was refused.

Since 1810, both sides have been actively pursuing preparation to war, accumulating military forces.

Beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812

Who, if not Bonaparte, who conquered Europe, could be confident in his blitzkrieg? Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army in border battles. Early in the morning of June 24, 1812, the Grand Army of the French crossed the Russian border in four places.

The northern flank under the command of Marshal MacDonald set out in the direction of Riga - St. Petersburg. Main a group of troops under the command of Napoleon himself advanced towards Smolensk. To the south of the main forces, the offensive was developed by the corps of Napoleon's stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. The corps of the Austrian general Karl Schwarzenberg was advancing in the Kiev direction.

After crossing the border, Napoleon failed to maintain the high tempo of the offensive. It was not only the vast Russian distances and the famous Russian roads that were to blame. The local population gave the French army a slightly different reception than in Europe. Sabotage food supplies from the occupied territories became the most massive form of resistance to the invaders, but, of course, only a regular army could provide serious resistance to them.

Before joining Moscow The French army had to participate in nine major battles. In a large number of battles and armed skirmishes. Even before the occupation of Smolensk, the Great Army lost 100 thousand soldiers, but, in general, the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 was extremely unsuccessful for the Russian army.

On the eve of the invasion of Napoleonic army, Russian troops were dispersed in three places. The first army of Barclay de Tolly was near Vilna, the second army of Bagration was near Volokovysk, and the third army of Tormasov was in Volyn. Strategy Napoleon's goal was to break up the Russian armies separately. Russian troops begin to retreat.

Through the efforts of the so-called Russian party, instead of Barclay de Tolly, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed to the post of commander-in-chief, with whom many generals with Russian surnames sympathized. The retreat strategy was not popular in Russian society.

However, Kutuzov continued to adhere to tactics retreat chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon sought to impose a main, general battle on the Russian army as soon as possible.

The main battles of the Patriotic War of 1812

Bloody battle for Smolensk became a rehearsal for a general battle. Bonaparte, hoping that the Russians will concentrate all their forces here, is preparing the main blow, and pulls up an army of 185 thousand to the city. Despite Bagration's objections, Baclay de Tolly decides to leave Smolensk. The French, having lost more than 20 thousand people in battle, entered the burning and destroyed city. The Russian army, despite the surrender of Smolensk, retained its combat effectiveness.

The news about surrender of Smolensk overtook Kutuzov near Vyazma. Meanwhile, Napoleon advanced his army towards Moscow. Kutuzov found himself in a very serious situation. He continued his retreat, but before leaving Moscow, Kutuzov had to fight a general battle. The protracted retreat left a depressing impression on the Russian soldiers. Everyone was full of desire to give a decisive battle. When a little more than a hundred miles remained to Moscow, on a field near the village of Borodino the Great Army collided, as Bonaparte himself later admitted, with the Invincible Army.

Before the start of the battle, the Russian troops numbered 120 thousand, the French numbered 135 thousand. On the left flank of the formation of Russian troops were Semyonov’s flashes and units of the second army Bagration. On the right are the battle formations of the first army of Barclay de Tolly, and the old Smolensk road was covered by the third infantry corps of General Tuchkov.

At dawn, September 7, Napoleon inspected the positions. At seven o'clock in the morning the French batteries gave the signal to begin the battle.

The grenadiers of Major General took the brunt of the first blow Vorontsova and 27th Infantry Division Nemerovsky near the village of Semenovskaya. The French broke into Semyonov's flushes several times, but abandoned them under the pressure of Russian counterattacks. During the main counterattack here, Bagration was mortally wounded. As a result, the French managed to capture the flushes, but they did not gain any advantages. They failed to break through the left flank, and the Russians retreated in an organized manner to the Semyonov ravines, taking up a position there.

A difficult situation developed in the center, where Bonaparte’s main attack was directed, where the battery fought desperately Raevsky. To break the resistance of the battery defenders, Napoleon was already ready to bring his main reserve into battle. But this was prevented by Platov’s Cossacks and Uvarov’s cavalrymen, who, on Kutuzov’s orders, carried out a swift raid into the rear of the French left flank. This stopped the French advance on Raevsky's battery for about two hours, which allowed the Russians to bring up some reserves.

After bloody battles, the Russians retreated from Raevsky’s battery in an organized manner and again took up defensive positions. The battle, which had already lasted twelve hours, gradually subsided.

