What is the purpose of the Cortes in Spain. Where and when did the Cortes appear in Spain? Research by historians

In the 11th-12th centuries, the support of royal power in Spain was the clergy and nobility. To make decisions on religious, political, economic, and administrative issues, meetings called curiae were convened. Only representatives of these two classes took part in them. The king did not make decisions alone. At the same time, the secular nobility had a preferential right to vote over the clergy.

Over time, the composition of these meetings was replenished with representatives of the third estate. Notable citizens began to be invited there. From that time on, the curia began to be called Cortes.

The beginning of the emergence of the Cortes

Where and when did the Cortes appear in Spain? The time of their appearance can be considered the convening of curiae, to which representatives of the townspeople were invited. Researchers agree that there is a very specific answer to the question of what year the Cortes appeared in Spain. Historians call the year 1188. The short answer to where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain is as follows: in the 12th century, in the kingdom of Leon.

Cortes in Leon

Representatives of the nobility, clergy and delegates from some cities were invited to the curia of King Alfonso IX. This event marked the beginning of the creation of the Cortes. The urgent need to strengthen royal power dictated the convening of an assembly of the estates. Muslims threatened southern Spain. Relations with Castile and Portugal remained strained. Alfonso IX had recently taken the throne, and intrigues were swirling against him.

The king swore to respect customs and obey accepted laws. He promised to make political decisions only with the approval of the Cortes participants. Representatives of the secular nobility, church and urban elites also swore allegiance to the king and promised their support in governing the state.

Research by historians

If you ask in more detail where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, you can find other data on the participation of citizens in curiae. Citizens were invited to council in Castile in 1170 and 1187. But then their participation was limited only to consulting on a specific issue.

However, in scientific circles, despite disputes about where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, the year 1188 is still accepted as the beginning of their emergence. The basis is taken from detailed research by V.K. Piskorsky, a Russian medievalist (specialist in the history of the Middle Ages).

The participation of cities in government in Spain can be puzzling at first. After all, it lagged behind other Western countries economically. Parliaments in England appeared a hundred years later! But the appearance of the Cortes was due to the historical conditions of the country’s development. Cities could provide military and monetary assistance. It was vital.

Trying to understand where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, it is necessary to note that ordinary townspeople were present at church councils in 1050 in Coyants and in 1115 in Oviedo. At that time they were just an audience.

Formation of the Cortes

The policy of giving benefits to cities (fueros) has long been used. They had to be interested in helping the king. And the next logical step is to attract representatives from cities to estate assemblies.

Over time, the townspeople began to take part in the Cortes on a regular basis. A variety of state issues were discussed there. Newly issued laws, the establishment of new taxes, issues of succession to the throne, decisions to make peace or declare war - all this was brought before the court of the estate assembly. But the Cortes were often given an advisory role.

Over time, the Cortes became of great importance in the financial sphere. The king needed the support of the estate assembly for tax policy. The approval of city representatives was especially important.

But even if the Cortes agreed, taxes were sometimes not collected in the required quantities. Very often the king simply turned to cities asking for a loan. Sometimes forcibly.

The townspeople tried to negotiate for themselves the most profitable fueros (benefits). In 1202, the Cortes in Benavepta bought the right to mint coins for seven years. The ransom amount exceeded the taxes received six times.

Estates in the representative assembly

Let's look at how the Cortes were organized in Spain.

They were admitted to: nobility, clergy, representatives of townspeople. Since various issues were considered, it was not necessary for all classes to work simultaneously.

The first estate in Spain is the secular nobility. The king invited her. She was the first to vote.

The second estate is the clergy. It was divided into higher and lower. These layers participated in the Cortes under different conditions.

Representatives of the townspeople constituted the third estate. Delegates were sent from those cities determined by the monarch. Only those settlements that had their own council (consejo) were allowed into the Cortes.

The third estate was the most active in the meetings. The demands of the cities were heard at almost every Cortes. The nobility and clergy occasionally petitioned the king.

Growing influence

Need I say that the Cortes became the site of the political struggle of all three classes? The king provided support to the parties depending on the situation.

The influence of cities became significant from the second half of the 13th century. Thus, royal power began to rely largely on representatives of city councils. Their interests began to be taken into account in public policy.

