How reliable are the old Russian chronicles? Complete collection of Russian chronicles Centers of chronicle writing in ancient Rus'.

Chronicle - Old Russian essay on national history, consisting of weather reports. For example: "In the summer of 6680. The faithful prince Gleb of Kiev reposed" ("In 1172. The faithful prince Gleb of Kiev died"). The news can be short and lengthy, including lives, stories and legends.

Chronicler - a term that has two meanings: 1) the author of the chronicle (for example, Nestor the chronicler); 2) a small chronicle in terms of volume or thematic coverage (for example, the Vladimir chronicler). Chroniclers are often referred to as monuments of local or monastic annals.

chronicle - a stage in the history of chronicle writing reconstructed by researchers, which is characterized by the creation of a new chronicle by combining ("information") several previous chronicles. Vaults are also called all-Russian chronicles of the 17th century, the compilation nature of which is undeniable.

The oldest Russian chronicles have not been preserved in their original form. They came in later revisions, and the main task in studying them is to reconstruct the early chronicles (XIII–XVII centuries) on the basis of the later chronicles (XIII–XVII centuries).

Almost all Russian chronicles in their initial part contain a single text that tells about the Creation of the world and further - about Russian history from ancient times (from the settlement of the Slavs in the East European valley) to the beginning of the 12th century, namely until 1110. Further the text differs in different chronicles. From this it follows that the chronicle tradition is based on a certain chronicle that is common to all, brought to the beginning of the 12th century.

At the beginning of the text, most of the chronicles have a heading that begins with the words "Behold the Tale of Bygone Years ...". In some chronicles, for example, the Ipatiev and Radziwill chronicles, the author is also indicated - a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery (see, for example, reading the Radziwill chronicle: "The Tale of the Bygone Years of the Black Nativity Fedosiev Monastery of the Caves ..."). In the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon among the monks of the XI century. “Nestor, who is also a chronicler of Papis,” is mentioned, and in the Khlebnikov list of the Ipatiev Chronicle, Nestor’s name appears already in the title: “The Tale of the Bygone Years of the Black Nester Feodosyev of the Pechersky Monastery ...”.

Reference

The Khlebnikov list was created in the 16th century. in Kyiv, where the text of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon was well known. In the very ancient list of the Ipatiev Chronicle, Ipatiev, the name of Nestor is absent. It is possible that it was included in the text of the Khlebnikov list when creating the manuscript, guided by the instructions of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. One way or another, already the historians of the XVIII century. Nestor was considered the author of the oldest Russian chronicle. In the 19th century researchers have become more cautious in their judgments about the most ancient Russian chronicle. They no longer wrote about the chronicle of Nestor, but about the general text of Russian chronicles and called it "The Tale of Bygone Years", which eventually became a textbook monument of ancient Russian literature.

It should be borne in mind that in reality, The Tale of Bygone Years is an exploratory reconstruction; by this name they mean the initial text of most Russian chronicles before the beginning of the 12th century, which did not reach us in an independent form.

Already in the composition of the so-called "Tale of Bygone Years" there are several contradictory indications of the time of the chronicler's work, as well as individual inconsistencies. Obviously, this stage of the beginning of the XII century. preceded by other chronicles. Only the remarkable philologist of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries managed to understand this confusing situation. Alexei Alexandrovich Shakhmatov (1864–1920).

A. A. Shakhmatov hypothesized that Nestor was not the author of The Tale of Bygone Years, but of earlier chronicle texts. He proposed to call such texts vaults, since the chronicler combined the materials of previous vaults and extracts from other sources into a single text. The concept of an annalistic code is today a key one in the reconstruction of the stages of ancient Russian chronicle writing.

Scholars distinguish the following chronicle codes that preceded The Tale of Bygone Years: 1) The most ancient code (the hypothetical date of creation is about 1037); 2) Code of 1073; 3) Initial Code (before 1093); 4) "The Tale of Bygone Years" edition before 1113 (possibly associated with the name of the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor): 5) "The Tale of Bygone Years" edition of 1116 (associated with the name of Abbot of the Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky Monastery Sylvester): 6) "The Tale of Bygone Years" edition of 1118 (also associated with the Vydubitsky Monastery).

Chronicle of the XII century. represented by three traditions: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal and Kyiv. The first is restored according to the Novgorod Chronicle I (the older and younger editions), the second - according to the annals of Lavrentiev, Radziwill and the Chronicler of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal, the third - according to the Ipatiev Chronicle with the involvement of the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle.

Novgorod Chronicle It is represented by several arches, the first of which (1132) is considered by researchers to be princely, and the rest - created under the Novgorod archbishop. According to A. A. Gippius, each archbishop initiated the creation of his own chronicler, which described the time of his hierarchship. Arranged sequentially one after another, the sovereign chroniclers form the text of the Novgorod chronicle. One of the first sovereign chroniclers is considered by researchers to be Domestic Antonisva of the Kirika monastery, who wrote the chronological treatise "Teaching them to tell a person the numbers of all years." In the chronicle article of 1136, describing the rebellion of the Novgorodians against Prince Vsevolod-Gabriel, chronological calculations are given, similar to those read in Kirik's treatise.

One of the stages of Novgorod chronicle writing falls on the 1180s. The name of the chronicler is also known. The article of 1188 describes in detail the death of the priest of the church of St. James Herman Voyata, and it is indicated that he served in this church for 45 years. Indeed, 45 years before this news, in the article of 1144, a news is read in the first person, in which the chronicler writes that the archbishop made him a priest.

Vladimir-Suzdal Chronicle known in several vaults of the second half of the 12th century, of which two seem to be the most probable. The first stage of the Vladimir Chronicle brought its presentation up to 1177. This chronicle was compiled on the basis of records that were kept from 1158 under Andrei Bogolyubsky, but were combined into a single code already under Vsevolod III. The last news of this chronicle is a lengthy story about the tragic death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, a story about the struggle of his younger brothers Mikhalka and Vsevolod with his nephews Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavich for the reign of Vladimir, the defeat and blinding of the latter. The second Vladimir vault is dated 1193, because after that year the series of dated weather reports breaks off. Researchers believe that the records for the end of the XII century. belong already to the arch of the beginning of the XIII century.

