Scientific discoveries of the 19th and 20th centuries. Outstanding Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Every year or decade, more and more scientists and inventors appear who give us new discoveries and inventions in various fields. But there are inventions that, once invented, change our way of life in a huge way, moving us forward on the path of progress. Here's just a dozen great inventions who have changed the world in which we live.

List of inventions:

1. Nails

Inventor: unknown

Without nails, our civilization would certainly collapse. It is difficult to determine the exact date of appearance of the nails. Now the approximate date of creation of nails is in the Bronze Age. That is, it is obvious that nails could not have appeared before people learned to cast and shape metal. Previously, wooden structures had to be erected using more complex technologies, using complex geometric structures. Now the construction process has been greatly simplified.

Until the 1790s and early 1800s, iron nails were made by hand. The blacksmith would heat a square iron rod and then beat it on all four sides to create the sharp end of the nail. Machines for making nails appeared between the 1790s and early 1800s. Nail technology continued to evolve; After Henry Bessemer developed a process for mass-producing steel from iron, the iron nails of yesteryear gradually fell out of favor, and by 1886, 10% of nails in the United States were made from soft steel wire (according to the University of Vermont). By 1913, 90% of nails produced in the United States were made from steel wire.

2. Wheel

Inventor: unknown

The idea of ​​a symmetrical component moving in a circular motion along an axis existed in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Europe separately at different periods of time. Thus, it is impossible to establish who and where exactly invented the wheel, but this great invention appeared in 3500 BC and became one of the most important inventions of mankind. The wheel facilitated work in the fields of agriculture and transportation, and also became the basis for other inventions, ranging from carriages to clocks.

3. Printing press

Johannes Gutenberg invented the manual printing press in 1450. By 1500, twenty million books had already been printed in Western Europe. In the 19th century, modifications were made and iron parts replaced wooden ones, speeding up the printing process. The cultural and industrial revolution in Europe would not have been possible if not for the speed with which printing allowed documents, books and newspapers to be distributed to a wide audience. The printing press allowed the press to develop, and also gave people the opportunity to educate themselves. The political sphere would also be unthinkable without millions of copies of leaflets and posters. What can we say about the state apparatus with its endless number of forms? In general, it is a truly great invention.

4. Steam engine

Inventor: James Watt

Although the first version of the steam engine dates back to the 3rd century AD, it was not until the advent of the industrial age in the early 19th century that the modern form of the internal combustion engine emerged. It took decades of design before James Watt made the first drawings, according to which burning fuel releases high-temperature gas and, as it expands, puts pressure on the piston and moves it. This phenomenal invention played a crucial role in the invention of other machines such as cars and airplanes, which changed the face of the planet we live on.

5. Light bulb

Inventor: Thomas Alva Edison

The invention of the light bulb developed during the 1800s by Thomas Edison; he is credited with being the main inventor of a lamp that could burn for 1500 hours without burning out (invented in 1879). The idea of ​​the light bulb itself did not belong to Edison and was expressed by many people, but it was he who managed to choose the right materials so that the light bulb would burn for a long time and become cheaper than candles.

6. Penicillin

Inventor: Alexander Fleming

Penicillin was accidentally discovered in a petri dish by Alexander Fleming in 1928. The drug penicillin is a group of antibiotics that treats several infections in people without harming them. Penicillin was mass produced during World War II to rid military personnel of sexually transmitted diseases and is still used as a standard antibiotic against infections. This was one of the most famous discoveries made in the field of medicine. Alexander Fleming received the Nobel Prize in 1945, and newspapers of the time wrote:

“To defeat fascism and liberate France, he made more entire divisions”

7. Telephone

Inventor: Antonio Meucci

For a long time it was believed that Alexander Bell was the discoverer of the telephone, but in 2002 the US Congress decided that the right of primacy in the invention of the telephone belongs to Antonio Meucci. In 1860 (16 years earlier than Graham Bell), Antonio Meucci demonstrated an apparatus that was capable of transmitting voice over wires. Antonio named his invention Telectrophone and applied for a patent in 1871. This marked the beginning of work on one of the most revolutionary inventions that almost everyone on our planet has, keeping it in their pockets and on their desks. The telephone, which later also developed as the mobile phone, has had a vital impact on humanity, especially in the fields of business and communication. The expansion of audible speech from within one room to the entire world is an accomplishment unmatched to this day.