The answer to the question of where and how the Cortes appeared in Spain makes it possible to trace the evolution of the country's political structure - the formation of a monarchy with class representation.

in the medieval states of the Iberian Peninsula, estate-representative assemblies, the first in Western Europe. First mentioned in Castile in 1137. Played an important role in the XII-XIV centuries. With the establishment of absolutism, their importance fell. In modern Spain - the name of parliament.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

CORTES

las cort?s, from corte - queens. courtyard) - in Spain and Portugal on Wed. century class-represent. assemblies, and in modern times - parliaments (in Portugal until 1911, when parliaments were replaced by congress). Name "K." found for the first time in Castile in 1137. Queens developed from queens. curiae, which initially included only representatives of the privileged classes (nobility and clergy). Cities received the right of representation later (in Leon from 1188, Catalonia from 1218, Castile from 1250, Portugal from 1254, Aragon from 1274, Navarre from 1300). K. - the first in time to represent the class. institutions in the West Europe. They played a major role in the 13th and 14th centuries, contributing to the growth of the influence of cities and limiting the arbitrariness of feudal lords. With the establishment of absolutism their importance fell. In 1810-14, the Cadiz Cortes led the people. resistance to Napoleonic aggression. In Francoist Spain, C. have no real power. Source: Cortes de los antiguos reinos de Le?n y Castilla, v. 1-8, Madrid, 1861-1903; Actas de las Cortes de Castilla, v. 1-53, Madrid, 1861-1934; Cortes de los antiguos reinos de Arag?n y Valencia y principado de Catalufia, v. 1-26, Madrid, 1896-1922. Lit.: Altamira y Crevea R., History of Spain, pp. 1-2, M., 1951 (see the subject index in volume 2); Piskorsky V., Castilian Cortes in the transitional era from Wed. centuries to modern times (1188-1520), K., 1897.

In the 12th century. a representative institution arose in Leon, which was called the same as the previous meetings of secular and spiritual magnates convened by kings - curia or cortes. Researchers are unanimous in the view that the convening of such meetings of the estates, in which representatives of the cities also participated, should be considered the time of the emergence of the Cortes. Certain evidence of such participation in León dates back to 1188. King Alfonso IX summoned bishops, magnates and “elected citizens from individual cities.” The king swore at this meeting that he would respect the laws and customs of the country. He promised not to declare war or make peace without the consent of the bishops, nobles and "good people", whose advice he should use in his reign. The king expressed his readiness to submit to the court of his curia if he was accused by any of his subjects, and promised not to take revenge on the plaintiff.

The decree of Alfonso IX established strict penalties for those who seized or destroyed other people's property or took collateral without permission. The inviolability of home and hereditary possession was established. Anyone who killed a person who violated this prohibition was not subject to punishment. The decree allowed an appeal to the royal curia (in accordance with the norms of fueros).

Bishops, magnates and townspeople, in turn, took an oath that they would be loyal to the king and would maintain justice and peace in the kingdom.

In Castile, as early as 1170, Fernando II sought advice, in addition to the highest nobility and clergy, also to

urban caballeros 1. Representatives of the cities were then invited to participate in the royal curia in 1187, when the marriage of the Infanta Berenguela with the emperor's son Conrad of Hohenstaufen was discussed with the ambassador of Frederick Barbarossa. Representatives of 50 cities (maiores), along with bishops and magnates, swore to honor the terms of the marriage contract. But the participation of city delegates in this case was still limited, touching only on this issue. However, it is generally believed that townspeople acted as participants in the Cortes in Castile from the late 12th to early 13th centuries. The opinion of V. Piskorsky that the beginning of the history of the Cortes should be considered 1188 2 was established in historical literature. The work of the Russian medievalist still remains the most thorough and thorough study of the history of the Castilian Cortes.

The early participation of cities in the estate-representative body in Leon (almost a century earlier than in England) may seem strange, given the economic lag of Leon and Castile compared to other countries in Western Europe. But the appearance of a representative institution in Leon already at the end of the 12th century, and soon in Castile, is associated with the peculiarities of the historical development of these countries - the Reconquista and the outstanding role of cities in political life.

In the XI-XII centuries. and Leon and Castile had to strain every effort to wage wars against the Muslims. In addition, these states fought against each other and against other Christian kingdoms. The kings of Leon and Castile could not always count on support from magnates and prelates who showed partisan tendencies. Financial and military assistance from cities became an urgent need. At the same time, attracting the resources of cities that had already achieved great economic importance and political weight was impossible without certain concessions in their favor. A manifestation of this policy of concessions has long been the granting of liberties to them - fueros. Next

1 cm: Guglielmi N. La "curia regia en Leon y Castilla. Cuadernos de historia de Espana, XXVIII, 1958, p. 77.

2 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes in the transitional era from the Middle Ages to modern times. Kyiv, 1897.

The next step of the same policy was to attract city delegates to representative bodies.