Kiev Chronicle represented by the Ipatiev Chronicle, which was influenced by the northeastern chronicle. Nevertheless, researchers manage to isolate at least two arches in the Ipatiev Chronicle. The first is the Kiev code compiled in the reign of Rurik Rostislavich. It ends with the events of 1200, the last of which is the solemn speech of the abbot of the Kyiv Vydubitsky monastery Moses with words of thanks to the prince who built a stone fence in the Vydubitsky monastery. In Moses they see the author of the code of 1200, who set the goal of exalting his prince. The second set, unmistakably defined in the Ipatiev Chronicle, refers to the Galician-Volyn chronicle of the late 13th century.

The oldest Russian chronicles are valuable, and for many stories, and the only historical source on the history of Ancient Rus'.

The chronicle of the ancient Slavic state was almost forgotten thanks to the German professors who wrote Russian history and aimed to rejuvenate the history of Rus', to show that the Slavic peoples were allegedly "virginally pure, not tainted by the deeds of the Ross, Antes, barbarians, vandals and Scythians, whom the whole world".

The goal is to tear Rus' away from the Scythian past. On the basis of the works of German professors, a national historical school arose. All history textbooks teach us that before the baptism, wild tribes lived in Rus' - "pagans".

This is a big lie, because history has been repeatedly rewritten to please the existing ruling system - starting with the first Romanovs, i.e. history is interpreted as beneficial to the ruling class at the moment. Among the Slavs, their past is called Heritage or Chronicle, and not History (the word “Let” preceded, introduced by Peter the Great in 7208 years from S.M.Z.Kh., the concept of “year”, when instead of the Slavic chronology they introduced 1700 from supposedly Christmas). S.M.Z.H. - this is the Creation / signing / of the World with the Arim / Chinese / in the summer, called the Star Temple - after the end of the Great World War (something like May 9, 1945, but more significant for the Slavs).

Therefore, is it worth trusting textbooks, which even in our memory have been copied more than once? And is it worth trusting textbooks that contradict many facts that indicate that before baptism - in Rus' there was a huge state with many cities and villages (Country of cities), a developed economy and crafts, with its own original Culture (Culture = Culture = Cult of Ra = Cult of Light). Our ancestors who lived in those days possessed vital Wisdom and a worldview that helped them always act according to their Conscience and live in harmony with the world around them. This attitude to the World is now called the Old Faith ("old" - means "pre-Christian", and earlier it was simply called - Faith - Knowledge of Ra - Knowledge of Light - Knowledge of the Shining Truth of the Most High). Faith is primary, and Religion (for example, Christian) is secondary. The word "Religion" comes from "Re" - repetition, "League" - connection, association. Faith is always one (there is either a connection with God, or it is not), and there are many religions - as many as the people of the Gods have or how many ways intermediaries (popes, patriarchs, priests, rabbis, mullahs, etc.) come up with to establish with them connection.

Since the connection with God, established through third parties - intermediaries, for example - priests, is artificial, then, in order not to lose the flock, each religion claims to be "Truth in the first instance." Because of this, many bloody religious wars have been and are being waged.

Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov fought against the German professorship alone, arguing that the history of the Slavs is rooted in antiquity.

ancient slavic state RUSKOLAN occupied lands from the Danube and the Carpathians to the Crimea, the North Caucasus and the Volga, and the subservient lands captured the steppes of the Volga and South Urals.

The Scandinavian name of Rus' sounds like Gardarika - the country of cities. Arab historians also write about the same, numbering hundreds of Russian cities. At the same time, he claims that there are only five cities in Byzantium, while the rest are “fortified fortresses.” In ancient documents, the state of the Slavs is referred to, among other things, as Scythia and Ruskolan.

The word "Ruskolan" has the syllable "lan", present in the words "hand", "valley" and meaning: space, territory, place, region. Subsequently, the syllable "lan" was transformed into the European land - country. Sergey Lesnoy in his book “Where are you from, Rus?” says the following: “With regard to the word “Ruskolun”, it should be noted that there is also a variant “Ruskolun”. If the latter option is more correct, then you can understand the word differently: “Russian doe”. Lan - field. The whole expression: "Russian field". In addition, Lesnoy makes an assumption that there was a word "cleaver", which probably meant some kind of space. It also occurs in other contexts. Also, historians and linguists believe that the name of the state "Ruskolan" could come from two words "Rus" and "Alan" after the name of the Rus and Alans, who lived in a single state.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was of the same opinion, who wrote:
“The Alans and Roxolans are of the same tribe from many places of ancient historians and geographers, and the difference lies in the fact that the Alans are the common name of the whole people, and the Roksolani is a saying composed from their place of residence, which is not without reason produced from the river Ra, as among ancient writers reputed to be the Volga (Volga)."

The ancient historian and scientist Pliny - Alans and Roxolans together has. Roksolane, by the ancient scientist and geographer Ptolemy, is called alanorsi by portable addition. The names of Aorsi and Roksane or Rossane in Strabo - “the exact unity of the Russians and Alans is confirmed, to which the reliability is multiplied, that they were wallpaper of the Slavic generation, then that the Sarmatians were of the same tribe from ancient writers and therefore they are of the same root with the Varangians-Rosses.”

We also note that Lomonosov also refers the Varangians to the Russians, which once again shows the fraud of the German professors, who deliberately called the Varangians a foreign, and not a Slavic people. This juggling and the born legend about calling a foreign tribe to reign in Rus' had political overtones so that once again the “enlightened” West could point out to the “wild” Slavs their denseness, and that it was thanks to the Europeans that the Slavic state was created. Modern historians, in addition to adherents of the Norman theory, also agree that the Varangians are precisely a Slavic tribe.

Lomonosov writes:
"According to Gelmold's testimony, the Alans were mixed with the Kurlandians, who were of the same tribe as the Varangians-Russians."

