The true story of King Arthur. Legendary sword Excalibur: myth or reality? Leader against the Saxons

King Arthur, the hero of the British epic, in the 20th century became one of the most popular characters in world mass culture.

Writers from different countries devote their works to his adventures, classic and modern. King Arthur is the main character of many films, as well as computer games. In 1982, the International Astronomical Union named a crater on one of Saturn's moons after King Arthur.

The more the popularity of the king, who gathered around him the knights of the Round Table, grew, the more often the question was asked - what is the historical basis of this epic? Who was the real King Arthur?

The first mention of the name Arthur dates back to around 600 AD. Welsh bard Aneirin, describing the Battle of Catraeth between the Anglo-Saxons and the kings of the "Old North" Koyla the Old, compares the leader of the Britons with Arthur.

Bard Taliesin Around the same time, he devotes the poem to Arthur’s journey to Annwn, the Welsh otherworld. It should be noted that the biography of both bards is not very well known, which makes them themselves legendary characters.

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. reproduction

He wrote Arthur

The first historical chronicle to mention Arthur is the History of the Britons, written around 800 by a Welsh monk named Nennius. It says about Arthur that he won twelve victories over the Saxons, finally defeating them at the Battle of Mount Badon.

In the 12th century, priest and writer Geoffrey of Monmouth created the work "History of the Kings of Britain", in which the first consistent account of the life of King Arthur appears.

Geoffrey of Monmouth is considered the founder of the Arthurian tradition in its current form.

It must be said that even a number of contemporaries of Geoffrey of Monmouth considered his works pseudo-historical. William of Newburgh, the author of the History of England, which describes the history of this state in the period from 1066 to 1198, spoke of Geoffrey of Monmouth as follows: “It is quite clear that everything written by this man about Arthur and his heirs, and indeed his predecessors from Vortigern, was invented partly by himself, partly by others - either out of an irrepressible love of lies, or to amuse the Britons.”

Nevertheless, the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth became well known in Europe, and new versions of the story of King Arthur began to appear based on it. Thus, folk legends collected and processed by Geoffrey of Monmouth became the basis for the creation of new legends.

Arthur receives the sword Excalibur from the Lady of the Lake. Drawing by N. C. Wyeth, 1922. reproduction

Leader against the Saxons

In the 15th century Thomas Malory created the epic "The Death of Arthur", which united all the most common legends about Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.

Historians who, centuries later, tried to find the real basis, later shaded Merlin, Lancelot and Excalibur, it was very difficult.

According to most researchers, Arthur could be a leader or military leader of the Celtic tribe of Britons who inhabited the territory of England and Wales at the beginning of the 6th century.

Celtic Britain during this period faced an invasion of the barbarian Saxons. The real Arthur, according to this hypothesis, during his life managed to successfully resist the Saxons, which made him a popular hero of folk legends. However, subsequently, after the death or at the end of Arthur's life, the invasion continued and led to the capture of the southern part of the British Isles by the barbarians.

There are several specific historical figures who were "auditioned" for the role of Arthur.

Death of King Arthur. James Archer. reproduction

Contenders for the “role” of the legend

Roman general Lucius Artorius Castus commanded auxiliary cavalry units Legion VI Victorious in the 2nd century AD. The legion was based in Britain, on Hadrian's Wall. Researchers, however, note that Lucius Artorius Castus lived three hundred years earlier than the supposed “Age of Arthur.”

Ambrose Aurelian. reproduction

The Roman-British commander, who lived in the 5th century, like Arthur, was able to seriously repel the Saxon invaders. This allows some to consider him the prototype of King Arthur himself. However, Geoffrey of Monmouth also mentions Ambrose Aurelian as Arthur's uncle, brother and predecessor on the royal throne Uther Pendragon, father of the legendary king.

Another candidate for Arthur's prototypes is Arthuis ap Mor, king of the Pennines, Ebruk and Culchwynedd, who lived in the 5th - 6th centuries in Britain. Arthuis, having inherited part of his father's possessions, successfully expanded the territory of the state and repelled attacks from enemies, including the Saxons.

Researchers have noted similarities in the biography of the legendary Arthur with a number of real historical characters who acted both in the “Age of Arthur” and somewhat earlier. As a result, most historians come to the conclusion that Arthur is a collective character, whose story arose both from real stories that took place in the lives of the leaders and military leaders of Britain, and from the fiction of unknown and famous writers, such as Geoffrey of Monmouth.

According to legend, King Arthur was the leader of the Britons throughout the 5th or 6th century. But, as far as researchers know, he is a character that combines several real and fictional personalities. Since its creation, the legend has constantly acquired new episodes. Scientists have tried to identify one or more individuals, but almost all attempts have been inconclusive. Some of these led to claims that the "real Arthur" had been found, but few of these studies involved serious science.

