Where was Pithecanthropus found on the map? Main stages of anthropogenesis

Pithecanthropus - lower left first premolar.
Speaking about the finds of bone remains of the oldest representative of humanity on the island of Java, it should be mentioned that Dubois himself was lucky enough to discover a fragment of the anterior lower jaw of Pithecanthropus in Kedung Brubus.
The discovery of the remains of Pithecanthropus aroused enormous interest and passionate debate in the world of scientists. Many opposed the interpretation of Pithecanthropus as a transitional form. Rudolf Virchow (1895) considered Pithecanthropus to be a huge gibbon or other large fossil anthropoid. According to Virchow, Pithecanthropus is neither a new genus of hominids nor the long-awaited missing intermediate link between humans and apes.
Even before the discovery of Pithecanthropus, Virchow discredited the finds of Neanderthal skulls; he considered them to be pathological and deformed skulls of modern people in the ground.
P. A. Minakov (1923) tried to discredit Dubois’s find, explaining the characteristic structure of the skull by its severe post-mortem deformation. To this end, he subjected the modern male skull to demineralization and intense pressure, resulting in a skull somewhat similar in size and shape to that of Pithecanthropus. However, in a response letter on this matter to the Museum of Anthropology (Moscow), Dubois indicated that not only the skull cap of Pithecanthropus, but also none of the thousands of animal bones found in the same ancient layers turned out to be demineralized or deformed. If you soften the bone and apply mechanical pressure to it, then, as is known, it will turn out to be very pliable and deformed.
Such attempts to question the intermediate link between the ape and man are made only by those for whom the theory of the origin of man from the ape is unacceptable, since it undermines faith in the miraculous creation of man by God, undermines religion - one of the strongest supports of an idealistic worldview.

In 1932, Dubois and his assistants found four fragments of the femur bones of Pithecanthropus in old boxes with expedition materials from 1900, and later another fragment from the sixth femur. After studying these bones, Dubois in 1933 suggested that Pithecanthropus probably still led an arboreal lifestyle. This opinion, however, is refuted by most researchers, since the shape and size of the Pithecanthropus femur differs very little from the femur of a modern person.
At the same time, Dubois published a work in which he proved that the structure of the femur V, which he specially studied, differs sharply from the human one in the microstructural features of the outer dense layer of the bone body. But the Soviet anthropologist N.A. Sinelnikov (1934, 1937), having studied the structure of the femur of modern man (Fig. 101), showed that the statement about the special structure of the femur of Pithecanthropus is not justified, and therefore the later, following the example of Virchow, allocation Du Bois's classification of Pithecanthropus into a special genus of giant gibbons turned out to be erroneous. Pithecanthropus is a representative of the most ancient stage of hominid evolution.
It is highly significant that the correctness of N. A. Sinelnikov’s research and conclusions was fully confirmed in the later published work of Dubois (Dubois, 1937). This scientist examined the very direction of the bone structural elements of the dense surface layer, i.e. osteons, on seven human femurs from a burial of 1752-1875. in Leiden and found that in all these bones the arrangement of osteons is identical to that in the femur of V of Pithecanthropus.
Thus, Dubois admitted the fallacy of his initial conclusion about the special nature of the arrangement of osteons in Pithecanthropus and its belonging to the group of gibbons. The fact is that Du Bois was previously based on data on the structure of the density of the layer of the thigh of a modern person, which turned out to be incorrect.
While Du Bois at one time noted the similarities of nutrition