Lomonosov writes - the Varangians-Russians, and not the Varangians-Scandinavians, or the Varangians-Goths. In all documents of the pre-Christian period, the Varangians were classified as Slavs.

Further, Lomonosov writes:
“The Rugen Slavs were abbreviated as wounds, that is, from the Ra (Volga) River, and Rossans. This, by their resettlement to the Varangian shores, as follows, will be more detailed. Weissel from Bohemia suggests that Amakosovia, Alans, Vendi came from the east to Prussia.

Lomonosov writes about Rugen Slavs. It is known that on the island of Rügen in the city of Arkona there was the last Slavic pagan temple, destroyed in 1168. Now there is a Slavic museum.

Lomonosov writes that it was from the east that the Slavic tribes came to Prussia and the island of Rügen and adds:
“Such a resettlement of the Volga Alans, that is, the Russians or Ross, to the Baltic Sea took place, as can be seen from the above authors’ testimonies, not once and not in a short time, which, according to the traces that have remained to this day, it is clear that the names of cities and rivers are honored must"

But back to the Slavic state.

Capital of Ruskolani, city Kiyar located in the Caucasus, in the Elbrus region near the modern villages of Upper Chegem, and Bezengi. Sometimes it was also called Kiyar Antsky, after the name of the Slavic tribe Antes. The results of the expeditions to the site of the ancient Slavic city will be written at the end. Descriptions of this Slavic city can be found in ancient documents.

"Avesta" in one of the places tells about the main city of the Scythians in the Caucasus near one of the highest mountains in the world. And As you know, Elbrus is the highest mountain not only in the Caucasus, but also in Europe in general. "Rig Veda" tells about the main city of the Rus all on the same Elbrus.

Kiyar is mentioned in the Book of Veles. Judging by the text, Kiyar, or the city of Kiy the Old, was founded 1300 years before the fall of Ruskolani (368 AD), i.e. in the ninth century BC.

The ancient Greek geographer Strabo, who lived in the 1st century. BC. - the beginning of the 1st c. AD writes about the temple of the Sun and the sanctuary of the Golden Fleece in the sacred city of the Ross, in the Elbrus region, on the top of Mount Tuzuluk.

On the mountain, our contemporaries discovered the foundation of an ancient structure. Its height is about 40 meters, and the diameter of the base is 150 meters: the ratio is the same as that of the Egyptian pyramids and other religious buildings of antiquity. There are many obvious and not at all random patterns in the parameters of the mountain and the temple. The observatory-temple was created according to a "standard" project and, like other cyclopean structures - Stonehenge and Arkaim - was intended for astrological observations.

In the legends of many peoples there is evidence of the construction on the sacred mountain Alatyr (modern name - Elbrus) of this majestic structure, revered by all ancient peoples. There are mentions of him in the national epic of the Greeks, Arabs, and European peoples. According to Zoroastrian legends, this temple was captured by Rus (Rustam) in Usen (Kavi Useinas) in the second millennium BC. Archaeologists officially note at this time the emergence of the Koban culture in the Caucasus and the appearance of the Scythian-Sarmatian tribes.

Mentions the temple of the Sun and the geographer Strabo, placing in it the sanctuary of the golden fleece and the oracle of Eeta. There are detailed descriptions of this temple and evidence that astronomical observations were made there.

The Temple of the Sun was a true paleoastronomical observatory of antiquity. The priests, who possessed certain knowledge, created such observatory temples and studied stellar science. There, not only dates for agriculture were calculated, but, most importantly, the most important milestones in world and spiritual history were determined.

The Arab historian Al Masudi described the temple of the Sun on Elbrus as follows: “In the Slavic regions there were buildings revered by them. Between others they had a building on a mountain, about which philosophers wrote that it was one of the highest mountains in the world. There is a story about this building: about the quality of its construction, about the arrangement of its heterogeneous stones and their different colors, about the holes made in its upper part, about what was built in these holes to watch the sunrise, about the precious stones placed there and signs marked in it, which indicate future events and warn against incidents before their implementation, about the sounds heard in its upper part and about what comprehends them when they hear these sounds.

In addition to the above documents, information about the main ancient Slavic city, the temple of the Sun and the Slavic state as a whole is in the Elder Edda, in Persian, Scandinavian and ancient German sources, in the Book of Veles. If you believe the legends, near the city of Kiyar (Kiev) was the sacred mountain Alatyr - archaeologists believe that it was Elbrus. Next to it was the Iriysky, or the Garden of Eden, and the Smorodina River, which separated the earthly world and the afterlife, and connected Yav and Nav (that Light) Kalinov Bridge.

This is how they talk about two wars between the Goths (an ancient Germanic tribe) and the Slavs, the invasion of the Goths into the ancient Slavic state, the Gothic historian of the 4th century Jordan in his book “The History of the Goths” and “The Book of Veles”. In the middle of the 4th century, the Goth king Germanareh led his people to conquer the world. This was a great commander. According to Jordanes, he was compared with Alexander the Great. The same was written about Germanarekh and Lomonosov:
"Ermanarik, the king of the Ostrogoths, for his courage in conquering many northern peoples was compared by some with Alensander the Great."

Judging by the testimonies of Jordan, the Elder Edda and the Book of Veles, Germanareh, after long wars, captured almost all of Eastern Europe. He fought along the Volga to the Caspian, then fought on the Terek River, crossed the Caucasus, then went along the Black Sea coast and reached Azov.

According to the “Book of Veles”, Germanareh first made peace with the Slavs (“drank wine for friendship”), and only then “went with a sword against us”.