8. Television

Zvorykin with an iconoscope

Inventor: Rosing Boris Lvovich and his students Zvorykin Vladimir Konstantinovich and Kataev Semyon Isidorovich (not recognized as a discoverer), as well as Philo Farnsworth

Although the invention of television cannot be attributed to one person, most people agree that the invention of modern television was the work of two people: Vladimir Kosma Zvorykin (1923) and Philo Farnsworth (1927). It should be noted here that in the USSR, the development of television using parallel technology was carried out by Semyon Isidorovich Kataev, and the first experiments and operating principles of electric television were described by Rosing at the beginning of the 20th century. Television was also one of the greatest inventions, which was developed from mechanical to electronic, from black and white to color, from analogue to digital, from primitive models without a remote control to intelligent ones, and now to 3D versions and small home theaters. People usually spend about 4-8 hours a day watching TV and this has greatly affected family and social life and has also changed our culture beyond recognition.

9. Computer

Inventor: Charles Babbage, Alan Turing and others.

The first mechanical computer was invented by Charles Babbage in the early 19th century. The principle of the modern computer was first formulated by Alan Turing. This invention has truly accomplished amazing things in more areas of life, including the philosophy and culture of human society. The computer has helped high-speed military aircraft take off, launched spacecraft into orbit, controlled medical equipment, created visual images, stored vast amounts of information, and improved the functioning of automobiles, telephones, and power plants.

10. Internet and World Wide Web

Map of the entire computer network for 2016

Inventor: Vinton Cerf and Tim Berners-Lee

The Internet was first developed in 1973 by Vinton Cerf with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Its original use was to provide a communications network in research laboratories and universities in the United States and to extend overtime work. This invention (along with the World Wide Web) was the main revolutionary invention of the 20th century. In 1996, there were more than 25 million computers connected to the Internet in 180 countries, and now we even had to switch to IPv6 to increase the number of IP addresses, since IPv4 addresses were completely exhausted, and there were about 4.22 billion of them.

The World Wide Web as we know it was first predicted by Arthur C. Clarke. However, the invention was made 19 years later in 1989 by CERN employee Tom Berners Lee. The web has changed the way we approach various fields, including education, music, finance, reading, medicine, language, etc. The web has the potential to surpass all the great inventions of the world.

The nineteenth century laid the foundations for the development of science and technology in the next century, and created the preconditions for many inventions and innovations that are still used today. What key inventions of the 19th century contributed to this?

Physics

A distinctive feature of this era was the spread of electricity and its use in almost all industries. Many discoveries were made due to this innovation. The most popular topic for physical research has become electromagnetic waves, as well as their ways of influencing various materials.

Electricity

1831 - Englishman Michael Faraday noticed that a wire moving in a magnetic field and crossing lines of force becomes a carrier of electric current. This phenomenon was called electromagnetic induction and was subsequently used to create electric motors.

Light vibrations

1865 - James Clark Maxwell suggested that there are waves by which electrical energy is transmitted in space. A little later, in 1883, Heinrich Hertz proved the veracity of this assumption - he discovered these waves and established the speed of their propagation - 300 thousand km/s. This is how the electromagnetic theory of light arose.

Radio waves

And, of course, it is impossible to imagine the inventions of the 19th century without the radio created by A.S. Popov. This device became the prototype of all modern types of communication.

Chemistry

The inventions of the 19th century in the field of chemistry are not so extensive. But it was in this century that D.I. Mendeleev discovered the Periodic Law, which served as the basis for the creation of the periodic table of elements - the cornerstone of modern chemistry.