It is characteristic that already at the church councils (concilia), which took place in 1050 in Coyants and 1115 in Oviedo, the “plebs” were present - that is, ordinary townspeople. But they played the role of an audience, and not full participants in these meetings, unlike the tycoons. At this time, by the beginning of the 12th century, the townspeople had access to the royal court to inform the king about the needs of the population and present complaints. Thus, the fuero granted to Toledo in 1118 stipulated that “ten of the elders of the city” could appear before the king to present complaints.

The convening of the Cortes by Alfonso IX with the participation of representatives of the cities in 1188 was facilitated by the urgent need to strengthen the position of royal power. In the south of Spain, Muslims have strengthened. The Almohads captured Alcantara in 1173. Portugal and Castile took a hostile position towards Leon. There was no unity within the royal house itself. Alfonso IX, who ascended the royal throne in 1188, was intrigued by his stepmother.

The meetings of the Cortes in Benavepte in 1202 already quite clearly characterize the purpose of this representative body. Here the issue of providing the king with a monetary subsidy was resolved, which later became periodic and received the name moneda fore-ha. Kings often sought a way out of financial difficulties by damaging coins. The Cortes of 1202, which was attended by representatives of the cities, bought from the king the right to mint coins for seven years in advance, paying a huge sum - one maravedi for each person. This was six times more than what the king could simultaneously collect from the population without turning to the Cortes. At the Cortes in Benavente, other matters were also considered, in particular questions about the conditions under which people hold lands from the church, about the rights of the king to lands received by nobles from the church as benefices.

The participation of townspeople in the Cortes was not immediately established. The sources do not contain data on the presence of townspeople at the Cortes in Toro in 1207 and in Burgos and Valladolid in 1215. But later their participation became regular. In the Cortes

representatives of the three Estates were usually present. But sometimes the Cortes took place without the participation of the nobility and clergy, for example in Valladolid in 1295 and 1299.

The first estate in the Cortes, unlike in France, was considered the secular nobility (estado militar). The casting of votes began with him. Representatives of this class were primarily Ricos Ombres. Apparently they came at the king's invitation. According to the chronicle of 1241, in the Cortes in Burgos, the king met “with the ricos ombres and people from the land” (con sus ricos ombres et con los de la tierra). The latter are representatives of cities, as well as rural communities that had self-government and had their own consejo 1. The lower layer of the nobility, the infansons, hidalgos, first appeared in the Cortes in 1250 and subsequently did not sit at all meetings. The clergy (estado ecclesiastico) also consisted of a higher and lower strata. The highest included the archbishops of Santiago, Toledo and Seville, bishops, abbots, and masters of military orders. To the lowest - clergy of chapters, parish clergy. Prelates were present at the Cortes by virtue of their personal right, the lower clergy elected their representatives. But they found themselves in the Cortes for the first time only in 1295 and subsequently participated in the work of this assembly irregularly 2 .

The third estate (estado llano) consisted of representatives of urban communities (civitates, villae). The order of cities' participation in the Cortes was not strictly defined. First of all, obviously, cities and settlements sent their deputies from the territories of the crown itself (gea-lengo), and which cities were determined by the king. Only settlements that had their own council (consejo) could participate in the Cortes. If the city does not had such a body or later lost the right to such an institution, he was deprived of the opportunity to participate in the Cortes.Toledo was represented in the Cortes only from 1348. In some cases, representatives of communities that had their own lords were also involved in the Cortes.

Deputies from urban communities were designated as homes bonos, alcaldes, cavalleros, de la tierra, and from 1255

1 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 21.

2 See there, With. 16-20.

ordinary becomes the designation procuradores. Only once, in 1268 g., there is a mention of merchants-mercadores.

The above data on the nature of city government suggest that the city delegates in the Cortes were, as a rule, representatives of the city elite from the most prosperous hidalgos and caballeros-villanos. There is no need to talk about the participation of the merchant and artisan population of the cities in the Cortes. As already noted, these categories of townspeople did not occupy any strong position in municipal government. Single mention of merchants in the Cortes 1268 in Jerez is probably explained by the fact that at these Cortes the issue of yen for various goods was discussed.

In some cases, delegations from communities included peasants. V. Piskorsky made this assumption on the basis of the mention of “the protocols of the Cortes on participation in Jerez in 1268 "good people" from the villages. Based on what we know about the stratification among the peasant population in the 13th century. and staffing the councils of cities and villages, we can assume that the omes bonos who ended up in the Cortes were mainly the wealthy elite of the peasantry. But the tendency of historical development was to eliminate them from representation in this era. This tendency found its most striking manifestation later, at the beginning of the 15th century, in the petition of the deputies of the Palencia Cortes, “who asked the king not to allow peasants and, in general, persons belonging to the tax class into the Cortes.