The peace treaty between the Slavs and the Goths was sealed by the dynastic marriage of the sister of the Slavic prince-king Bus - Swans and Germanarekh. This was a payment for peace, for Germanarekh was then many years old (he died at 110 years old, but the marriage was concluded shortly before that). According to Edda, the son of Germanareh Randver wooed Swan-Sva, and he took her to his father. And then Jarl Bikki, adviser to Germanarekh, told them that it would be better if the Swan went to Randver, since both of them are young, and Germanarekh is an old man. These words pleased Swans-Sva and Randver, and Jordan adds that Swans-Sva fled from Germanarekh. And then Germanarekh executed his son and Swan. And this murder was the cause of the Slavic-Gothic war. Having treacherously violated the "peace treaty", Germanarekh defeated the Slavs in the first battles. But then, when Germanarekh moved into the heart of Ruskolani, the Ants stepped in to Germanarekh. Germanareh was defeated. According to Jordan, he was struck in the side with a sword by the Rossomons (Ruskolans) - Sar (king) and Ammius (brother). The Slavic prince Bus and his brother Zlatogor inflicted a mortal wound on Germanarekh, and he soon died. Here is how Jordan, the Book of Veles, and later Lomonosov wrote about it.

“The Book of Veles”: “And Ruskolan was defeated by the Goths of Germanarekh. And he took a wife from our generation and killed her. And then our leaders flowed against him and Germanarekh was defeated.

Jordan. “History is ready”: “The wrong clan of the Rosomones (Ruskolan) ... took advantage of the following opportunity ... After all, after the king, driven by rage, ordered a certain woman named Sunhilda (Swan) from the named clan for insidious leaving her husband to break, tying to ferocious horses and prompting the horses to run in different directions, her brothers Sar (King Bus) and Ammii (Gold), avenging the death of their sister, struck Germanarekh in the side with a sword.

M. Lomonosov: “Sonilda, a noble Roxolan woman, Yermanarik ordered to be torn apart by horses for her husband's escape. Her brothers Sar and Ammius, avenging the death of their sister, Ermanarik was pierced in the side; died of a wound a hundred and ten years"

A few years later, a descendant of Germanarekh, Amal Vinitary, invaded the lands of the Slavic tribe of Ants. In the first battle, he was defeated, but then "began to act more decisively", and the Goths, led by Amal Vinitar, defeated the Slavs. The Slavic prince Busa and 70 other princes were crucified by the Goths. This happened on the night of March 20-21, 368 AD. On the same night that Bus was crucified, there was a total lunar eclipse. Also, the earth was shaken by a monstrous earthquake (the entire Black Sea coast was shaking, destruction was in Constantinople and Nicaea (ancient historians testify to this. Later, the Slavs gathered their strength and defeated the Goths. But the former powerful Slavic state was no longer restored.

“The Book of Veles”: “And then Rus' was again defeated. And Busa and seventy other princes were crucified on crosses. And there was great turmoil in Rus' from Amala Vend. And then Sloven gathered Rus' and led it. And at that time the Goths were defeated. And we didn't let the Sting go anywhere. And everything got better. And our grandfather Dazhbog rejoiced, and welcomed the soldiers - many of our fathers who won victories. And there were no troubles and worries of many, and so the land of the Gothic became ours. And so it will be until the end"

Jordan. "History is ready": Amal Vinitary ... moved the army into the borders of the Antes. And when he came to them, he was defeated in the first skirmish, then he behaved more bravely and crucified their king, named Boz, with his sons and 70 noble people, so that the corpses of the hanged would double the fear of the conquered.

The Bulgarian chronicle “Baradj Tarihy”: “Once in the land of the Anchians, the Galidjians (Galicians) attacked Bus and killed him along with all 70 princes.” border of Wallachia and Transylvania. In those days, these lands belonged to Ruskolani, or Scythia. Much later, under the famous Vlad Dracul, it was at the place of the crucifixion of Bus that mass executions and crucifixions were held. They removed the bodies of Bus and other princes from the crosses on Friday and took them to the Elbrus region, to the Etoka (a tributary of the Podkumka). According to Caucasian legend, the body of Bus and other princes was brought by eight pairs of oxen. Busa's wife ordered a mound to be built over their grave on the banks of the Etoko River (a tributary of the Podkumka River) and, in order to perpetuate the memory of Busa, ordered the Altud River to be renamed Baksan (Busa River).

Caucasian legend says:
“Baksan (Bus) was killed by the Gotfian king with all his brothers and eighty noble Narts. Hearing this, the people gave way to despair: the men beat their breasts, and the women tore their hair on their heads, saying: “Dauov’s eight sons are killed, killed!”

Who carefully read “The Tale of Igor's Campaign remembers that it mentions the long-gone Busovo Time” in 368, the year of the crucifixion of Prince Bus, has an astrological meaning. According to Slavic astrology, this is a milestone. On the night of March 20-21, 368 moves, the Aries era ended and the Pisces era began.

It was after the story of the crucifixion of Prince Bus, which became known in the ancient world, that the plot with the crucifixion of Christ appeared (was stolen) in Christianity.

The canonical gospels nowhere say that Christ was crucified on the cross. Instead of the word "cross" (kryst), the word "stavros" (stavros) is used there, which means a pillar, and it does not talk about crucifixion, but about pillaring. Therefore, there are no early Christian images of the crucifixion.

The Christian Acts 10:39 says that Christ was "hanged on a tree." The plot with the crucifixion first appeared only after 400!!! years after the execution of Christ, translated from Greek. The question is why, if Christ was crucified, and not hanged, Christians for four hundred years wrote in holy books that Christ was amused? Somehow illogical! It was the Slavic-Scythian tradition that influenced the distortion of the original texts during translation, and then the iconography (for there are no early Christian images of crucifixes).

The meaning of the original Greek text was well known in Greece itself (Byzantium), but after the corresponding reforms in the modern Greek language, in contrast to the former custom, the word "stavros" took on the meaning of "pillar" and also the meaning of "cross".

In addition to the direct source of the execution - the canonical Gospels, others are also known. In the closest to the Christian, in the Jewish tradition, the tradition of the hanging of Jesus is also affirmed. There is a Jewish “Tale of the Hanged Man” written in the first centuries of our era, which describes in detail the execution of Jesus precisely by hanging. And in the Talmud there are two stories about the execution of Christ. According to the first, Jesus was stoned, and not in Jerusalem, but in Lud. According to the second story, because Jesus was of a royal family, the execution by stones was also replaced by hanging. And this was the official version of Christians for 400 years!!!