Munit

This century is characterized by a very high rate of development of science, including medicine and biology. The greatest contributions in this area were made by three outstanding scientists: the German microbiologist Robert Koch and two Frenchmen - the chemist Louis Pasteur and the physician Claude Bernard. Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacillus as the causative agent of the disease, Vibrio cholerae and the anthrax bacillus. For his first discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Louis Pasteur is the founder of such sciences as microbiology and immunology. It is noteworthy that his name was given to a method of heat treatment of products - pasteurization. Claude Bernard founded endocrinology - the science of the structure and functions of the endocrine glands.

Technical inventions of the 19th century

Prototypes of computers

Naturally, in the nineteenth century there were no full-fledged computers - they appeared only in the next century. But even then the foundations for programming and mechanization of processes were laid, which were embodied in program-controlled weaving machines. 19th century inventions in the field of "programming" also boasted a machine that was controlled using a punched card.

Mechanical engineering and industry

In 1804, in Philadelphia, Oliver Evans first demonstrated to the public a car that was equipped with a steam engine. At the end of the previous century, automatic lathes began to appear, which subsequently replaced manual work in cases where the part had to be manufactured with great precision.

Conclusion

The inventions of the 19th and 20th centuries radically changed the lives of people of that time - after all, with the advent of such things as electricity, cars and wireless communications, culture and worldview changed forever.

The twentieth century transformed people's lives. Of course, the development of mankind has never stopped, and in every century there have been important scientific inventions, but truly revolutionary changes, and even on a serious scale, occurred not so long ago. What discoveries of the twentieth century were the most significant?

Aviation

Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright went down in human history as the first pilots. Not least the great discoveries of the 20th century - these and new ones - Orville Wright managed to make controlled flight in 1903. The plane he and his brother developed stayed in the air for only 12 seconds, but it was a real breakthrough for aviation of those times. The date of the flight is considered the birthday of this type of transport. The Wright brothers were the first to design a system that would twist the wing panels with cables, allowing the car to be controlled. In 1901, a wind tunnel was also created. They also invented the propeller. Already by 1904, a new aircraft model saw the light of day, more advanced and capable of not only flying, but also performing maneuvers. In 1905, a third option appeared, which could remain in the air for about thirty minutes. Two years later, the brothers signed a contract with the US Army, and later the French bought the plane. Many began to think about carrying passengers, and the Wrights made the necessary adjustments to their model, installing an additional seat and making the engine more powerful. Thus, the beginning of the 20th century opened up completely new opportunities for humanity.

X-ray

Like many great discoveries of the 20th century, this was partly done back in the 19th, but then people were not able to achieve success right away. For example, X-rays were first used in 1885. Then he discovered that photographic plates darken under the influence of a special spectrum, and when parts of the body are irradiated, an image of a skeleton can be obtained. Nevertheless, he had to work for 15 years to make research on organs and tissues possible. That is why the name “X-ray” is associated with the beginning of the 20th century: previously it was not known to the general public. By 1919, many hospitals were already using this technique. The advent of x-rays changed the development of medicine: new branches of diagnostics and analysis appeared in it. To date, the device has saved millions of lives. So in cases where outstanding scientists are mentioned, it is necessary to mention Wilhelm Roentgen.

TV

Scientific and technological inventions transformed life in the twentieth century. One of the key events was the emergence of a new way of disseminating information - television. In 1907, it was patented by Russian physicist Boris Rosing. For this purpose he used a photocell to convert the signals. By 1912, he had finalized his invention, and already in 1931, a method of broadcasting in color was first proposed. The first television channel began operating in 1939. In 1944, the modern television standard was created. Perhaps other discoveries of scientists of the 20th century were more significant in scientific terms, but the impact of this innovation on people's lives cannot be denied. Television has changed the way we communicate and transformed people's perceptions of the world.

Mobile phone

Nowadays, imagining life without a smartphone seems almost impossible. they appeared quite recently. Scientific inventions allowed people to communicate by telephone, but wireless communication was not invented until 1973. Martin Cooper, the creator of the cell phone, was able to call the office from the streets of Manhattan. Ten years later, mobile phones became available to a wide range of buyers. The first Motorola cost almost four thousand dollars, but the idea impressed Americans so much that people signed up to buy it. Moreover, the device bore little resemblance to a modern smartphone: the handset was simply huge, weighed almost a kilogram, and on the tiny display you could only see the number being dialed. The charge was enough for half an hour of conversation. Nevertheless, mass production of various models soon began, and with each generation of phones, people were waiting for more and more interesting discoveries. Today, a completely small device is a real miniature computer with many functions that the creators of the Motorola cellular did not even think about in 1973.