Birth of a legend

His valor in battle made Arthur a major figure in the victorious battle against the Saxons, enemies of the Britons who invaded Britain after the Romans left in 410 AD. In the 6th century, a monk named Gilda the Wise wrote a book in which he chronicled the wars between the Saxons and the Britons. The monk did not mention Arthur, but described the Battle of Badon Hill, which later became associated with him.

The History of the Britons, supposedly written in the 9th century by the monk Nennius, provided additional details, but still provided little information about Arthur himself. Nennius described Arthur as dux bellorum, that is, a military leader. Nennius especially vividly listed the twelve battles of Arthur, the last of which was the Battle of Badon Hill. In this battle, Arthur killed 960 enemies. But this book said nothing about Arthur's life.

The first relatively complete, albeit fictional, biography of Arthur appeared three centuries after Nennius. This is the History of the Kings of Britain, written in Latin by Geoffrey of Monmouth around 1137. Many details of this story will be familiar to readers who know the Arthurian stories written by modern authors. Geoffrey's version tells the story of the conception and birth of King Arthur as a result of the love between Uther Pendragon and the married woman Igraine. According to legend, Uther, using witchcraft, took the form of Igraine's husband and spent the night with her.

// Merlin carries away the newborn Arthur. N. C. Wyeth. 1922 / wikipedia.org

Young Arthur became king and, with the help of the magic sword Excalibur, won the battle with the Saxons. Then came twelve years of peace, during which Arthur founded the famous code of chivalry and married Guinevere. Geoffrey also wrote about Mordred's betrayal and his battle with Arthur, who then retired to the Isle of Avalon. But Geoffrey wrote nothing about Arthur's return.

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

A writer named Vas translated part of the text of Geoffrey of Monmouth into French and added many details to it that sparked new discussions. He also added one of the main details of the Arthurian legend - the Round Table. From the second half of the 12th century, French authors took inspiration from the Arthurian stories and proposed original additions.

“Chrétien de Troyes, in his five Arthurian novels, developed a code of chivalry and love, came up with the name Camelot, the story of the betrayal of Lancelot and Guinevere, and the legend of the Holy Grail. However, instead of biographical details, Chrétien and other authors concentrated on episodes from the life of one or more knights. According to these legends, the king's fame and the prestige of his royal court attracted knights from distant lands."

French authors in subsequent centuries combined the earlier works and composed long and detailed novels, many of which became lengthy series. One of them, the Lancelot - Grail cycle, is a universal story that begins with the crucifixion of Christ, but concentrates on the life of Arthur and the adventures of his knights. This cycle brings together previously familiar characters and motifs. For example, it tells about the brotherhood of the Round Table, Merlin, the fatal love of Lancelot and Guinevere, and the betrayal of Mordred. Much of the cycle focuses on the quest for the Holy Grail, in which only Galahad succeeded as the purest of all knights.

// The Holy Grail is presented to the Knights of the Round Table / wikipedia.org

This cycle was one of a number of sources used by Sir Thomas Malory, whose Le Morte d'Arthur, written in 1470, became the most influential of all histories. Malory used material from other stories and modified the content of the episodes, proposing a chronology from Arthur's conception and birth to the adventures of his knights. He also did not write anything about Arthur's return from Avalon, but he wrote that many people predicted it.

Arthur's life

Records of Arthur's life vary widely, but some biographical elements remain the same in most texts and are considered canonical. According to legend, Arthur was conceived when Merlin altered Uther Pendragon's appearance to resemble the husband of Igraine, whom Uther lusted after. When Arthur was young, a large stone appeared in front of the church, with a sword sticking out of it. It was carved in the stone that the man who could pull the sword out of the stone would become King of England. And only Arthur could do this.

As king, Arthur created the Fellowship of the Round Table, and his knights sought adventure throughout the land. Arthur married Guinevere, and she later entered into a relationship with Lancelot. The search for the Holy Grail began when Galahad, the predestined Knight of the Grail and son of Lancelot, came to court. Most of the knights began searching for the Grail, but only Galahad was able to find it. Lancelot did not succeed because of his sinful love for the queen. He vowed that he would end the relationship, but once he returned to court, his resolve weakened and the lovers continued their relationship.

// “Accolade” (Guinevere and Lancelot), Edmund Leighton, 1901 / wikipedia.org

The romance between Lancelot and Guinevere soon became known. Guinevere went to prison. Lancelot escaped and then returned to save her. In this attempt, he killed Gawain's brothers without recognizing them. Gawain, Arthur's nephew, vowed to avenge his brothers' deaths, and as a result, the armies of Lancelot and Gawain met on the battlefield. Arthur reluctantly sided with Gawain.

Because of this war, Arthur left the kingdom and left it to his bastard Mordred, but Mordred plotted to seize the throne and marry Guinevere (and in some texts he married her), but she fled. Soon Mordred and Arthur met on the battlefield. Arthur killed his son, but he himself was seriously wounded.