Even throughout the Muslim world, it is generally accepted that Christ was not crucified, but hanged. The Koran, based on early Christian traditions, curses Christians who claim that Jesus was not hanged, but crucified, and who claim that Jesus was Allah (God) himself, and not a prophet and the Messiah, and also denies the crucifixion itself. Therefore, Muslims, respecting Jesus, do not reject either the Ascension or the Transfiguration of Jesus Christ, but reject the symbol of the cross, as they rely on early Christian texts that talk about hanging, not crucifixion.

Moreover, the natural phenomena described in the Bible simply could not take place in Jerusalem on the day of the crucifixion of Christ.

In the Gospel of Mark and in the Gospel of Matthew it is said that Christ endured passionate agony on the spring full moon from Good Thursday to Good Friday, and that there was an eclipse from the sixth to the ninth hour. The event, which they call an "eclipse," occurred at a time when, for objective astronomical reasons, it simply could not occur. Christ was executed during the Jewish Passover, and it always falls on a full moon.

First, there are no solar eclipses on a full moon. During the full moon, the Moon and the Sun are on opposite sides of the Earth, so the Moon cannot block the Sun's light from the Earth.

Secondly, solar eclipses, unlike lunar eclipses, do not last three hours, as it is written in the Bible. Maybe the Judeo-Christians had in mind a lunar eclipse, but the whole world did not understand them? ...

But solar and lunar eclipses are very easy to calculate. Any astronomer will say that there were no lunar eclipses in the year of the execution of Christ and even in the years close to this event.

The nearest eclipse accurately indicates only one date - on the night of March 20-21, 368 AD. This is an absolutely accurate astronomical calculation. Namely, on this night from Thursday to Friday, March 20/21, 368, Prince Bus and 70 other princes were crucified by the Goths. On the night of March 20-21, a total lunar eclipse occurred, which lasted from midnight to three hours on March 21, 368. This date was calculated by astronomers, including the director of the Pulkovo Observatory, N. Morozov.

Why did Christians write from the 33rd move that Christ was hanged, and after the 368th move they rewrote the “holy” scripture and began to claim that Christ was crucified? Obviously, the plot with the crucifixion seemed to them more interesting and they once again engaged in religious plagiarism - i.e. simply by stealing... That's where the information appeared in the Bible that Christ was crucified, that he endured torment from Thursday to Friday, that there was an eclipse. Having stolen the plot with the crucifixion, the Judeo-Christians decided to supply the Bible with the details of the execution of the Slavic prince, not thinking that people in the future would pay attention to the natural phenomena described, which could not have been in the year of the execution of Christ in the place where he was executed.

And this is far from the only example of the theft of materials by the Judeo-Christians. Speaking of the Slavs, the myth of the father of Aria, who received a covenant from Dazhbog on Mount Alatyr (Elbrus), is recalled, and in the Bible, Arius and Alatyr miraculously turned into Moses and Sinai ...

Or the Judeo-Christian rite of baptism. The Christian rite of baptism is one third of the Slavic pagan rite, which included: naming, fiery christening and water bathing. In Judeo-Christianity, only the water bath remained.

We can recall examples from other traditions. Mitra was born on the 25th of December!!! 600 years before the birth of Jesus!!! December 25 - the day after 600 years, Jesus was born. Mitra was born a virgin in a barn, a star rose, the magi came!!! Everything is one to one, as with Christ, only 600 years earlier. The cult of Mithras included: baptism with water, holy water, faith in immortality, faith in Mithra as a savior god, the concepts of Paradise and Hell. Mitra died and resurrected in order to become an intermediary between God the Father and man! Plagiarism (theft) of Christians is 100%.

More examples. Immaculately conceived: Gautama Buddha - India 600 BC; Indra - Tibet 700 years BC; Dionysus - Greece; Quirinus is a Roman; Adonis - Babylon all in the period from 400-200 years BC; Krishna - India 1200 B.C.; Zarathustra - 1500 B.C. In a word, whoever read the originals knows where the Judeo-Christians took materials for their writing.

So modern neo-Christians, who are trying in vain to find some kind of mythical Russian roots in the native Jew Yeshua - Jesus and his mother, need to stop doing stupid things and start worshiping Bus, nicknamed the Cross, i.e. Busu Cross or what would be completely clear to them - Busu Christ. After all, this is the real Hero from whom the Judeo-Christians wrote off their New Testament, and the one invented by them - the Judeo-Christian Jesus Christ - turns out to be some kind of charlatan and rogue, to say the least ... After all, the New Testament is just a romantic comedy in the spirit of Jewish fiction, allegedly written by the so-called. "apostle" Paul (in the world - Saul), and even then, it turns out - it was not written by him himself, but by unknown /!? / disciples of the disciples. Well, they had fun though ...

But back to the Slavic chronicle. The discovery of an ancient Slavic city in the Caucasus no longer looks so surprising. In recent decades, several ancient Slavic cities have been discovered on the territory of Russia and Ukraine.

The most famous today is the famous Arkaim, whose age is more than 5000 thousand years.

In 1987, in the South Urals in the Chelyabinsk region, during the construction of a hydroelectric power station, a fortified settlement of the early city type, dating back to the Bronze Age, was discovered. to the time of the ancient Aryans. Arkaim is older than the famous Troy by five hundred to six hundred years even older than the Egyptian pyramids.

The discovered settlement is a city-observatory. In the course of its study, it was established that the monument was a city fortified by two circles of walls, ramparts and ditches inscribed in each other. The dwellings in it had a trapezoidal shape, tightly adjoined each other and arranged in a circle in such a way that the wide end wall of each dwelling was part of the defensive wall. Every home has a bronze casting oven! But in Greece, according to traditional academic knowledge, bronze came only in the second millennium BC. Later, the settlement turned out to be an integral part of the most ancient Aryan civilization - the “Country of Cities” of the Southern Trans-Urals. Scientists have discovered a whole complex of monuments belonging to this amazing culture.