Internet

Not all discoveries of the last century are used by people every day. But the invention of the Internet has transformed life even in small things; today it is used in almost every country in the world. This is a means for communication, searching for information, and exchanging data. It is a universal source of communication. Therefore, when listing the great discoveries of the 20th century, we must not forget about the Internet. It is believed that the first steps in this direction were taken by Dr. Licklider, a scientist who headed the American military information exchange project. This is how the Arpanet network was created, with the help of which in 1969 data was transferred from the University of Los Angeles to the Utah laboratory. A start was made, and in 1972 the Internet was introduced to the public. The concept of email appeared. The invention of the Internet became known throughout the world, and within a few years thousands of people were using it. By the end of the twentieth century there were already twenty million of them.

Computer

The great discoveries of the 20th century are most often associated with technological progress. The computer is no exception. If we understand by this word an arithmetic machine, then such mechanisms have existed since the seventeenth century. But the device in the modern sense appeared only in the twentieth. In 1927 it was created and developed in America. By the middle of the century, electronic devices also appeared. The Mark I machine was created - the first real computer. After that, progress began at a record pace. The method of storing data changed from punched cards to floppy disks, and then to compact disks and storage drives. Programming languages ​​also changed. The first computer was only suitable for performing algebraic operations, but modern devices are multifunctional devices suitable for a variety of tasks.

Instant noodles

While listing the great discoveries of the 20th century, we must not forget about what seems at first glance a trifle. Instant noodles are a common household product, but their appearance changed the nutrition situation in the absence of a kitchen or in the workplace and was also a serious achievement. This type of pasta was invented by the Japanese Ando Momofuki. Post-war Japan was in need of food, and affordable food without much difficulty in preparing it would clearly improve the situation. So Ando decided to start searching for special noodles. He tried many cooking methods until he came across a yeast-free batter that was perfect for drying. In 1958, he began producing his noodles, and today more than forty billion servings of this product are consumed annually. Another discovery of Ando Momofuki was the use of special plastic cups that would allow him to prepare a quick dish without utensils.

Penicillin

Many outstanding scientists of the 20th century are associated with the exact sciences, but a serious breakthrough also occurred in medicine. It was during this century that penicillin, a drug that saved the lives of millions, was introduced. It was invented by an Englishman in 1928 who discovered the effect of mold on bacteria. It is interesting that the great discoveries of the 20th century might not have been supplemented by the advent of antibiotics. All of Fleming's colleagues believed that the main thing was not fighting germs, but strengthening the immune system. Antibiotics seemed pointless and remained unclaimed for a couple of years after their creation. Only by 1943 did the medicine begin to be widely used in medical institutions. Fleming did not give up studying microbes and not only improved penicillin, but also created several paintings with the help of his discovery, drawing bacteria on a special substance.

Ball pen

When studying scientific and technical inventions, you can forget about small household improvements that are of serious importance. For example, the familiar ballpoint pen appeared only in 1943. It was invented by someone who observed the printing process of newspapers and wondered why not fill the pen reservoir with the same quick-drying ink? They should be thick. To prevent them from clogging the hole in the handle, a ball should be placed there. After thinking about all this, Biro created a prototype. Having emigrated to Argentina, he found a sponsor and began producing ink fountain pens. The first buyers were pilots, who could use them at altitude: a regular pen would leak in the absence of pressure. In 1953, the Frenchman Marcel Bic transformed the shape of the ink pen and was able to create cheap options that became accessible to anyone and conquered the whole world.