Scientific studies of Arthur's life

King Arthur never really existed. It's pretty clear. It is less clear whether Arthur existed as the person who became the center of the legend. Early Celtic legends were based on folk beliefs about Arthur, and early 12th-century authors wrote only about Arthur's life after his supposed death. Serious historical research into the Arthurian legends has forced scholars to separate the beliefs from the actual events of the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest references to Arthur consist of descriptions of his battles, short anecdotes, and extended accounts such as those compiled by Geoffrey of Monmouth. They are most often a mixture of history, folk traditions and author's fiction.

Academic studies of Arthur's life began in the early twentieth century and initially focused on Arthur's battles with the Saxon conquerors. Robin George Collingwood suggested that this Arthur was the leader of the cavalry. Kenneth Jackson studied some of the battle sites and stated that Arthur may have been a warrior named Artorius who traveled the country for military purposes but lived in the southwest. Other scholars believed that he was a northerner. Geoffrey Ash found one Riothamus (meaning "high king"), who was called King Arthur in early 11th century texts. Riothamus led an army across the strait and fought the Gauls in France.

These and other studies have not stopped academics and non-academics from trying to prove that a real Arthur and the Grail actually existed. In fact, Arthur as we know him may be a character who included multiple personalities. Or there could be one person with whom many famous legends were associated. But it could also just be someone's invention.

Serious scientific studies of the legend often focus on places such as Glastonbury, Tintagel and Cadbury Castle. The latter has been of particular interest since the 16th century. The term "castle" is associated with the early history of Britain. Cadbury is located on a fortified hill. Excavations at these sites have yielded little information about King Arthur, but they have revealed much about the life he might have lived if he had existed.

The real King Arthur

Characters who may actually have existed were Mordred and Bedivere, mentioned in early Arthurian texts, as well as Merlin, who may have been a mixture of two earlier figures. Lancelot, Guinevere and everyone else are completely fictional characters. Arthur is a special case. The fact that we cannot determine with certainty whether Arthur existed inspires people to continually try to prove it. Books, articles and journalistic investigations from time to time assure us that someone has found a trace of the real King Arthur. Only a few of them are worth attention, but these attempts still continue. There never was a King Arthur, but at least we can talk about a simple man named Arthur. Scientists have proposed different models. In 1924, Kemp Malone theorized that there was a Roman soldier named Lucius Artorius Castus. As the leader of the army, he lived in the 2nd century AD and was a famous military figure. Little is known about him, but many events of this era seem to be connected with him.

Geoffrey Ash proposed an alternative theory. His argument concerns Riothamus, who led the army through the strait. Riothamus is a prominent candidate for Arthur because the last mention of him appears as he approaches a Burgundian village with the very Arthurian name of Avalon. However, regardless of whether a certain person was behind all the legends, they grew and multiplied, acquiring new fictional stories.

// Avalon / Jim Forest (flickr.com)

The evolution of Arthurian legends

The popularity of the legends about King Arthur gradually waned in the 16th–18th centuries, but never died out. Legends became very popular again in the 19th century, especially in English-speaking countries. There are certain elements of Arthurian legends that have had public resonance since the Middle Ages: Camelot, the sword in the stone, the adultery of Lancelot and Guinevere, and the Round Table. Arthur's eventual rescue and return are motives that early writers shied away from. Malory wrote that "some people" said Arthur would return. Belief in Arthur's return grew stronger over the centuries, and some novelists took this plot as the basis for their stories.

The quest for the holy grail is an exception because the meaning of this motif has remained the same over the centuries. In medieval legends, Galahad, the noblest of all knights, found the Holy Grail, and the other knights returned to court with failure. Most of Camelot's knights died, and the superiority of chivalry was incompatible with the spirituality of the Grail. But in many films and novels, Arthur himself seeks the Grail.

// Vision of the Grail to Galahad, Percival and Bors. Edward Burne-Jones / wikipedia.org

The Grail has become a flexible motif. For Chretien de Troyes, it was a wonderful holy tray, and then became the dish or cup of the Last Supper. In Germany, Wolfram von Eschenbach presented it as a stone that fell from heaven. Authors of the 20th and 21st centuries have greatly modified this story. In Donald Barthelme's The King, the Grail is a destructive bomb best left untouched. In some works it is made of paper or does not exist at all.

Modern interpretations

A major addition to the legend in the 19th century was Tennyson's Idyll of the King, a poetic masterpiece that inspired writers and artists for two centuries. Quite different in spirit was A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, which showed the humorous potential of the legend. In England, Pre-Raphaelites William Morris, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones created works dedicated to Arthur. Another Arthurian monument is the opera Parsifal by Richard Wagner. In the twentieth century, about a thousand works on the theme of Arthur were published, and it is difficult to single out just a few. Arthurian legends have been the subject of many works of science fiction, crime fiction, feminist novels, young adult literature, and fantasy. Notable novels on this theme were Mary Stewart's The Last Enchantment, Rosemary Sutcliffe's The Sword in the Sunset, Thomas Berger's Arthur Rex, and Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, which is considered a feminist novel.