Despite their small size, fortified centers can be called proto-cities. The use of the term “city” to the fortified settlements of the Arkaim-Sintashta type is, of course, conditional.

However, they cannot be called simply settlements, since the Arkaim “cities” are distinguished by powerful defensive structures, monumental architecture, and complex communication systems. The entire territory of the fortified center is extremely saturated with planning details, it is very compact and carefully thought out. From the point of view of the organization of space in front of us is not even a city, but a kind of super-city.

The fortified centers of the Southern Urals are five or six centuries older than Homer's Troy. They are contemporaries of the first dynasty of Babylon, the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the Cretan-Mycenaean culture of the Mediterranean. The time of their existence corresponds to the last centuries of the famous civilization of India - Mahenjo-Daro and Harappa.

Site of the Museum-Reserve Arkaim: link

In Ukraine, in Trypillya, the remains of the city were discovered, the age of which is the same as that of Arkaim, more than five thousand years. It is five hundred years older than the civilization of Mesopotamia - the Sumerian!

At the end of the 90s, not far from Rostov-on-Don, in the town of Tanais, settlement cities were found, the age of which even scientists find it difficult to name ... The age varies from ten to thirty thousand years. The traveler of the last century, Thor Heyerdahl, believed that from there, from Tanais, the entire pantheon of the Scandinavian Gods, led by Odin, came to Scandinavia.

Slabs with inscriptions in Sanskrit, which are 20,000 years old, have been found on the Kola Peninsula. And only Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, as well as the Baltic languages ​​coincide with Sanskrit. Draw your own conclusions.

The results of the expedition to the site of the capital of the ancient Slavic city of Kiyara in the Elbrus region.

Five expeditions were carried out: in 1851,1881,1914, 2001 and 2002.

In 2001, the expedition was led by A. Alekseev, and in 2002 the expedition was carried out under the patronage of the Shtenberg State Astronomical Institute (GAISh), which was supervised by the director of the institute, Anatoly Mikhailovich Cherepashchuk.

Based on the data obtained as a result of topographic, geodetic studies of the area, fixing astronomical events, the participants of the expedition made preliminary conclusions that are fully consistent with the results of the expedition of 2001, following the results of which, in March 2002, a report was made at a meeting of the Astronomical Society at the State Astronomical Institute in the presence of members of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, members of the International Astronomical Society and the State Historical Museum.
A report was also made at a conference on the problems of early civilizations in St. Petersburg.
What exactly did the researchers find?

Near Mount Karakaya, in the Rocky Range at an altitude of 3,646 meters above sea level between the villages of Upper Chegem and Bezengi on the eastern side of Elbrus, traces of the capital of Ruskolani, the city of Kiyar, were found, which existed long before the birth of Christ, which is mentioned in many legends and epics of different peoples of the world, as well as the oldest astronomical observatory - the Temple of the Sun, described by the ancient historian Al Masudi in his books as the Temple of the Sun.

The location of the found city exactly matches the indications from ancient sources, and later the Turkish traveler of the 17th century, Evliya Celebi, confirmed the location of the city.

On Mount Karakaya, the remains of an ancient temple, caves and graves were found. An incredible number of settlements, ruins of temples have been discovered, and a lot of them have been preserved quite well. In a valley near the foot of Mount Karakaya, on the Bechesyn plateau, menhirs were found - high man-made stones similar to wooden pagan idols.

On one of the stone pillars, the face of a knight is carved, looking straight to the east. And behind the menhir is a bell-shaped hill. This is Tuzuluk ("Treasury of the Sun"). At its top, the ruins of the ancient sanctuary of the Sun are really visible. At the top of the hill is a tour that marks the highest point. Then three large rocks that have undergone manual processing. Once a gap was cut in them, directed from north to south. Stones were also found laid out like sectors in the zodiac calendar. Each sector is exactly 30 degrees.

Each part of the temple complex was intended for calendar and astrological calculations. In this it is similar to the South Ural city-temple Arkaim, which has the same zodiac structure, the same division into 12 sectors. It is also similar to Stonehenge in the UK. It is close to Stonehenge, firstly, by the fact that the axis of the temple is also oriented from north to south, and secondly, one of the most important distinguishing features of Stonehenge is the presence of the so-called “Heel Stone” at a distance from the sanctuary. But after all, at the sanctuary of the Sun on Tuzuluk, a landmark-menhir was installed.

There is evidence that at the turn of our era the temple was plundered by the Bosporus king Farnak. The temple was finally destroyed in IV AD. Goths and Huns. Even the dimensions of the temple are known; 60 cubits (about 20 meters) in length, 20 (6-8 meters) in width and 15 (up to 10 meters) in height, as well as the number of windows and doors - 12 according to the number of signs of the Zodiac.

As a result of the work of the first expedition, there is every reason to believe that the stones on the top of Mount Tuzluk served as the foundation of the Temple of the Sun. Mount Tuzluk is a regular grassy cone about 40 meters high. The slopes rise to the top at an angle of 45 degrees, which actually corresponds to the latitude of the place, and, therefore, looking along it, you can see the North Star. The axis of the foundation of the temple is 30 degrees with the direction to the Eastern peak of Elbrus. The same 30 degrees is the distance between the axis of the temple and the direction to the menhir, and the direction to the menhir and the Shaukam pass. Considering that 30 degrees - 1/12 of a circle - corresponds to a calendar month, this is not a coincidence. The azimuths of sunrise and sunset on the days of the summer and winter solstices differ by only 1.5 degrees from the directions to the peaks of Kanjal, the “gate” of two hills in the depths of pastures, Mount Dzhaurgen and Mount Tashly-Syrt. There is an assumption that the menhir served as a heel stone in the temple of the Sun, by analogy with Stonehenge, and helped predict solar and lunar eclipses. Thus, Mount Tuzluk is tied to four natural landmarks by the Sun and is tied to the Eastern peak of Elbrus. The height of the mountain is only about 40 meters, the diameter of the base is about 150 meters. These are dimensions comparable to those of the Egyptian pyramids and other places of worship.