Canthropus not only with great apes, but especially with gibbons, Hans Weinert (1935) showed that Pithecanthropus is more closely related to African apes. He found that the frontal sinuses in the frontal bone, in addition to Pithecanthropus, are present only in the skull of humans, gorillas and most species of chimpanzees.
Meanwhile, in gibbons and orangutans, as well as in lower apes, frontal sinuses, as a rule, are not formed. This once again confirmed the view of a closer relationship between man, chimpanzee and gorilla, expressed by Darwin and confirmed by the comparative anatomist and anthropologist Gustav Schwalbe, as well as many biologists.
In a special monograph, Weinert (1932) examined in detail the similarities between chimpanzees and other great apes and humans. He concluded that man is descended from a fossil form of anthropoids, which should have been most similar to chimpanzees. Man and chimpanzee must have had their closest common ancestor in the Pliocene, and the gorilla branched off from the common trunk before them. Unfortunately, Weinert dwells little on the similarities between man and other great apes, especially with the gorilla, whose brain and foot have some features of particular resemblance to those of humans.
One way or another, Pithecanthropus is of great interest because, in addition to the frontal sinuses, its skull cap has other similarities with the chimpanzee skull, such as, for example, the strong development of the supraorbital ridge and the narrowing of the skull behind the frontal sinuses. Note, however, that the size of the skull of Pithecanthropus is much larger than that of chimpanzees. Accordingly, the volume of the Pithecanthropus braincase is approximately 900 cm 3, and chimpanzees have only 350-400 cm 3.
Aleš Hrdlicka (1930) believes that the skull cap of Pithecanthropus belongs to an elderly female and that the height of Pithecanthropus is estimated at 165 cm. In terms of brain volume, Pithecanthropus occupies an intermediate position between ape and man, fully justifying its name of ape-man. Structure

The same hip indicates that Pithecanthropus moved in an upright position. The antiquity of Pithecanthropus is estimated at approximately 550 thousand years.
The belonging of Pithecanthropus to the hominid family is confirmed by the discovery of a skull from another individual of Pithecanthropus. On September 13, 1937, the Dutch paleontologist W. Koenigswald in the Sangiran area, not far from the place where the first skull cap was found, found a skull, and back in 1936 - a fragment of the large lower jaw of Pithecanthropus with teeth that were human in nature, but had significant dimensions (Fig. 102). The remains were found in the lowest part of the Trinil layers, in the same volcanic tuffs. The skull arrived to Koenigswald broken into 30 fragments, from which he had to reconstruct it.
The skull of Pithecanthropus II turned out to be very similar to the skull of Pithecanthropus I, but its size was somewhat smaller. Unlike the skull of Pithecanthropus I, both temporal bones were preserved, which in their structure are human in nature and differ sharply from the temporal bones of gibbons. It is remarkable, however, that on the skull of Pithecanthropus II, like most anthropoids, the mastoid process is almost undeveloped (in many Neanderthals and in all modern humans it is well developed). The right side of the frontal bone, the base of the skull and the facial skeleton from the skull of Pithecanthropus II were not found.
Thus, the skull of Pithecanthropus II is also very incomplete, but it makes it possible to draw more conclusions than the skull of Pithecanthropus I. Perhaps the most striking thing is the small volume of its braincase, equal to only 750 cm 3. According to this feature, Pithecanthropus really constitutes a real intermediate link between the closest ancestor of man and later hominids.
The small capacity of the braincase of the skull of Pithecanthropus II gave reason to Königswald to consider it female, and the skull that Dubois found was male. The difference in the volume of the braincase between the second skull and the first is about 150 cm 3. In addition, the bones of the second skull turned out to be somewhat thinner.
In any case, the skull of Pithecanthropus II, so close in size of its braincase to the skulls of large anthropoids, is of great scientific interest and confirms the ape-

human nature of Pithecanthropus.
Perhaps no less important for judging the true nature of Pithecanthropus is a new fragment of its lower jaw. It preserved four teeth - three molars and a second premolar, similar to the premolar of an anthropoid. Judging by the not very deep cell from the fang, its crown was not as developed as that of anthropoids. The third molar was larger than the second, and the second larger than the first, while in other fossil hominids and especially in modern humans, the third molar (wisdom tooth) shows reduction phenomena to a greater or lesser extent. The jaw is chinless and very powerful. All these morphological features also allow us to confidently consider Pithecanthropus an ape-man.
In 1938, Koenigswald also found a skull fragment (III) from a young individual of Pithecanthropus: it was a parietal bone with an occipital part. In 1939, Königswald managed to obtain both the parieto-occipital part of the brain case with the base from the male skull of Pithecanthropus and a fragment of the upper jaw with a diastema between the canine and the incisor. Together with the lower jaw from the finds of 1937, these parts of the skull made it possible for Weidenreich (1940) to reconstruct the male skull (IV) of Pithecanthropus with a braincase volume of 950-1000 cm 3(Fig. 103).
Even earlier, in 1936, in the eastern part of the island of Java, near Mojokerto near the city of Surabaya, in the oldest Quaternary layers, Koenigswald found the skull of a child of about six years of age. Skull length 138 mm, braincase capacity 650 cm 3. Dubois believed that this was the skull of a javanthrope child. Recently it has been believed that this skull belongs more likely to a child of Pithecanthropus.
In 1965, geologist S. Sartono (Sartono from Indonesia) described the remains of a male skull (UP) of Pithecanthropus on the island of Java, in the Sangiran area, near the village of Tutjang, in layers of Trinil age (Middle Pleistocene). Judging by the reconstructed two parietal bones, the left occipital, parts of the occipital and frontal, the vault was significantly flattened, the occipital ridge was developed, a weak sagittal crest was noticeable in front, but the mastoid crest was well defined (Yakimov, 1967; Sartono, 1968).
One of the main reasons why Virchow recognized