Washing machine

Another invention that has significantly improved everyday life helps most people deal with dirty clothes. The washing machine appeared only in 1947, replacing the laundresses at the post. For the first time such an invention was offered on the American market by two companies - General Electric and Bendix Corporation. The cars were noisy and uncomfortable; only functionality mattered. Whirlpool developers decided to change the situation, creating a new version of the washing machine in the mid-twentieth century. It was covered with plastic covers that reduced noise, models could be made in different colors, and the overall design solution became much more elegant. Since then, the washing machine has turned into a completely aesthetic object. the first such device appeared in 1975 and was called “Volga-10”, but the most successful was only “Vyatka-automatic-12”, which began to be produced in 1981. Modern machines can be built-in and with a drying function, have different loading methods, displays, delayed start with a timer, and are even able to connect to the Internet.

Thanks to human discoveries over the past centuries, we have the ability to instantly access any information from around the world. Advances in medicine have helped humanity overcome dangerous diseases. Technical, scientific, inventions in shipbuilding and mechanical engineering give us the opportunity to reach any point on the globe in a few hours and even fly into space.

The inventions of the 19th and 20th centuries changed humanity and turned their world upside down. Of course, development occurred continuously and each century gave us some of the greatest discoveries, but global revolutionary inventions occurred precisely during this period. Let's talk about those most significant ones who changed the usual outlook on life and made a breakthrough in civilization.

X-rays

In 1885, the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen, during his scientific experiments, discovered that the cathode tube emits certain rays, which he called X-rays. The scientist continued to study them and found that this radiation penetrates through opaque objects without being reflected or refracted. Subsequently, it was found that by irradiating parts of the body with these rays, one can see the internal organs and obtain an image of the skeleton.

However, it took a full 15 years after the discovery of Roentgen to study organs and tissues. Therefore, the name “X-ray” itself dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, since before it was not used everywhere. It was only in 1919 that many medical institutions began to put the properties of this radiation into practice. The discovery of X-rays radically changed medicine, particularly in the areas of diagnosis and analysis. The X-ray device has saved the lives of millions of people.

Airplane

Since time immemorial, people have tried to take to the skies and create an apparatus that would help a person take off. In 1903, American inventors brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright did it - they successfully launched their aircraft with the Flyer 1 engine into the air. And although he stayed above the ground for only a few seconds, this significant event is considered the beginning of the era of the birth of aviation. And the brothers-inventors are considered the first pilots in the history of mankind.

In 1905, the brothers designed a third version of the device, which was already in the air for almost half an hour. In 1907, the inventors signed a contract with the American army, and later with the French. Then the idea came to carry passengers on an airplane, and Orville and Wilbur Wright improved their model by equipping it with an additional seat. Scientists also equipped the plane with a more powerful engine.

TV

One of the most important discoveries of the 20th century was the invention of the television. Russian physicist Boris Rosing patented the first apparatus in 1907. In his model, he used a cathode ray tube, and used a photocell to convert signals. By 1912, he improved the television, and in 1931 it became possible to transmit information using color pictures. In 1939, the first television channel opened. Television has given a huge impetus to changing people's worldview and methods of communication.

It should be added that Rosing was not the only one who was involved in the invention of the television. Back in the 19th century, the Portuguese scientist Adriano De Paiva and the Russian-Bulgarian physicist Porfiry Bakhmetyev proposed their ideas for developing a device that transmitted images through wires. In particular, Bakhmetyev came up with a diagram of his device - a telephotograph, but was never able to assemble it due to lack of funds.

In 1908, Armenian physicist Hovhannes Adamyan patented a two-color apparatus for transmitting signals. And at the end of the 20s of the 20th century in America, Russian emigrant Vladimir Zvorykin assembled his own television, which he called “iconoscope”.

Car with internal combustion engine

Several scientists worked on the creation of the first gasoline-powered car. In 1855, German engineer Karl Benz designed a car with an internal combustion engine, and in 1886 he received a patent for his vehicle model. He then began producing cars for sale.

American industrialist Henry Ford also made a huge contribution to automobile production. At the beginning of the 20th century, companies appeared that produced cars, but the palm in this area rightfully belongs to Ford. He had a hand in the development of the low-cost Model T automobile and created a low-cost assembly line to assemble the vehicle.