In addition, two square tower-like tours were found on the Kayaesik pass. One of them lies strictly on the axis of the temple. Here, on the pass, there are the foundations of structures, ramparts.

In addition, in the central part of the Caucasus, at the northern foot of Elbrus, in the late 70s and early 80s of the XX century, an ancient center of metallurgical production, the remains of smelting furnaces, settlements, burial grounds were discovered.

Summing up the results of the work of the expeditions of the 1980s and 2001, which discovered the concentration of traces of ancient metallurgy, deposits of coal, silver, iron, as well as astronomical, cult and other archaeological objects within a radius of several kilometers, we can confidently assume the discovery of one of the most ancient cultural and administrative centers of the Slavs in the Elbrus region.

During the expeditions of 1851 and 1914, the archaeologist P.G. Akritas examined the ruins of the Scythian Temple of the Sun on the eastern slopes of Beshtau. The results of further archaeological excavations of this shrine were published in 1914 in the Notes of the Rostov-on-Don Historical Society. There was described a huge stone "in the form of a Scythian cap", installed on three abutments, as well as a domed grotto.
And the beginning of major excavations in Pyatigorye (Kavminvody) was laid by the famous pre-revolutionary archaeologist D.Ya. Samokvasov, who described 44 mounds in the vicinity of Pyatigorsk in 1881. Later, after the revolution, only some mounds were examined; only initial exploration work was carried out on the settlements by archaeologists E.I. Krupnov, V.A. Kuznetsov, G.E. Runich, E.P. Alekseeva, S.Ya. Baychorov, Kh.Kh. Bidzhiev and others.

3.3 Compound sentence in Old Russian

Gradually, in the Old Russian language, a new syntactic unit is created and formalized - a complex sentence. It consists of two or more simple sentences that constitute an inseparable unity in grammatical and semantic terms. Parts of a complex sentence can be combined by composition or subordination.

An essay is a combination of two or more equal and homogeneous parts of a sentence, expressing connecting, adversative and divisive relations. Subordination is the combination of two or more parts of a sentence, of which one part depends on the other. Parts of a complex sentence express dependence of various kinds: temporary, conditional, causal, target, etc.

In compound sentences, connecting, adversative and disjunctive unions were used to connect simple sentences.

Most often, connecting relationships were conveyed with the help of unions and, yes, no, but: And I was great, and the speech of Fornication to Vdimer; Volodimer, lie down with his brother's wife, and I would not be idle.

Opposite relations were transmitted with the help of the unions a, n, ino, ano, even: and Yaropolch's squad broke off on the ice, and Svyatopolk was closer; for the wine hail Korsun, and he himself came to Kyiv.

Separation relations were transmitted with the help of alliances or, either, whether, then, a: expelling them overseas, or not Dasha tribute to them.

In the Old Russian language, there were a number of complex sentences with different meanings. So, complex sentences were distinguished with subordinate clauses of time, conditions, reasons, places, goals, etc.

In sentences, the subordinate part of the time is joined to the main one with the help of conjunctions and allied words: then packs of streams led to digging, exhausted people. In business documents, unions were used if, how, which corresponded in meaning to the union when.

In complex sentences of the condition, the subordinate part was joined with the help of conjunctions if, if, even: if it is out, then I myself am baptized; If it be true, then God is truly great.

Complicated sentences with the meaning of cause were less common. As causal unions, there were zane, bo, how, like: like lay a hand on him, abi see.

In the Old Russian language, non-union complex sentences with different relations were distinguished. However, non-union complex sentences with conditional-temporal and conditional-investigative meanings have become widespread (leave the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bOleg on the Greeks, Igor leave).

IV. Morphological features of the text

The Old Slavonic language had certain features of morphology, which was reflected at the level of all parts of speech. The greatest differences in comparison with modern Russian touched the verb, pronoun and adjective. It is expedient to describe these parts of speech in our work.

4.1 Verb

The text of the chronicle is characterized by the use of the aorist form of verbs. This form denotes the past action as a specific fact that took place before the moment of speech (come brother him; seize and beat; put up churches; learn to believe).

The use of the imperfect is quite typical for the text of the chronicle. The imperfect form is formed from imperfective verbs and conveys a long, unfinished action repeated in the past: holding an evil thought to it; Vostasha Krivichi; driving them across the sea.

The suffix -yahu- was used in the formation of the imperfect from the non-derivative stems of the infinitive into consonant sounds (a tribute to the Varangians for the name; I call to Russia, although I want to know Rogned).

In the text of the chronicle studied by us, the pluperfect form is used. This form of the verb denotes the past action and is used without an auxiliary component: Oleg saw; Yaropolk reigned.

It should be noted the use of participles in the role of a secondary predicate (an ambassador to Fornication with the flattery of a verb; kiyans are sent to Volodimer, rivers). This form indicates the simultaneity of the actions performed.

4.2 Features of the use of adjectives

In comparison with the modern Russian language, in the text of the chronicle there is a peculiar, different from the current use of possessive adjectives: bring Igor's wife; to the mountains of Kyiv; son of Mikhailov.

The comparative degree of the adjective in the Old Slavonic language was formed with the help of suffixes - ьш-, -ish-: the elder Lyurik came.

The use of the short form of the adjective is characteristic. So, in the text of the chronicle we meet: the head is silver, the mustache is golden, the church is stone, the husband is wise and brave, the land is good and great.

4.3 Use of pronouns

It should be noted the widespread use in the text of the plural demonstrative pronouns SII (these): these same princes are great.

In the text, you can find the use of the personal pronoun AZ, which in modern Russian corresponds to the pronoun Ya: but az esmi prince.

Thus, in the text of the chronicle we find a reflection of the features of the morphological system of the Old Church Slavonic language. So, the verb is characterized by the use of the form of the perfect, pluperfect, imperfect, which are absent in modern Russian. The text is characterized by the use of short forms of the adjective, as well as the use of the personal pronoun AZ.