A great achievement of advanced science at the end of the 19th century. There were finds of remains of even more highly organized creatures than Australopithecus. These remains date back entirely to the Quaternary period, which is divided into two stages: the Pleistocene, which lasted approximately until the VIII-VII millennia BC. e. and covering pre-glacial and glacial times, and the modern stage (Holocene). These discoveries completely confirmed the views of advanced naturalists of the 19th century. and F. Engels' theory about the origin of man.

The first to be found was the most ancient primitive man known today - Pithecanthropus (literally “ape-man”). The bones of Pithecanthropus were first discovered as a result of persistent searches that lasted from 1891 to 1894, by the Dutch doctor E. Dubois near Trinil, on the island of Java. Going to South Asia, Du Bois set out to find the remains of a form transitional from ape to man, since the existence of such a form followed from Darwin's evolutionary theory. Du Bois's discoveries more than justified his expectations and hopes. The skull cap and femur he found immediately showed the enormous significance of the Trinil finds, since one of the most important links in the chain of human development was discovered.

In 1936, the skull of a child Pithecanthropus was found in Mojokerto, also in Java. There were also bones of animals, including, it is believed, several more ancient ones, from the Lower Pleistocene time. In 1937, local residents brought the most complete skull cap of Pithecanthropus, with temporal bones, to the Bandung Geological Laboratory from Sangiran, and then other remains of Pithecanthropus were discovered in Sangiran, including two more skulls. In total, the remains of at least seven individuals of Pithecanthropus are currently known.

As its name itself shows, Pithecanthropus (ape-man) connects ancient highly developed apes such as Australopithecus with primitive man of a more developed type. This significance of Pithecanthropus is most fully evidenced by skulls from finds in Trinil and Sangiran. These skulls combine specific simian and purely human features. The first include such features as the peculiar shape of the skull, with a pronounced interception in the front part of the forehead, near the eye sockets, and a massive, wide supraorbital ridge, traces of a longitudinal crest on the crown of the head, a low cranial vault, i.e., a sloping forehead, and great thickness cranial bones. But, at the same time, Pithecanthropus was already a completely bipedal creature. The volume of his brain (850-950 cubic cm) was 1.5-2 times larger than that of modern apes. However, in terms of general proportions and the degree of development of individual lobes of the brain, Pithecanthropus was closer to anthropoids than to humans.

Judging by the remains of plants, including excellently preserved leaves and even flowers, found in the sediments immediately overlying the Trinil bone layer, Pithecanthropus lived in a forest consisting of trees that still grow in Java, but in the somewhat cooler climate that exists now at an altitude of 600-1200 m above sea level. Citrus and bay trees, fig trees and other subtropical plants grew in this forest. Along with Pithecanthropus, the Trinil forest was home to many different animals of the southern zone, whose bones survived in the same bone-bearing layer. During the excavations, most of the antlers of two species of antelope and deer were found, as well as teeth and fragments of skulls of wild pigs. There were also bones of bulls, rhinoceroses, monkeys, hippopotamuses, and tapirs. The remains of ancient elephants, close to the European ancient elephant, and predators - leopard and tiger - were also found.