Representatives from cities to the Cortes were appointed by election or lottery. Usually the number of city deputies did not exceed four people. By giving deputies a list of demands, city councils thereby determined their powers. If new issues arose at the meetings, deputies asked their city communities for additional instructions and powers.

Cortes were convened, as a rule, by order of the king (or his deputies). But sometimes they met without prior summons from the sovereign, as happened in 1282 g., when deputies from the estates came to Valladolid to resolve the issue of succession to the throne, contrary to the will of Alfonso X. So it was

both in 1295 and 1313. in Valladolid, in 1312 in Palencia 1.

Meetings took place in various parts of the kingdom, wherever the royal residence was located at the moment, most often in Valladolid, Burgos, Medina del Campo, Palencia.

In some cases, deputies received support during the activities of the Cortes. Thus, in 1250, Fernando III granted each deputy from Segovia a payment of one maravedi per day if the meeting took place between Toledo and the Muslim border, and a payment of half a maravedi if it was north of Toledo. The kings guaranteed safety for all persons going to meetings of the Cortes. But during the period of strife, which occurred quite often, the delegates did not have security. This is clear from the response of the magnates in 1271 to the invitation of Alfonso X to appear at the Cortes in Burgas. They declared that they would not arrive at the Cortes out of fear for their lives until a general truce was declared 2.

Meetings took place irregularly, but quite often. Under Alfonso X, for example (i.e. from 1252 to 1284), 16 times, under Sancho IV - 5 times.

The king opened the meeting and made a speech from the throne. Orally or in writing, he determined the agenda and sought the opinion of the Cortes on these issues. The estates gave answers to the royal proposals. Each of them discussed their affairs separately. The estates presented petitions to the king and drew up orders (cuadernos), in which they expressed their wishes. The king studied these petitions and responded to them, sometimes satisfying the requests of the deputies in whole or in part, sometimes refraining from answering (which meant rejection).

The duration of the session varied: from ten to twelve days to two months. Since the time of Fernando III, the Cortes of León and Castile have been convened jointly. But since 1283, kings often collected them separately, which caused discontent on the part of the estates. In 1301, the Cortes in Burgos, where only Castilian communities were present, asked the king to assemble the Cortes of all parts of the kingdom together.

1 See: Soule S. Les etats generaux en France. Heule, 1968, p. 119

2 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 75-76.

The competence of the Cortes included discussion of a wide variety of issues of state life: legislation, taxation, foreign policy, succession to the throne. The Cortes did not have a very significant influence on legislation, although the kings sometimes emphasized that they legislated laws together with the Cortes. Thus, the decree of the king of Leon in 1188 began as follows: “The decrees which were drawn up by Don Alfonso, king of Leon and Galicia in Leon, together with the archbishop of Compoetela, with all the bishops and elected citizens of the kingdom.” In some cases, the Cortes played not only an advisory role when issuing laws, but also exerted a certain amount of pressure on the king. Without the consent of the Cortes, it was impossible to repeal previously issued laws and fueros. In 1258, in Valladolid, the Cortes demanded that the king carry out all the decisions they made.

The importance of a representative body in the financial policy of the state was partly noted above. The need for the consent of the Cortes to introduce new taxes was the most important reason for the inclusion of delegates from cities in this assembly. The news of the first vote of taxes dates back to 1269, when the Cortes in Burgos allowed the collection of a subsidy in the amount of six monedas foreras 1 from the population. But the provision on the consent of the Cortes to collect taxes was not always respected. In order not to contact the Cortes about taxes , kings often resorted to local loans - from the cities of individual regions of the kingdom. For example, Fernando III, during the siege of Seville, turned to the consejos of Galicia with a request to provide him with a loan, promising to repay the debt after receiving the next collection of moneda forera. Loans of this kind were not always carried out voluntary nature. In 1255, the caballeros of Valladadolida complained to Alfonso X that his father was making forced loans. In 1256, the townspeople of Rivadivia addressed the king with the same complaint. Alfonso X promised not to resort to such measures 2. But

1 See: Cortes de los antiguos Reinos de Leon y de Castilla, t. I. Madrid, 1861, p. 150.

2 See: O"Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of Cortes of Leon - Castile. - American Historical Review, 1969, June, vol. LXXIV, p. 1528-1529.