Contemporary works on Arthurian themes appear not only in English. The French writer Rene Barjavel wrote the novel “The Enchanter,” and the German Tancred Dorst wrote the drama “Merlin, or the Desert Land.” In cinema, the legend was developed in the works “Excalibur” by John Boorman and “Monty Python and the Holy Grail”.

The huge number of interpretations that appeared in the twentieth century make us wonder: what explains the popularity of the legend not only in English culture, but also in France, Germany, Italy and around the world? There is no clear answer to this question. Some readers may be interested in a post-Roman history of Britain, in which visions of a new good people replace the dark past. Others are drawn to notions of honor and social responsibility, even though early recordings featured themes of war, betrayal, violence, incest, and disloyalty to people and ideals. Whatever the reasons, the Arthurian legends inspire us, despite the human imperfections we see in them.

Kim Vyacheslav, student of group 101

King Arthur is one of the greatest figures produced by the Western world. He is the hero of a thousand stories, awakens millions of childhood dreams and serves as the image of a nation. Century after century, he is reborn in the world - with the pen, brush and imagination of numerous writers, artists, poets and politicians. His spirit has lived in history for almost a thousand years, but there is still no exact information about who King Arthur was. And this question still remains unanswered. Did Arthur exist as a historical figure, and if so, when and where? Who was he - a king, a commander or a leader? Maybe he was just a legendary figure who, no matter how you look, you won’t find? It is the answers to these questions that would be of interest to many of us.

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State Autonomous Institution of the Amur Region

professional educational organization

"Amur Medical College"

Individual project

King Arthur: myths, legends and reality

student of group 101

Head: Derkach I.S.,

foreign language teacher

Blagoveshchensk

2016

King Arthur. Myths and reality.

2.1. Mythological roots of the image of Arthur

Myth is an ancient folk tale about legendary heroes, gods, and natural phenomena; mythology is the science of myths.

Celtic mythology is currently only partially known. Information about it is mainly contained in Irish and Welsh epic works, which began to be written down already in the Christian era, so in most cases the functions of the ancient gods can only be approximately imagined.

The "appearance" of King Arthur, his sudden intrusion into the course of mythological history, is one of the many mysteries of Celtic mythology. Arthur is not mentioned in the Welsh work The Four Branches of the Mabinogion (written at the end of the 11th century), which tells about the gods of the ancient Britons.

However, soon after this we see Arthur elevated to unprecedented heights, as he is called the king of the gods. In the story called "The Dream of Rhonabwy", which is part of the Red Book of Hergest, many characters who were considered gods in the old days are considered Arthur's vassals - the sons of Nuada, Llyr, Bran, Gofanon and Aranrhod.

In another story from the same Red Book, entitled "Culloch and Olwen", even higher deities are declared his vassals. So, the sons of the ancestor of the gods Danu (Don) work for him: Amaethon plows the land, and Gofannon forges iron; the two sons of the sun god Belenus, Ninniau and Peibou, “turned by him into bulls for the atonement of sins,” are harnessed to one team and are busy leveling the mountain to the ground so that the harvest can ripen in one day. It is Arthur who convenes the gods in search of the “treasures of Britain,” and the deity of the other world, Manawydan, son of Llyr, Gwyn, son of Nuadu, and Pryderi, son of Pwyll, rush to his call.

I believe that Arthur can also be compared to Hercules because the legends of Arthur were created in a society that was influenced by Rome, especially in the south of the island. The Romans themselves took the image of Hercules from Greek mythology; accordingly, the Britons could also borrow this image and attribute to Arthur the features of Hercules (Hercules). In this regard, the 12 famous battles of Arthur and the 12 labors of Hercules are quite comparable.

The epic of gloomy medieval England was illuminated by the wonderful era of the reign of King Arthur. The noble knight, wise ruler and valiant commander gave the country years of peace and stability. The character became the embodiment of knightly ideals, uniting the best warriors at the Round Table under the auspices of honor, courage and loyalty to the kingdom. Dozens of books, films, theatrical productions and even musicals are dedicated to the legend of Celtic legends.

Story

The mythology of England is as rich as the collection of legends about the glorious heroes of ancient Scandinavia, Germany, Rus' and Finland. King Arthur, who first appeared in the 600s, has taken a strong place in folk and literary art.

Researchers still cannot agree on who was the prototype of Arthur; they put forward three main versions. Some see the origin of the character in Welsh legends, in which the Welsh-born warrior, although he was seen in battles with the Saxons, never took the throne. Others claim that the prototype was Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman general. Still others refer to the personality of the Saxon winner in the battle of Badon, Ambrose Aurelian, also a Roman.

An unsteady, but still proof is that the 6th century saw the peak of popularity of the name Arthur, that is, then, most likely, there lived a legendary personality who aroused the sympathy of his contemporaries. Despite the hypotheses about the hero’s roots, it is generally accepted that the British king is a collective image, uniting the biographies of various military men and rulers.