All these animals, whose bones were found in Trinil deposits, are believed to have died as a result of a volcanic catastrophe. During the volcanic eruption, the wooded slopes of the hills were covered and burned with a mass of hot volcanic ash. Then rain streams carved deep channels in the loose ash layer and carried the bones of thousands of dead animals into the Trinil valley; This is how the bone-bearing layer of Trinil was formed. Something similar happened during the eruption of the Klut volcano in eastern Java in 1852. According to eyewitnesses, the large navigable river Brontas, which went around the volcano, swelled and rose high. Its water contained at least 25% volcanic ash mixed with pumice. The color of the water was completely black, and it carried such a mass of fallen timber, as well as the corpses of animals, including buffalos, monkeys, turtles, crocodiles, even tigers, that the bridge that stood on the river, the largest of all the bridges on the river, was broken and completely destroyed. island of Java.

Together with other inhabitants of the tropical forest, Pithecanthropus, whose bones were discovered in Trinil, apparently fell victim to a similar catastrophe in ancient times. These special conditions associated with the Trinil finds, as probably with the finds of Pithecanthropus bones elsewhere in Java, explain why there was no evidence of tool use by Pithecanthropus there.

If the bone remains of Pithecanthropus were found in temporary sites, then the presence of tools would be very likely. In any case, judging by the general level of the physical structure of Pithecanthropus, it should be assumed that he already made tools and constantly used them, including not only wooden, but also stone. Indirect evidence that Pithecanthropus made stone tools is provided by rough quartzite items discovered in the south of the island of Java, near Patjitan, along with the remains of the same animals, the bones of which were found at Trinil in the same layer of sediments as the bones of Pithecanthropus.

Thus, we can conclude that with Pithecanthropus and creatures close to him, the initial period in the formation of man ends. This was, as we have seen, that very distant time when our ancestors led a herd lifestyle and were just beginning to move from the use of ready-made objects of nature to the manufacture of tools.

When did that very moment “X” happen, when the great ape ceased to belong to the animal world, stepping onto the path of human development? According to a number of scientists, the oldest of people is recognized Pithecanthropus, who fought for the survival of his own species 1.0 - 1.8 million years ago. It is precisely this upright type of Homo erectus that adherents of Darwin’s theory consider to be a transitional link separating the world of monkeys and humans, like us all. True, not all historians are in a hurry to reject the theory that Pithecanthropus belongs to an independent species of living beings that inhabited our planet, but for some reason ceased to exist 26 thousand years ago.

First sightings: signs of apes and humans

The sensational discovery of the first remains by the Dutch anatomist and physician E. Dubois shocked the scientific world in 1891. At first, the scientist himself could not believe in luck, and the molar tooth he found (the third upper one) hastened to be classified as a monkey, although the length and shape were clearly human.

Rice. 1 - Remains of Pithecanthropus, discovered by Dubois in Java in 1891-1893: cranial vault, tibia in two projections and teeth

But very soon, on the island of Java in Indonesia, at a depth of 15 meters, a tibia bone was dug up, leaving no doubt that it belonged to a person. But the skull found there bore obvious signs of a monkey. Final doubts regarding these finds as the remains of a single creature were dispelled with the discovery of complete skeletons. Judging by the skull, one cannot help but notice differences with the structure of similar parts of modern humans:

thickness of the cranial bone, several times greater in thickness;
low and sloping forehead;
flattened occiput;
brain volume is about 900 cubic meters. cm;
sharp movement of the jaw forward;
a relatively complicated structure of the brain with uneven development of different parts;
thickness and roughness of the supraorbital ridges.

Pithecanthropus brain although it has not reached the size characteristic of modern man, it is already noticeably larger than that of a monkey. The main feature of the body structure, indicating the upright posture of this creature, are the tibia, which are completely different from those of monkeys. Judging by their length, which was 45.5 cm, it could be assumed that the height of Pithecanthropus reached somewhere around 170 cm. And the straightness of the tibia, not curved, like in modern humans, as well as the convexity of the popliteal fossa (flat in representatives of our time ), indicates an imperfect gait. But, at the same time, all this directly indicates the ability of Pithecanthropus to walk, albeit waddling, but always straightened, and not on all four limbs, like animals.

Despite the primitiveness of the features of the skull, it was possible to notice an imprint of Broca’s area on it, which clearly indicated the inclinations of speech development. But judging by the absence of a chin protrusion, there was no need to talk about articulate speech. Most likely, Pithecanthropus built communication with his fellow tribesmen through some semblance of meaningfulness in pronouncing individual sounds.