The Partidas included a provision stipulating that in some cases custom and extreme need may force the king not to turn to the Cortes for permission to levy certain taxes 1 . In 1281 G. The Cortes in Seville agreed to provide the king with a loan, as the chronicler writes, “more out of fear than out of love.”

The Cortes discussed issues of war and peace and the conclusion of treaties. So, in 1195, at the Cortes in Carrion, it was decided to start a war against the Moors. In 1288, at the Cortes in Haro, the question was discussed: with whom is it preferable to sign an agreement - with the Aragonese or French king. The Valladolid Cortes in 1299 decided to enter into an alliance with the Portuguese king.

The subject of discussion at the Cortes were Alfonso X's claims to the imperial crown (1266, Toledo), sending a detachment of knights to Lombardy (1273, Burgos). At the Cortes, guardians were appointed for the young king.

Economic problems occupied a lot of space in the activities of this body. These, in addition to taxation issues, included the alienation of crown lands and the procedure for transferring the lands of monasteries and orders into the possession of caballeros, the lease of salt springs, the establishment of prices for livestock, measures and weights, etc. Some decisions of the Cortes related to the “working policy” of the state: the establishment payment rates for hired workers and artisans, prohibition of the creation of craft brotherhoods. Issues of the administrative structure and the court, the procedure for appointment to public positions and related abuses were often considered.

The activities of the Cortes reflected the political struggle taking place in the kingdom between the spiritual And secular nobility With on the one hand, by the townspeople on the other. Depending on the situation, the king supported one side or the other. In the second half of the 13th century. clearly, the influence of cities has increased. But sometimes the nobility managed to impose their will on the king. So, in. 1271, the magnates, rebelling against Alfonso X, presented a number of demands: to abolish the fueros of cities, which diminished the rights of the idle-

1 See: Siete Partidas, II, 1, 8.

state in the relevant territory, limit the service life of the hidalgos to the king, save them from the damage that the newly created consejos in Leon and Galicia inflict on them, etc. At the Cortes in Burgos, Alfonso X agreed to satisfy these demands. But more often during this period the advantage in the Cortes was on the side of the cities. In 1250, Fernando III, at the request of city representatives, annulled the charters that removed a number of villages from the jurisdiction of the concejos. In 1286, Palencia prohibited the ricos ombres and infa.neons from purchasing villas from the royal domain. In 1293, in Valladolid, it was decided not to appoint noble persons as tax collectors, not to give them control over the cities and villages of urban districts, and to deprive nobles of the right to acquire land in the cities.

The “Third Estate” was the most active in the Cortes. The clergy and secular nobility in some cases presented petitions, and the townspeople put forward their demands at almost every Cortes.

The most striking example of the influence that city deputies achieved in the Cortes can be seen in the Cortes in Valladolid in 1295. Representatives of the urban class demanded that Queen Maria de Molina remove the Archbishop of Toledo, other prelates and secular magnates. “If they are present, we will not come to any decision,” these deputies said. The queen, needing the support of the cities, agreed to the removal of the nobility, despite the protests of the archbishop 1.

At these Cortes, city deputies put forward a number of demands: to remove bishops and abbots from the royal court; invite “good people” from the cities to the royal palace. The Cortes wanted assurances that cities and villages from the royal domain would no longer complain to the Ricos Ombres, and that the lands of the cities taken from them by kings Alfonso X and Sancho IV would be returned to them. The deputies demanded that the protection of fortresses in cities and villages be entrusted to the caballeros and the “good people” of the cities. Royal officials were required to submit reports on funds collected in their subject territories. At the Cortes in Valladolid in 1299, city deputies again demanded that the collection of taxes be entrusted to “good

1 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 6, 77.

People,” and the nobles, who were granted fortresses in cities by the king, were forbidden to seize the property of the townspeople.

The independent interests of the peasants were not reflected in the activities of the Cortes, with the exception of individual resolutions that to a certain extent met their needs. These include: the prohibition on officials to arbitrarily levy conduco in begetria 1, to take away from the peasants 2 as collateral bulls used for plowing; the requirement that the consejos not oppress the peasants who were trying to free themselves from their power 3 .

Various opinions were expressed in historical literature about the nature and essence of the Cortes of this period. Back at the beginning of the 19th century. Spanish historian Martínez Marina assessed the Cortes as a representative institution that limited the power of the king. V. Piskorsky emphasized the “strongly expressed democratic character” of this institution 4, L. Valdeavellano noted the real significance of the “Cortes in the political life of Leon and Castile. Without their consent, the king could not repeal laws and fueros 5.