The details of the autocrat’s life also vary among the authors, but in general the main milestones are common. Arthur is the fruit of the adultery of King Uther Pendragon of Britain with Duchess Igraine (another variation of the name is Eigir). A wizard helped the king share a bed with someone else’s wife, turning Uther into the lady’s husband in exchange for taking the child to raise.

The wizard handed the baby over to the kind-hearted and wise knight Ector, who raised the boy as his own son, teaching him military skills.

Uther married his beloved Igraine, but the crowned couple failed to give birth to another son. After the poisoning of the autocrat of England, the question arose of who would take his place. The cunning wizard Merlin came up with a “test” - he sharpened the sword into stone. Whoever pulls him out will be the king. Arthur, who served as a squire to his elder brother, easily took out his weapon and, unexpectedly for himself, ascended the throne. However, the young man learned the truth about his royal origins right there, from Merlin.

King Arthur settled in the legendary Camelot Castle. The building is still sought after by Arthurian fans, but this is pure fiction - the castle was invented by the poet and writer Chrétien de Troyes in the 13th century. Camelot united about a hundred famous knights from all over the world. The list of the ruler's friends was supplemented by the warriors Gawain, Percival, Galahad and, of course, Lancelot.

Glorious men went down in history as defenders of the weak and disadvantaged, patrons of ladies, liberators of the lands of a subject state from barbarians and invaders, conquerors of mythical creatures and evil magicians. They are also famous for the fact that they were obsessed with the idea of finding the Holy Grail, which would grant the owner immortality. As a result, the son of Lancelot managed to find the holy thing from which he drank.

The knights gathered at the Round Table. According to one version, the idea of creating a piece of furniture of this shape belonged to the wife of King Arthur, according to another, a table that equalized the rights and classes of everyone who sat at it was given to the ruler by Merlin. The wizard often came to Camelot, not only to raise the morale of the knights, but also for educational purposes - he encouraged them to do good deeds, urged them to avoid lies and betrayal.

The reign of the noble King Arthur, who managed to save the state from internecine wars, dragged on for many years. But the hero’s life was cut short due to the betrayal of his own family.

Image

In literature, King Arthur appears as the main positive hero, an ideal ruler and a fair knight. The character is endowed with noble qualities: his character harmoniously combines courage, valor, and kindness. He is calm and reasonable, even slow, and will never allow a person to be executed without trial. Arthur's goal is to unite the state and bring it to a new level of development.

Appearance is interpreted differently, even medieval artists were unable to come to a common view on this issue - either the autocrat is depicted as moon-faced, with curly gray hair, or as a thin, dark-haired old man. I would like to believe the authors of novels and films where Arthur is tall and strong, with a wise look.

The magic sword Excalibur, which replaced the “sword of stone,” helped the crowned knight demonstrate his heroic strength. Once, in a duel with Perinor (an enemy who later became an ally), Arthur broke the weapon, thanks to which he ascended the throne. The wizard Merlin promised a wonderful gift and fulfilled his word - the young king received from the hands of the Lake Fairy a sword forged by the elves of Lake Vatelin.

The magical weapon hit the enemy without missing a beat, but the new owner pledged to use the sword only for good deeds, and when the time came, to return it to the lake, which was done after Arthur’s death.

Arthur's conquests

According to legend, Arthur participated in many bloody battles. The author of the first chronicles about the king, the Welsh monk Nennius, describes 12 of the most striking battles with the conquerors. The main triumph of the autocrat was the battle on Mount Badon, where the Britons, led by the king, defeated the Saxons. In this battle, Arthur, using Excalibur, defeated 960 knights of the opposing side.

The ruler of the Britons managed to defeat Glymory's army in Ireland, and England then received tribute. For three days Arthur besieged the Saxons in the Caledonian Forest and eventually escorted the enemies back to Germany. The battle in Pridina also brought victory - Arthur's son-in-law sat on the Norwegian throne.

Family

Having put on the crown, Arthur decided to get married. The choice fell on the beautiful, immaculate and feminine “beautiful lady” Guinevere, daughter of King Lodegrance, once saved by the hands of the autocrat of Britain. The young man’s heart melted from the girl’s charms at first sight. Married life was darkened only by the absence of children - Guinevere bore the curse of infertility received from an evil witch, which the couple did not suspect.

However, King Arthur had an illegitimate son, Mordred, from his half-sister. The wizard Merlin and the Maiden of the Lakes cast a spell on the boy and girl so that they would not recognize each other and would enter into a love affair. The bastard was raised by evil sorcerers, instilling deceit, anger and dreams of power into the boy.