Excavations on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya were pleased with an amazing discovery. During archaeological research that began in 1968 by Richard Leakey and his colleagues, a well-preserved skeleton of a twelve-year-old boy (Fig. 2) was discovered (in 1982), walking along the paths of our planet 1.6 million years ago. Like all representatives of that species, his skull is similar to that of a Neanderthal, but other bones of the skeleton are almost identical to the anatomy of modern humans. His size can be judged by his height of 170 cm, which, given his age of 12 years, is justifiably surprising. To commemorate the discovery of scientists, the state of Kenya (in 1982) issued a whole series of postage stamps depicting Pithecanthropus.

Rice. 2 - Boy from Turkana

Secrets of life and lifestyle of Pithecanthropus

If we talk about Pithecanthropus lifestyle(from the Greek pithekos - monkey and anthropos - man), then his main occupation was the tireless search for food. In addition to collecting roots, berries and other fruits from the plant world, which could not completely satisfy their fellow tribesmen, they had to hunt mammals, both small and large in size. Similar in structure to the Javan Pithecanthropus Dubois, finds discovered in 1054-55. on the African continent (Algeria), already made it possible to lift a certain veil of secrecy regarding the image of the inhabitants of that time. Next to the bones of humanoid creatures, parts of the skeleton of rhinoceroses, elephants, hippopotamuses and giraffes were found. Stone tools were also scattered here.

The danger that awaited the Pithecanthropes at every step forced them to live in villages. But judging by the spacious dwellings, several generations of a large family coexisted in one room. Unlike the modern way of life, Pithecanthropus did not have too strict divisions in sexual partnerships. But it happened that a certain male showed aggression in defense of a particular female, causing his relatives to retreat and leave them alone.

In addition, living in large groups made it easier to hunt large animals that were distinguished by their remarkable strength. In addition to hunting, these primitive creatures were engaged in fishing. But more often than not, they had to catch fish with their bare hands. Unlike Australopithecus monkeys, Pithecanthropus's hands could already handle wood, bones and stone. Working on the creation of primitive tools, they had to bring materials split naturally to relative perfection or split the stone on their own and make chips on it.

Rice. 3 - Lifestyle of Pithecanthropus

According to scientists, clashes often occurred in the Pithecanthropus society, often leading to the death of certain members of the community. In order to coexist peacefully even in such a primitive society, it was necessary to make efforts to curb primitive instincts. It was for this purpose that certain norms of behavior had to be observed, which made it possible for all relatives to move to a new stage in the development of coexistence. To control the implementation of certain rules, there is a need for leaders who are assigned a leadership role.

While most of the life of the male half of the population was spent hunting, women took care of everyday life, raised children, and cared for the wounded and sick. Including Pithecanthropus meat in the daily diet helps solve the problem of providing the body with reliable sources of replenishing the energy reserves necessary to solve physically difficult tasks. And using different plants for food is an excellent way to learn about their healing properties, which can be considered the first steps towards healing. Moreover, science has evidence of collective care for sick fellow tribesmen.

Even in those distant primitive times, Pithecanthropus begins to realize the importance of hygienic skills, such as removing the remains of eaten animals from the habitat or burying deceased relatives. But in the absence of abstract thinking, at that period of human development, everything goes without special rituals and the cult of the dead.

Tools

The problems that had to be solved on a daily basis at that time forced us to modify known tools and create new ones. For example: the usual choppers are being replaced by hand axes, and piercings, scrapers and even spears are appearing in everyday use. The discovery of tools belonging to Pithecanthropus in 1936 made famous an American by origin, geologist G. Koenigswald, who explored the town of Mojokerto near the city of Sangiran. It was to him that the Earth gave 3 jaws and 3 skulls, one of which belonged to a child.

In addition, this scientist dug up tools, albeit roughly processed, but with blade flakes. A hand ax was a boulder or a piece of flint, the processing of which consisted of applying great force blows from both sides. Trimming the edges Pithecanthropus learned to create heavy wedge-shaped weapons(length - 10-20 cm; weight - 0.5-1 kg). At first glance, the subtle difference between a hand chopper and a chopper actually lies in the stability of the shape and the clear separation of the working edge and the heel. In addition to the surface, chipped with small chips, ease of use also depended on the rounded end of the chopper, which could be grasped by hand.