A. Ballesteros and C. Sanchez-Albornoz evaluate the importance of the Cortes even more highly. The latter called the decree of Alfonso IX of 1188 the “Great Spanish Charter” (Carta magna espanola). This charter, in his opinion, is superior to the English Magna Carta. The latter is characterized by the desire to ensure the privileges of the nobility and limit the authority of the sovereign. The Spanish charter was dictated by the desire of the people to ensure peace and justice, to counteract violations of justice by magnates, to prevent waste in favor of the clergy, and to rule “in harmony with all three classes” 6 .

1 See: Cortes, I, p. 58-59.

2 See: ibid., I, p. 80..

" 3 See: O"Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of the Cortes..., p. 1530. See also: Pichugina I. S. Peasantry and Cortes of Castile in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 14th century. - In the book: Europe in the Middle Ages. M, 1972,

4 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes in the transitional era..., p. 1.

5 See: Valdeavellano L. G. de. Op. cit, p. 467.

6 Sanchez-Albornoz C. Espana - un enigma historico, t. II, p. 82-83.

A different view was expressed by M. Torres Lopez, D. O'Callaghan, G. Post. According to their point of view, the Cortes were only an advisory body under the leadership and control of the monarch TO O'Callaghan objected to the comparison of the decree of Alfonso IX with the Magna Carta, noting that it was not wrested from the king by rebellious barons or townspeople. The initiative for its publication belonged to the king, who sought to put an end to violence and for this purpose wanted to gain the support of the townspeople against the rebellion-prone This decree was not confirmed by subsequent rulers, and the population of Leon and Castile did not see in it the source of their freedoms.

According to X. Manuel Pérez-Prendes and Muñoz de Arraco, the Spanish medieval Cortes cannot be identified with the French Estates General or the English Parliament. The nobility and clergy appeared in the Cortes as representatives of the political-administrative apparatus, and not of classes. Deputies from the cities opposed in the Cortes not the king, but the top clergy and nobility, the highest officials of the administration 2. The central core of the activities of the Cortes was the provision of advice and assistance to the sovereign. The Cortes were not a body that limited royal power. On the contrary, the Cortes were an instrument controlled monarch 3.

I. S. Pichugina based on an analysis of the politics of the Cortes in the XIII-XIV centuries. in relation to the peasantry, he concludes that the thesis about the democratic nature of the Cortes “should be subjected, if not to revision, then at least to clarification” 4 .

The Cortes of Leon and Castile, like the estate-representative institutions of other European countries, represented

1 See: O"Callaghan J.F. Beginning of the Cortes of Leon-Cas-tille..., p. 1514-1515; Post G. Studies in Medieval legal Thought. Princeton, 1964, p. 79, 117-118.

2 See: O"Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of the Cortes..., p. 1514-1515; Post G. Studies in Medieval legal Thought, p. 79, 117-118.

3 See: /. Manuel Perez-Prendes y Munoz de Arraco. Cortes de Castilla y Cortes de Cadiz. - “Revista de estudios politicos”, 1963, N 126, p. 368-369.

4 Pichugina I. S. Peasantry and Cortes of Castile in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 14th century. - In the book: Europe in the Middle Ages, p. 194.

constituted a specific organ of the political system of the feudal state. They performed advisory functions, but were not limited to them. This is shown by the above data on the voting of extraordinary taxes and the presentation to the king of petitions setting out the demands of the estates regarding governance. The Cortes were the arena of struggle between the nobility and the cities. The desire of both those and others to consolidate their demands by resolutions of the Cortes clearly shows the real importance of this body in the second half of the 13th century. The Cortes limited the king in some areas of government, primarily financial, but did not have sufficient funds to implement their decisions. It is characteristic that, trying to achieve satisfaction of their demands from the king, both the nobility and the cities were forced to create juntas and hermandads. The emergence of the Cortes reflected an essential feature of the social structure of Leon and Castile in the 12th-13th centuries: the growing influence of cities* and corresponding changes in the social basis of royal power. She now relied to a certain extent on the consejos and was forced to take their interests into account in her policy.

The predominance of urban representatives in the estate-representative institution by the end of the 13th century is a feature of the Leono-Castilian kingdom. The activities of the Cortes limited royal power to a certain extent. But the democracy of the Cortes and their role in the political structure should not be exaggerated. It should be taken into account that the city delegates in the Cortes were representatives of the top consejos, mainly caballeros. The bulk of the tax-paying urban population, the peons, not to mention the peasants who were under the rule of the lords, practically did not participate in the representative body.