Arthur survived his beloved wife's betrayal with his friend Lancelot. Betrayal marked the beginning of the fall of the wonderful era of the reign of a just king. While the ruler of Britain was resolving personal issues, chasing the fugitives Lancelot and Guinevere, Mordred seized power into his own hands. In the battle on the Cammlan field, the entire army of England fell. Arthur fought with the bastard, but it was a draw - the son, struck by a spear, inflicted a mortal wound on his father.

Books

The reign of the glorious King Arthur is glorified in poetry and novels. The noble autocrat first appeared in Welsh poems in 600 AD. as the main character of Welsh folklore. The Latin chronicle “History of the Britons” was continued in the collection “History of the Kings of Britain” authored by Geoffrey of Monmouth. This is how a full-fledged story about Arthur’s life saw the light.

Since the Middle Ages, the legends of King Arthur and the valiant Knights of the Round Table began to take on modern form, coming from the pens of Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and then Thomas Malory. The character inspired Alfred Tennyson, Mary Stewart and even co. It is believed that the creators of the fantasy genre started from British mythology.

Let's note the most iconic books based on the Arthurian epic:

1590 – “The Faerie Queene”, Edmund Spenser
1856-1885 – “Idylls of the King”, Alfred Tennyson
1889 – “The Adventures of a Yankee in the Court of King Arthur”, Mark Twain
1938-1958 – cycle of stories “The Once and Future King”, Terence White
1982 – “The Mists of Avalon”, Marion Zimmer Bradley
1975 – “The Mirror of Merlin”, Andre Norton
2000 – “Beyond the Distance of the Waves”,

Films and actors

Following the writers, the image of Arthur was picked up by cinema. The first film with the Lord of the Britons was directed by Richard Thorpe in 1954. Knights of the Round Table, in which Mel Ferrer wears Arthur's costume, received critical praise and was nominated for an Oscar and the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival.

TV viewers of the late 70s watched with interest the life of the leader of the knights and the performance of actor Andrew Burt in the adventure series “The Legend of King Arthur.”

Before the start of the new millennium, the film industry gave Arthurian fans seven more films starring different actors:

1981 - “Excalibur” (Nigel Terry)
1985 - “King Arthur” (Malcolm McDowell)
1995 - “The Adventures of a Yankee in the Court of King Arthur” (Nick Mancuso)
1995 - “The First Knight” (Sean Connery)
2004 - “King Arthur” (Arthur was played by Clive Owen, Guinevere’s makeup and dress were tried on by Keira Knightley, and Ioan Gruffudd appeared as Lancelot)

Then the directors decided to take a break, and by 2017, with renewed vigor, they took up the embodiment of the King of the Britons in cinema. The action film “King Arthur: The Return of Excalibur” was presented by Anthony Smith in early spring. The director of the filming process invited Adam Bayard, Nicola Stewart-Hill, and Simon Armstrong to play the main roles.

Following this premiere, the final trailer for the new film from the director of The Sword of King Arthur was released, which was presented to the viewer in May 2017. This time he appeared in the guise of Arthur. The picture has almost nothing in common with the original concept of the legends about knights. The main character puts on the mask of the leader of a gang of robbers who seeks to overthrow the autocrat Vortigern. The soundtrack for the film was written by Daniel Pemberton, winner of the 2016 Golden Globe for best film music.

The character also took its rightful place in the animation heritage. The cartoon "The Sword in the Stone" based on the book of the same name by Terence White about Arthur's childhood was filmed at the Disney studio. And 30 years later, the hero was portrayed by Warner Bros. artists in the cartoon “The Magic Sword: Quest for Camelot.”

In the 12th century, during the restoration of Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset (England), they came across a grave on the cross of which the name of King Arthur was allegedly engraved. In the 16th century, the monastery was abolished, and the burial site was hidden under the ruins. Today, a sign reminds tourists of the possible grave of the great ruler.
In the early 80s, a crater on Mimas, a satellite of the planet Saturn, was named after King Arthur.
The statistics of the latest film about the valiant knight are impressive. There are 40 Excaliburs used in King Arthur's Sword, only 10 are forged from metal, the rest are made from plastic. 130 horses took part in the main battle, and in Camelot they built a bridge 60 meters long, so strong that it could withstand a dozen horsemen galloping across it at the same time.

King Arthur is a true warrior king, a British national hero, a figure in whom one can easily recognize both a real historical character and a mythical hero. For many, he is a ray of light in a troubled time in Britain's history.

Only at the mention of the name of King Arthur do images of knightly fights, images of lovely ladies, mysterious wizards and treachery in the castles of traitors appear in the imagination. But what is hidden behind these seemingly romantic stories of the Middle Ages?

Of course, King Arthur is a literary character. There is a cycle of legends that relate to knightly romances about Arthur, for example in Celtic literature. However, what is the real hero? Is there any reason to believe that the stories about the great king of Britain, who led his compatriots in brutal battles against the Saxons, are real historical events?