Rice. 4 - Tools of Pithecanthropus

Forced to work on processing wood and bone, Pithecanthropus widely used tools made from flakes. To sew together pieces of skins and other materials, punctures were used. In addition, wooden tools were also preserved in the peat layers, due to the fragility of the material, which have reached us in very small quantities. As examples of the use of wood, we can recall the yew spear, which thousands of years ago served man for hunting elephants and other animals. The length of this weapon reached 215 cm. And in order to make the combat end more durable, it had to be burned at the stake.

Judging by the center of gravity of such a spear, shifted downward from the middle, one can draw a conclusion regarding its use as a pike, but not as a throwing weapon. But the Earth preserved for our contemporaries not only wooden spears, but also the remains of clubs, special sticks used for digging up roots.

Dwellings

To shelter from bad weather and ensure the relative safety of their loved ones, Pithecanthropus was forced to settle in natural shelters (caves, grottoes, tree hollows). Besides, Pithecanthropus has already learned to build primitive dwellings from branches, resting on central pillars, prudently covered with the skins of killed animals. The dimensions of such dwellings are impressive, since their length reaches 15 meters, and the width, in almost all cases, is at least 5 meters. Not counting children, 25-30 adults could easily fit here.

Rice. 5 - Pithecanthropus's home

The skills of constructing primitive housing greatly facilitated the living conditions of nomadic life, which Pithecanthropus was forced to resort to when looking for sources of food. Judging by the excavations, already at that time people had the skills to use fire. This is exactly what can be judged from the remains of hearths made of stone. Moreover, such evidence is not isolated; it can be observed in a variety of settlements.

Migration

One can only speculate why Pithecanthropus, content with the habitat of the African continent, suddenly began to populate the territory of Eurasia after 1.2 million years. Penetration into the vast expanses of modern Europe dates back 700 thousand years to the present day. This event is evidenced by excavations in Germany (near Heidelberg), which ended with the discovery of the lower jaw of a physically developed, young Pithecanthropus. And in 1965, during archaeological research at the Vertescelles site (Hungary), science was enriched with another occipital bone of Pithecanthropus with a fairly developed brain. Evidence of the existence of Pithecanthropus is found throughout Europe. Our Fatherland is no exception.

(from the Greek pithekos - monkey and anthropos - man) - the oldest fossil people, predecessors of the Neanderthals. They lived about 500 thousand years ago during the Early Paleolithic period. Bone remains have been found in Asia, Europe and Africa. PLEVE Vyacheslav Konstantinovich (1846-1904) - Russian statesman, senator (1902). From 1881 - director of the police department, in 1884-1894. - Comrade of the Minister of Internal Affairs, since 1894 - Secretary of State and chief administrator of the codification department under the State Council. Since 1889 - Minister, Secretary of State for Finnish Affairs. From April 1902 - Minister of Internal Affairs. He pursued an extremely reactionary policy and widely used repression. Killed by the Socialist Revolutionary E. S. Sozonov.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Pithecanthropus

A great achievement of advanced science at the end of the 19th century. There were finds of remains of even more highly organized creatures than Australopithecus. These remains date back entirely to the Quaternary period, which is divided into two stages: the Pleistocene, which lasted approximately until the 8th-7th millennia BC. e. and covering pre-glacial and glacial times, and the modern stage (Holocene). These discoveries completely confirmed the views of advanced naturalists of the 19th century. and F. Engels' theory about the origin of man.

The first to be found was the most ancient of all now known primitive man, Pithecanthropus (literally “ape-man”). The bones of Pithecanthropus were first discovered as a result of persistent searches that lasted from 1891 to 1894, by the Dutch doctor E. Dubois near Trinil, on the island of Java. Going to South Asia, Du Bois set out to find the remains of a form transitional from ape to man, since the existence of such a form followed from Darwin's evolutionary theory. Du Bois's discoveries more than justified his expectations and hopes. The skull cap and femur he found immediately showed the enormous significance of the Trinil finds, since one of the most important links in the chain of human development was discovered.