The originality of the Leonese-Castilian representative institution is associated with the peculiarities of urban development in these countries. The relatively weak and slow development of crafts and trade, the small importance of merchants and artisans in the political life of cities explain the fact that these social strata did not play an active role in the Cortes. If in England and France the merchant-usurious elite of the townspeople are typical city representatives in Parliament and the General

1, if guests and merchants are ordinary participants in zemstvo councils in Rus' in the 16th century 2, then in the Kingdom of Leon-Castile the main representatives of the cities are caballeros and partly peons from wealthy urban farmers.

Reflecting a certain expansion of the social base of royal power, the Cortes, by the nature of their activities, did not go beyond the interests of royal power and the ruling class as a whole. At the same time, the emergence of the Cortes in Leon and Castile at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. marks the evolution of the political structure of these countries - the formation of a monarchy with class representation. The social nature of this monarchy is clearly revealed in its policy towards the main classes of Leon-Castilian society - peasants, on the one hand, nobles - z another. The state provided the greatest benefits from the Reconquista to secular magnates and church corporations.

The main burden of the tax burden was placed on peasants in the villages and peons in the cities. The state consolidated the dependent state of the masses of the peasantry, although this dependence was not expressed in serfdom. All these are signs of the feudal nature of the Leon-Castilian state.

1 See: Gutnova E. V. The emergence of the English Parliament. M., 1960, p. 400, 413; Denisova N. A. On the question of the political role of townspeople in the States General of France at the beginning of the 14th century, - “Bulletin of Moscow State University”. Ser. IX, history, 1966, No. 3, p. 67.

2 See: Tikhomirov M. N. Estate-representative institutions in Russia in the 16th century. - “Questions of History”, 1958, No. 5.

Was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Europe. The enormous influence and aggressive policy of its rulers would have been impossible without a harmonious internal system of royal power, which in its decisions relied on the influence of two pillars - the power of the church and secular power. It was the second branch of power that the Cortes represented.

Authority - Cortes

It is impossible to say exactly where and when the Cortes appeared. It is known that by the middle of the 12th century this word was already used both in colloquial speech and in official documents. The origin of these organs is associated with the name of the early Spanish kings - Fernando II and Alfonso IX.

The Cortes were elected assemblies similar to the Parliament in England and France. True, in Spain this form of self-government arose a little earlier. In Castile, King Fernando II sought advice not only from the nobility and clergy, but also from wealthy townspeople - the caballeros. It was about the marriage between the Infanta Berenguella and the son of Frindich Barbarossa, Conrad. between the heirs of two influential kingdoms contained many points that required strict execution.

Etymology of the word

Unfortunately, there is no reliable data on what this word means. Knowing where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain does not clarify the actual origin of the term. Most likely, it was borrowed from the Castilian or Aragonese dialect of the Spanish language, and its original roots were lost through the centuries. In the early Middle Ages, the word was often associated with the Latin term "curia". Perhaps the answer to the question “what are the Cortes” lies precisely in Roman law. But where and when the Cortes arose in Spain, and how they transformed into a state institution, we can answer in more detail. After all, the Cortes are the prototypes of modern parliaments in all European countries.

Decrees of Alfonso IX

Scientists are still arguing about where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain. But until the end of the 12th century, all meetings of wealthy townspeople and merchants were unsystematic. In 1188, in Leon, King Alfonso convened wealthy citizens, representatives of the nobility and clergy - the best and most eminent people in Spain. For what purpose the Cortes were created can be learned from the brief chronicles of that time. These representatives of the three property classes swore allegiance to their master. And the king, in turn, took an oath that he undertakes to remain faithful to the people and respect the privileges and customs of the country.

What are the Cortes? Such contractual relations indicate, first of all, that royal power in Spain was not absolute - a simple royal decree to raise funds or mobilize subjects did not at all guarantee absolute implementation. And against the backdrop of constant clashes with Muslims, such a threat could cost the kings their freedom and independence. Therefore, some support from the citizens of Leon and Castile was necessary. It was there that the first organizational meetings appeared in Spain.

For what purpose were the Cortes created?

First of all, to achieve the support of citizens in military operations and government affairs. Secondly, to develop certain laws of interaction between citizens, the clergy and ordinary people. These rules concerned courts, private property laws, and taxes. The set of agreed rules and liberties was called "fueros".

The emergence of the Cortes

Medieval chronicles and chronicles can answer the question of where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain. History says that the first cities governed by the Cortes were Castile and Leon. The appearance of these meetings should be dated back to the 11th-12th century. The next step was to grant the most influential part of the townspeople legislative rights and their gradual transformation into a significant meeting of the Cortes in 1202, when eminent citizens bought from the royal government the right to mint gold coins. A huge sum was paid for the right to mint, which was almost six times the king’s entire income from taxes and fees.