Computer

Today we cannot imagine our daily life without a computer or laptop. But just recently the first computers were used only in science.

In 1941, the German engineer Konrad Zuse designed the Z3 mechanical device, which worked on the basis of telephone relays. The computer was practically no different from the modern model. In 1942, American physicist John Atanasov and his assistant Clifford Berry began developing the first electronic computer, but they failed to complete this invention.

In 1946, American John Mauchly developed the ENIAC electronic computer. The first machines were huge and took up entire rooms. And the first personal computers appeared only in the late 70s of the 20th century.

Antibiotic penicillin

A revolutionary breakthrough occurred in 20th century medicine when, in 1928, the English scientist Alexander Fleming discovered the effect of mold on bacteria.

Thus, the bacteriologist discovered the world's first antibiotic, penicillin, from the mold fungi Penicillium notatum - a medicine that saved the lives of millions of people. It is worth noting that Fleming’s colleagues were mistaken in believing that the main thing was strengthening the immune system, and not fighting germs. Therefore, antibiotics were not in demand for several years. Only closer to 1943 did the medicine find widespread use in medical institutions. Fleming continued to study microbes and improve penicillin.

Internet

The World Wide Web has transformed human life, because today, probably, there is no corner of the world where this universal source of communication and information is not used.

Dr. Licklider, who led the American military information sharing project, is considered one of the pioneers of the Internet. The public presentation of the created Arpanet network took place in 1972, and a little earlier, in 1969, Professor Kleinrock and his students tried to transfer some data from Los Angeles to Utah. And despite the fact that only two letters were transmitted, the era of the World Wide Web had begun. That's when the first email appeared. The invention of the Internet became a world-famous discovery, and by the end of the 20th century there were already more than 20 million users.

Mobile phone

Now we can’t imagine our life without a mobile phone, and we can’t even believe that they appeared quite recently. The creator of wireless communications was the American engineer Martin Cooper. It was he who made the first cell phone call in 1973.

Literally one decade later, this means of communication became available to many Americans. The first Motorola phone model was expensive, but people really liked the idea of ​​​​this method of communication - they literally signed up in line to purchase it. The first handsets were heavy and large, and the miniature display showed nothing but the number being dialed.

After some time, mass production of various models began, and each new generation was improved.

Parachute

For the first time, Leonardo da Vinci thought about creating something like a parachute. And a few centuries later, people began to jump from balloons, to which half-opened parachutes were hung.

In 1912, American Albert Barry parachuted from an airplane and landed safely. And engineer Gleb Kotelnikov invented a backpack parachute made of silk. They tested the invention on a car that was in motion. Thus, a drogue parachute was created. Before the outbreak of World War I, the scientist patented the invention in France, and it is rightfully considered one of the important achievements of the 20th century.

Washing machine

Of course, the invention of the washing machine significantly simplified and improved people’s lives. Its inventor, American Alva Fisher, patented his discovery in 1910. The first device for mechanical washing was a wooden drum that rotated eight times in different directions.

The predecessor of modern models was introduced in 1947 by two companies - General Electric and Bendix Corporation. The washing machines were inconvenient and noisy.

After some time, Whirlpool employees introduced an improved version with plastic covers that muffled the noise. In the Soviet Union, the Volga-10 washing device appeared in 1975. Then, in 1981, production of the Vyatka-Avtomatic-12 machine was launched.

The 19th century laid the foundations for the development of 20th century science and created the preconditions for many of the future inventions and technological innovations that we enjoy today. Scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in many fields and had a great influence on further development. Technological progress advanced uncontrollably. To whom are we grateful for the comfortable conditions in which modern humanity now lives?

Scientific discoveries of the 19th century: Physics and electrical engineering

A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having felt its significant benefits. Many scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in this area of ​​physics. At that time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials. The introduction of electricity into medicine began.

In the 19th century, such famous scientists as the Frenchman Andre-Marie Ampère, two Englishmen Michael Faraday and James Clark Maxwell, and the Americans Joseph Henry and Thomas Edison worked in the field of electrical engineering.