The Legend of King Arthur (briefly)

Briefly, the legend of King Arthur is this. Arthur, the firstborn son of King Uther Pendragon, was born in Britain during difficult and troubled times. The wise wizard Merlin advised to hide the newborn so that no one would know about his real origin. After the death of Uther Pendragon, Britain was left without a king, and then Merlin, using magic, created a sword and stuck it in the stone. On the weapon was inscribed in gold: “Whoever can pull the sword out of the stone will be the successor of the King of Britain.”

Many attempted to do this, but only Arthur was able to pull out the sword, and Merlin crowned him. When Arthur broke his sword in the battle with King Pellinore, Merlin took him to the lake, from the waters of which a magic hand with the famous Excalibur appeared. With this sword (which the Lady of the Lake gave him) Arthur was invincible in battle.

Having married Guinevere, whose father (in some versions of the legend) gave him the round table, Arthur gathered the greatest knights of those times and settled in the castle of Camelot. The Knights of the Round Table, as they came to be called, protected the people of Britain from dragons, giants and black knights, and also searched for treasures, in particular the cup from which Christ drank during the Last Supper, the legendary. Arthur took part in many bloody battles against the Saxons. Under his leadership, the British achieved their greatest victory at Mount Badon, after which the Saxon advance was eventually stopped.

But unpleasant news awaited King Arthur at home. The valiant knight Lancelot fell in love with his wife Guinevere. Soon they found out about this affair, and Guinevere was sentenced to death, and Lancelot was expelled. But Lancelot returned to save the queen and took her to his castle in France. Arthur and his loyal warriors rushed to find Lancelot. Meanwhile, Mordred (Arthur's son from his half-sister Morgana, a witch with whom he had an affair in his youth when he did not know who she really was) wanted to seize power in Britain.

When Arthur returned, father and son fought at the Battle of Camlan. Arthur killed Mordred, but he himself received a mortal wound. They put him in a boat and sent him down the river. The boat landed on the island of Avalon, where his wounds were healed by three amazing queens in black robes. Soon after the news of King Arthur's death spread. Lancelot and Guinevere died of grief. But Arthur's body was never found. They say that he is dozing somewhere under a hill, waiting in the wings when he will again need to gather his knights to save Britain.

King Arthur - history (mentioned)

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are reported in a number of sources, and their time range is quite wide. The first known mention is in the History of the Britons, written around 825 by the Welsh monk Nennius. In this work, King Arthur is presented as a great commander: Nennius named twelve battles in which the king defeated the Saxons. The most important of them was the victory on Mount Badon. Unfortunately, the geographical names of the places where the battles described by Nennius took place have not existed for a long time, so to date it has not been possible to accurately determine their location.

The Annals of Cumbria (Welsh Annals) states that Arthur and his son Mordred were killed at the Battle of Camlan in 537. The location of this battle is still unknown, but there are two versions. It has been suggested that the battle took place in the village of Queen Camel in Somerset (near South Cadbury, which some researchers consider the famous Camelot), or a little further north, near the Roman fort of Birdoswald (in Castlesteads on Hadrian's Wall).

Researchers mainly draw information about Arthur from the History of the Kings of Britain, written by the Welsh priest Geoffrey of Monmouth around 1136. Here, for the first time, noble warriors are mentioned, who will later be associated with King Arthur and his knights, the rivalry with Mordred is described, there is the sword Excalibur, and the wizard, the king’s advisor, Merlin, and also tells about Arthur’s last journey to the island of Avalon.

But Sir Lancelot, the Holy Grail and the Round Table were not mentioned in the History. Contemporaries of Geoffrey of Monmouth criticized his work (he also published two books about the prophecies of Merlin), considering them nothing more than the fruit of wild imagination. It should be noted that most modern scientists share this opinion.

As happened with the works of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, archaeological finds gradually appeared that were consistent with some of Geoffrey's statements. As an example, it is possible to name the King of Britain Tenvantius. Until recently, the only source of information about him was Geoffrey's History. But as a result of archaeological excavations, coins with the inscription “Taskiovantus” were found among Iron Age artifacts. As you can see, this is the Tenwantius mentioned by Geoffrey. This means that Galfried’s works require rethinking. Perhaps other episodes of the biography of King Arthur, which are mentioned in the History of the Kings of Britain, will one day find documentary evidence.

With the advent of Sir Thomas Malory's book Le Morte d'Arthur, published in 1485, the story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table acquired the form in which it has reached our time. In his work, Malory, who was originally from Warwickshire, draws on earlier books by the French poets Maistre Vas and Chrétien de Troyes, who in turn used fragments of Celtic mythology, as well as the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The disadvantages of these literary sources include the fact that they were written no less than 300 years after the death of Arthur, approximately in the year 500. How can we restore this gap in time and reveal the real basis of this story?