During Battle of Borodino The Russians lost almost half of their personnel, but continued to hold their positions. The Russian army lost twenty-seven of its best generals, four of them were killed, and twenty-three were wounded. The French lost about thirty thousand soldiers. Of the thirty French generals who were incapacitated, eight died.

Brief results of the Battle of Borodino:

Napoleon was unable to defeat the Russian army and achieve the complete surrender of Russia.
Kutuzov, although he greatly weakened Bonaparte’s army, was unable to defend Moscow.

Despite the fact that the Russians were formally unable to win, the Borodino field forever remained in Russian history as a field of Russian glory.

Having received information about losses near Borodino, Kutuzov I realized that the second battle would be disastrous for the Russian army, and Moscow would have to be abandoned. At the military council in Fili, Kutuzov insisted on the surrender of Moscow without a fight, although many generals were against it.

September 14 Russian army left Moscow. The Emperor of Europe, observing the majestic panorama of Moscow from Poklonnaya Hill, was waiting for the city delegation with the keys to the city. After the hardships and hardships of war, Bonaparte’s soldiers found long-awaited warm apartments, food and valuables in the abandoned city, which the Muscovites, who had mostly left the city with the army, did not have time to take out.

After widespread looting and looting Fires started in Moscow. Due to the dry and windy weather, the entire city was on fire. For safety reasons, Napoleon was forced to move from the Kremlin to the suburban Petrovsky Palace; on the way, he got lost and almost burned himself to death.

Bonaparte allowed the soldiers of his army to plunder what was not yet burned. The French army was distinguished by its defiant disdain for the local population. Marshal Davout built his bedroom in the altar of the Archangel Church. Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin The French used it as a stable, and in Arkhangelskoye they organized an army kitchen. The oldest monastery in Moscow, St. Daniel's Monastery, was equipped for cattle slaughter.

This behavior of the French outraged the entire Russian people to the core. Everyone burned with vengeance for the desecrated shrines and the desecration of the Russian land. Now the war has finally acquired the character and content domestic.

The expulsion of the French from Russia and the end of the war

Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, committed maneuver, thanks to which the French army had already lost the initiative before the end of the war. The Russians, retreating along the Ryazan road, were able to march onto the old Kaluga road, and entrenched themselves near the village of Tarutino, from where they were able to control all directions leading from Moscow to the south, through Kaluga.

Kutuzov foresaw that precisely Kaluga land unaffected by the war, Bonaparte will begin to retreat. The entire time Napoleon was in Moscow, the Russian army was replenished with fresh reserves. On October 18, near the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov attacked the French units of Marshal Murat. As a result of the battle, the French lost more than four thousand people and retreated. Russian losses amounted to about one and a half thousand.

Bonaparte realized the futility of his expectations of a peace treaty, and the very next day after the Tarutino battle he hastily left Moscow. The Grand Army now resembled a barbarian horde with plundered property. Having completed complex maneuvers on the march to Kaluga, the French entered Maloyaroslavets. On October 24, Russian troops decided to drive the French out of the city. Maloyaroslavets as a result of a stubborn battle, it changed hands eight times.

This battle became a turning point in the history of the Patriotic War of 1812. The French had to retreat along the old Smolensk road they had destroyed. Now the once Great Army considered its successful retreats as victories. Russian troops used parallel pursuit tactics. After the battle of Vyazma, and especially after the battle near the village of Krasnoye, where the losses of Bonaparte’s army were comparable to its losses at Borodino, the effectiveness of such tactics became obvious.

In the territories occupied by the French they were active partisans. Bearded peasants, armed with pitchforks and axes, suddenly appeared from the forest, which numbed the French. The element of people's war captured not only the peasants, but also all classes of Russian society. Kutuzov himself sent his son-in-law, Prince Kudashev, to the partisans, who led one of the detachments.

The last and decisive blow was dealt to Napoleon's army at the crossing Berezina River. Many Western historians consider the Berezina operation almost a triumph of Napoleon, who managed to preserve the Great Army, or rather its remnants. About 9 thousand French soldiers were able to cross the Berezina.

Napoleon, who did not lose, in fact, a single battle in Russia, lost campaign. The Great Army ceased to exist.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

In the vastness of Russia, the French army was almost completely destroyed, which affected the balance of power in Europe.
The self-awareness of all layers of Russian society has increased unusually.
Russia, having emerged victorious from the war, strengthened its position in the geopolitical arena.
The national liberation movement intensified in European countries conquered by Napoleon.