In 1936, the skull of a child Pithecanthropus was found in Mojokerto, also in Java. There were also bones of animals, including, it is believed, several more ancient ones, from the Lower Pleistocene time. In 1937, local residents brought the most complete skull cap of Pithecanthropus, with temporal bones, to the Bandung Geological Laboratory from Sangiran, and then other remains of Pithecanthropus, including two more skulls, were discovered in Sangiran. In total, the remains of at least seven individuals of Pithecanthropus are currently known.

As its name itself shows, Pithecanthropus (ape-man) connects ancient highly developed apes such as Australopithecus with primitive man of a more developed type. This significance of Pithecanthropus is most fully evidenced by skulls from finds in Trinil and Sangiran. These skulls combine specific simian and purely human features. The first include such features as the peculiar shape of the skull, with a pronounced interception in the front part of the forehead, near the eye sockets, and a massive, wide supraorbital ridge, traces of a longitudinal crest on the crown of the head, a low cranial vault, i.e., a sloping forehead, and great thickness cranial bones. But at the same time, Pithecanthropus was already a completely bipedal creature. The volume of his brain (850-950 cubic cm) was 1.5-2 times larger than that of modern apes. However, in terms of general proportions and the degree of development of individual lobes of the brain, Pithecanthropus was closer to anthropoids than to humans.

Judging by the remains of plants, including excellently preserved leaves and even flowers, found in the sediments immediately overlying the Trinil bone layer, Pithecanthropus lived in a forest consisting of trees that still grow in Java, but in the somewhat cooler climate that exists now at an altitude of 600-1,200 m above sea level. Citrus and bay trees, fig trees and other subtropical plants grew in this forest. Along with Pithecanthropus, the Trinil forest was home to many different animals of the southern zone, whose bones survived in the same bone-bearing layer. During the excavations, most of the antlers of two species of antelope and deer were found, as well as teeth and fragments of skulls of wild pigs. There were also bones of bulls, rhinoceroses, monkeys, hippopotamuses, and tapirs. The remains of ancient elephants, close to the European ancient elephant, and predators - the leopard and the tiger - were also found.

All these animals, whose bones were found in Trinil deposits, are believed to have died as a result of a volcanic catastrophe. During the volcanic eruption, the wooded slopes of the hills were covered and burned with a mass of hot volcanic ash. Then rain streams paved deep channels in the loose ash layer and carried the bones of thousands of dead animals into the Trinil valley; this is how the bone-bearing layer of Trinil was formed. Something similar happened during the eruption of the Klut volcano in eastern Java in 1852. According to eyewitnesses, the large navigable river Brontas, which went around the volcano, swelled and rose high. Its water contained at least 25% volcanic ash mixed with pumice. The color of the water was completely black, and it carried such a mass of fallen timber, as well as the corpses of animals, including buffalos, monkeys, turtles, crocodiles, even tigers, that the bridge that stood on the river, the largest of all the bridges on the river, was broken and completely destroyed. island of Java.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Niramin - Sep 5th, 2016

Pithecanthropus (or ape-man) existed on our planet 1.0 - 1.8 million years ago. Followers of Darwin's theory recognize him as the link between the great ape and modern humans. However, recently there is more and more evidence that Pithecanthropus is not our ancestors; it was an independent species that completely died out 26 thousand years ago.

The first remains of Pithecanthropus were discovered in Indonesia in 1891 and caused a real sensation in the scientific community. The tibia from Java was clearly human, but the skull was more ape-like. At first, scientists refused to admit that these remains could belong to the same creature, but new skeletons found confirmed this.

The skull of Pithecanthropus was significantly different from that of humans: the cranial bone was several times thicker than that of our contemporaries; the forehead was flat, the jaw protruded sharply forward, and the supraorbital ridges were thick and rough. The brain volume of Pithecanthropus was smaller than that of humans, but much larger than that of monkeys. The main feature of the structure of their body, by which they can be classified as human, was the tibia. They indicate that Pithecanthropus walked upright, which is not typical for apes.

The lifestyle of Homo erectus (as Pithecanthropus is often called) consisted mainly of a constant search for food. They were engaged in gathering and hunting large mammals. The tools were more improved than those of their ancestors: instead of choppers, hand axes were invented, and piercings, scrapers and spears also came into use. Pithecanthropus knew how to build houses using branches and skins of killed animals, and also gradually learned to use fire.

Photo: Pithecanthropus - reconstruction.

Video: Pithecanthropus of Java. Reaching Link #19