Three Estates

The nobility, the clergy and the townspeople - caballeros - were the three classes that took part in the work of the Cortes. New legislative assemblies did not always include representatives of the three property classes. Estado militar - secular power - raised issues for consideration by society. The secular branch was created by representatives of the king - ricos amberos, and by the small nobility - hidalgos and infantons. The clergy was also present in two forms - the central archbishopric and the local clergy. The third force was represented by the estado llano - delegates from urban communities. The order of their participation was not standardized. First of all, representatives of cities belonging to the crown took part in the Cortes. Another condition was that the city had its own council - the consejo. There are cases when townspeople made decisions on their own.

Where and when did the Cortes, consisting of citizens, appear in Spain? Meetings in Valladolid in 1295 and four years later are known. Issues resolved at these meetings did not involve the presence of the nobility and clergy.

Now the Cortes are the highest legislative bodies of Spain. Decisions affecting the entire state are made here. And it’s hard to believe that this form of government began a thousand years ago in Castile and Leon.

policy

b) the entirety of state and party power passed into the hands of

c) there were changes in the leadership of the party

2. Who was blamed for the repressions of the 30s?

a) to Beria and Yezhov

b) on Molotov and Malenkov

c) to the NKVD bodies

3. When did the development of virgin lands begin?

a) in 1953 b) in 1954 c) in 1959 d) in 1962

4. What is the difference between Khrushchev’s program and Malenkov’s program in agricultural development?

a) Khrushchev advocated greater independence for collective farms

b) Khrushchev proposed increasing grain production at the expense of virgin lands

c) Expenditures on rural social development were increased

5. What activities relate to the economic policy pursued by Khrushchev?

a) replacement of ministries with economic councils

b) accelerated development of light industry enterprises

c) experiment with the introduction of self-financing

6. What successes did Soviet science achieve during the “thaw”?

a) landing man on the moon

b) construction of a nuclear icebreaker

c) creation of a jet passenger airliner

7. Which Soviet writer gave the name to Khrushchev’s times with his work “The Thaw”?

a) A. Solzhenitsyn

b) F. Panferov

c) I. Ehrenburg

8. In what year was the Warsaw Pact Organization founded?

9. What agreements were concluded between the USSR and the USA after the Caribbean crisis?

a) dismantling Soviet missiles in Cuba

b) withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey

c) the USSR’s refusal to provide economic assistance to Cuba

d) closure of the American military base in Cuba

10. Which Eastern European country did the Soviet Union send troops to in 1956?

a) Bulgaria

b) Czechoslovakia

c) Hungary

a) housing construction

c) free education

d) adoption of the law on pensions

Option 2

1.What led to the strengthening of Khrushchev’s position in the struggle for power?

a) to the establishment of a new cult of personality b) to the resignation of G.K. Zhukova

c) to strengthen Malenkov’s position

2. When did the 20th Party Congress take place?

3.Find the correct statement:

a) Khrushchev’s economic program contributed to the extensive development of the economy

b) Khrushchev’s economic program contributed to the intensive development of the economy

c) Khrushchev’s economic program contributed to the emergence of a market economy

4. Why, despite the successes of social policy, Khrushchev’s resignation did not cause protests among the Soviet people?

a) Khrushchev’s policies exacerbated national contradictions

b) dissatisfaction with the increased role of the CPSU grew

c) there was an increase in prices for consumer goods

d) the size of the army was significantly reduced

5. What events revived cultural life in the USSR?

a) regular meetings of Central Committee and cultural figures

b) opening of the Moscow Film Festival

c) holding international exhibitions

6. Which of the following is a sign of a “thaw”

a) the appearance of anti-Stalin works of literature

b) start of rehabilitation

c) weakening of the role of the Communist Party

d) expansion of international contacts of the intelligentsia

7. When was the first artificial satellite launched?

8. When was the treaty banning nuclear weapons tests in three areas concluded?

9. Why did the influence of SSS R increase at 00 N?

a) the role of the United States weakened

b) the appearance of ballistic missiles in the USSR

c) Soviet Union support for the anti-colonial movement.

10. During his resignation, Khrushchev was accused of:

a) in voluntarism

b) in reducing the army

c) in debunking the “cult of personality”

11. The successes of the social policy of the USSR can be considered:

a) housing construction

b) reduction of tariff rates in production

c) free education

d) adoption of the law on pensions