In 1831, Michael Faraday noticed that if a copper wire moves in a magnetic field, crossing lines of force, an electric current arises in it. This is how the concept of electromagnetic induction appeared. This discovery paved the way for the invention of electric motors.

In 1865, James Clark Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory of light. He suggested the existence of electromagnetic waves, through which electrical energy is transmitted in space. In 1883, Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of these waves. He also determined that their propagation speed is 300 thousand km/sec. Based on this discovery, Guglielmo Marconi and A. S. Popov created a wireless telegraph - radio. This invention became the basis for modern technologies for wireless information transmission, radio and television, including all types of mobile communications, the operation of which is based on the principle of data transmission via electromagnetic waves.

Chemistry

In the field of chemistry in the 19th century, the most significant discovery was D.I. Mendeleev's Periodic Law. Based on this discovery, a table of chemical elements was developed, which Mendeleev saw in a dream. In accordance with this table, he suggested that there were chemical elements then unknown. The predicted chemical elements scandium, gallium and germanium were subsequently discovered between 1875 and 1886.

Astronomy

XIX century was the century of formation and rapid development of another field of science - astrophysics. Astrophysics is a branch of astronomy that studies the properties of celestial bodies. This term appeared in the mid-60s of the 19th century. At its origins stood the German professor at the University of Leipzig, astronomer Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner. The main research methods used in astrophysics are photometry, photography and spectral analysis. One of the inventors of spectral analysis is Kirchhoff. He conducted the first studies of the spectrum of the Sun. As a result of these studies, in 1859 he was able to obtain a picture of the solar spectrum and more accurately determine the chemical composition of the Sun.

Medicine and Biology

With the advent of the 19th century, science began to develop at an unprecedented speed. There are so many scientific discoveries being made that it is difficult to track them in detail. Medicine and biology are not lagging behind in this regard. The most significant contributions in this area were made by the German microbiologist Robert Koch, the French physician Claude Bernard and the microbiological chemist Louis Pasteur.

Bernard laid the foundations of endocrinology - the science of the functions and structure of the endocrine glands. Louis Pasteur became one of the founders of immunology and microbiology. The technology of pasteurization is named after this scientist - this is a method of heat treatment of mainly liquid products. This technology is used to destroy vegetative forms of microorganisms to increase the shelf life of food products such as beer and milk.

Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, anthrax bacillus and Vibrio cholerae. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the tuberculosis bacillus.

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Computers

Although it is believed that the first computer appeared in the 20th century, the first prototypes of modern machine tools with numerical control were built already in the 19th century. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French inventor, came up with a way to program a weaving loom in 1804. The essence of the invention was that the thread could be controlled using punched cards with holes in certain places where the thread was supposed to be applied to the fabric.

Mechanical engineering and industry

Already at the beginning of the 19th century, a gradual revolution in mechanical engineering began. Oliver Evans was one of the first to demonstrate a steam-powered car in Philadelphia (USA) in 1804.

At the end of the 18th century, the first lathes appeared. They were developed by English mechanic Henry Maudsley.

With the help of such machines, it was possible to replace manual labor when it was necessary to process metal with great precision.

In the 19th century, the principle of operation of a heat engine was discovered and the internal combustion engine was invented, which served as an impetus for the development of faster means of transportation: steam locomotives, steamships and self-propelled vehicles, which we now call cars.

Railways also began to develop. In 1825, George Stephenson built the first railway in England. It provided rail links to the cities of Stockton and Darlington. In 1829, a branch line was laid that connected Liverpool and Manchester. If in 1840 the total length of railways was 7,700 km, then by the end of the 19th century it was already 1,080,000 km.

The 19th century is the century of the industrial revolution, the century of electricity, the century of railways. He had a significant impact on the culture and worldview of mankind and radically changed the human value system. The appearance of the first electric motors, the invention of the telephone and telegraph, radio and heating devices, as well as incandescent lamps - all these scientific discoveries of the 19th century turned the lives of people of that time upside down.