Curious are the cursory references to Arthur dating back to the 6th century in early Celtic literature, especially in Welsh poems. The oldest of them, as can be seen, is "Goddin", the authorship of which is given to the Welsh poet Aneirin: "He fed the black ravens on the bastion, although he was not Arthur." In the “Black Book of Carmarthen” there are “Grave Stanzas”, which contain the following lines: “There is a grave for March, there is a grave for Gwythyr, a grave for Gugaun of the Scarlet Sword, and it is a sin to think about the grave of Arthur.” These words mean that the burial places of the heroes from the legend are known, but the grave of the king himself cannot be found because King Arthur is still alive.

In "The Treasures of Annwyn" from the Book of Taliesin, Arthur and his army went to the Welsh underworld of Annwn in search of a magical cauldron "warmed by the breath of nine maidens." It was not just a magical object - it is said to be a relic, a symbol of the religious beliefs of the Celts. He is also mentioned in the myth about the supreme god of Ireland, Dagda, who kept a cauldron that could bring the dead back to life. Arthur's search in the other world turned into a tragedy: only seven warriors returned from the journey. There is an obvious parallel between the quest for Arthur in Celtic mythological literature and the quest for the Holy Grail, but the mythical Arthur is clearly different from the image of the warrior who stopped the Saxons in 517.

Perhaps archaeological data will guide researchers on the right path and make it possible to piece by piece reconstruct the image of the real King Arthur. In literature, the western part of England is more often associated with the name of Arthur: Tintagel is the estate in which he was born; Camelot, where the Knights of the Round Table met, and the supposed burial site of Glastonbury. The tombs of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, which were allegedly found in 1190 by the monks of Glastonbury Abbey, are now considered a successful hoax. The monks came up with this deception in order to increase the income of the abbey, which had recently been damaged by fire.

But some researchers believe that Glastonbury actually had something to do with King Arthur. The area around Glastonbury Tor (today the mound is outside the city) may well be the Isle of Avalon, where Arthur was sent after receiving his mortal wound at the Battle of Camlan.

Just twelve miles from Glastonbury is Cadbury Castle, which dates back to the Iron Age and which regained strategic importance during the Dark Ages and is increasingly associated with Camelot these days. In the 6th century, the fortress was turned into a vast citadel with huge defensive bastions. A number of objects have been found here, including wine jugs, which were imported from Mediterranean countries, indicating that for a century this place was the residence of an important and influential nobleman. Could the castle have been the seat of King Arthur's power?

According to another version, Camelot is called Tintagel Castle, which is considered to be the birthplace of Arthur. It is located in the county of Cornwall, where quite a few geographical names are associated with the name of King Arthur. The structure was built in the Middle Ages, but archaeological excavations carried out at Tintagel show that the castle was an important stronghold and trading center even earlier: many jugs for wine and oil from Asia Minor, North Africa and the Aegean coast were discovered here.

1998 - a small piece of slab was found, on which there was an inscription in Latin: “Artognon, the father of a descendant of Coll, built this.” Artognon is the Latin variant of the Celtic name Artnu, or Arthur. However, is this the Arthur described in the legend? Unfortunately, no one knows this. As in the Cadbury Castle version, we are again dealing with an important fortress and trading center, which, no doubt, was the residence of a powerful British ruler who lived in the 6th century, when the Arthurian legend began. So, some facts that served as the basis for the legend were found out, but this is all the information that is available today.

Nowadays, there is active debate regarding who Arthur could have been if he had been a real historical character. According to one version, he was the ruler of a Roman colony in Britain named Ambrosius Aurelius. He fought against the Saxons, but not in the 6th century, but at the end of the 5th century, a couple of decades after the Roman legions left Britain. Other researchers, relying on materials from researcher Geoffrey Ashe, consider Arthur to be the military leader Riothamus (circa 5th century), who in one of the sources is designated as “King of the Britons.” He fought on the side of the Romans, took part in a military campaign in Gaul (France), directed against the Visigoth king Eric.

But around 470, his traces were lost in the territory of Burgundy. The name Riothamus is probably a Latinization of "highest ruler" or "high king", and is therefore a title rather than a proper name and is not related to Arthur. A striking detail that supports the Riothamus-Arthur theory is the fact that this king of Britain was betrayed by a certain Arvandus, who wrote a letter to the Gotts. He was soon executed for treason.

In one medieval chronicle, the name Arvandus sounds like Morvandus and resembles a Latinized version of the name of Arthur's treacherous son Mordred. Unfortunately, apart from meager information about his activities in Gaul, nothing is known about Riothamus, so it is impossible to establish with certainty whether the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table originates from here.

Judging by archaeological and textual evidence, the most likely version is that the image of Arthur is a collective one. The legend is based on one or more real characters - rulers who defended Britain from the predatory raids of the Saxons. The legend contains elements of Celtic mythology and the plots of medieval romances, which made up the image of King Arthur that we know today. Thus, the legend of King Arthur is based on real historical events. And the legend of Arthur lasted for so long only because this image touched the depths of people’s consciousness and met their inner needs not only for a hero, but also for a king who would embody the spirit of the British lands.

Houghton Brian

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