Conclusion

After analyzing the relevant linguistic literature and the text of the Suprasl Chronicle, we can draw the following conclusions about the features of the language in this monument of Old Slavonic writing:

1. The features of the vocabulary that make up the Old Church Slavonic language are entirely due to its bookish and literary origin and the conditions for creating the first translations of liturgical texts. Under the influence of the Greek language, complex words of book origin appear, which are reflected in the text of the manuscript. The text we studied is characterized by the presence of nouns with an abstract meaning, formed with the help of suffixes -ost; -enie-; -stvo-.

2. The studied text presents the features of the phonetics of the Old Church Slavonic language. So, it reflected such a feature as the fall of the reduced in a weak position. However, it is transmitted unstable, as evidenced by the presence in the text of words with the traditional spelling b and b. The text of the Suprasl manuscript reflects the changes that have taken place with the hissing consonants (simplification of consonant groups).

3. The syntax of the Suprasl Chronicle is characterized by features that have been preserved in modern Russian, as well as those that have been lost over time. So, the subject in the Old Russian (as well as in the modern) language was not only nouns, but also numerals, pronouns. As for the predicate, there were three types: simple, complex and compound predicates, which also had their own ways of expression.

A characteristic feature of the Old Russian syntactic system is the presence of constructions with double oblique cases - with a double accusative and dative, as well as with a double genitive case.

4. In the Suprasl Chronicle we find a reflection of the features of the morphological system of the Old Church Slavonic language. So, the verb is characterized by the use of the form of the perfect, pluperfect, imperfect, which are absent in modern Russian. The text is characterized by the use of short forms of the adjective, as well as the use of the personal pronoun AZ.

Literature

1. Astakhina L.Yu. From the history of the publication of Russian manuscripts // Russian speech. - 1994, - No. 2, p. 84-86.

2. Wayan A. Guide to the Old Slavonic language. – M.: 2004. – 446 p.

3. Grutso A.P. Old Church Slavonic: Textbook. allowance for students. philol. specialist. institutions. - Minsk: TetraSystems, 2004. - 335 p.

4. Zhivov V.M. Notes on the historical syntax of the Russian language // Questions of Linguistics. - 1997, - No. 4, p. 58-69.

5. Izotov A.I. Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic languages: Grammar, exercises, texts. – M.: 2001. – 240 p.

6. Kaўrus A.A. Old Slavonic mova: educational dapamozhnik for students. filal. specialist. Minsk: - 2005. - 386 p.

7. Krivchik V.F., Mozheiko N.S. Old Church Slavonic: Textbook for philol. fak. universities. – Mn.: Vysh. school, 1985. - 303 p.

8. Matveeva V.P., Makarov V.I. Biblicalisms in Russian Literature // Russian Literature, - 1993, - No. 2, p. 83.

9. Morphology of the Church Slavonic language in tables: educational and methodical. allowance. - Vitebsk. - 2004. - 46 p.

10. Remneva M.L. Old Church Slavonic: Textbook. allowance for students. philol. specialist. institutions. - M. Academic project, 2004. - 351 p.

11. Old Slavic language. Graphics. Arphagraphy. Fanetyka: metadychnya zaўvagі for students. filal. specialist; Brest: Issued by BrDU, - 2005. - 38 p.

12. Suprun A.E. Old Church Slavonic: Textbook. allowance for universities. - Minsk: University, - 1991, - 80 p.

14. Ulashchik N.N. Introduction to the Belarusian-Lithuanian annals. – M.: Nauka, 1985. – 261 p.

15. Khaburgaev G.A. The first centuries of Slavic written culture. Moscow: Moscow University Publishing House. - 1994. - 181 p.

16. Shansky N.M. The role of the Old Church Slavonic language in the development of the Russian language // Russian language at school, - 1994. - No. 4. With. 40-45

Chronicle is a detailed account of specific events. It is worth noting that the annals of ancient Rus' are the main written source on the history of Russia in (pre-Petrine times). If we talk about the beginning of Russian chronicle writing, then it refers to the XI century - the period of time when historical records began to be made in the Ukrainian capital. According to historians, the chronicle period dates back to the 9th century.

http://govrudocs.ru/

Saved lists and annals of ancient Rus'

The number of such historical monuments reaches about 5000. The main part of the annals, unfortunately, has not been preserved in the form of the original. Many good copies have been preserved, which are also important and tell interesting historical facts and stories. Lists have also been preserved, which are some narratives from other sources. According to historians, the lists were created at certain places, describing this or that historical event.

The first chronicles appeared in Rus' approximately in the period from the 11th to the 18th centuries during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. It is worth noting that at that time the chronicle was the main type of historical narrative. The people who compiled the chronicles were not private figures. This work was carried out exclusively by order of secular or spiritual rulers, who reflected the interests of a certain circle of people.

History of Russian Chronicles

To be more precise, Russian chronicle writing has a complicated history. Everyone knows the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", where various agreements were highlighted, including agreements with Byzantium, stories about princes, the Christian religion, etc. Particularly interesting are chronicle stories, which are plot stories about the most significant events in the history of the fatherland. It is worth noting that the first mention of the annals of Moscow can also be attributed to the Tale of Bygone Years.

In general, the main source of any knowledge in Ancient Rus' is medieval chronicles. Today, in many libraries in Russia, as well as in the archives, you can see a large number of such creations. It is surprising that almost every chronicle was written by a different author. Chronicles were in demand for almost seven centuries.

http://kapitalnyj.ru/

In addition, chronicle writing is a favorite pastime of many scribes. This work was considered charitable, as well as spiritual work. Chronicle writing can easily be called an integral element of ancient Russian culture. Historians claim that some of the first chronicles were written thanks to the new Rurik dynasty. If we talk about the first chronicle, then it ideally reflected the history of Rus', starting from the reign of the Rurikovich.

The most competent chroniclers can be called specially trained priests and monks. These people had a fairly rich book heritage, owned various literature, records of old stories, legends, etc. Also at the disposal of these priests were almost all the grand ducal archives.

Among the main tasks of such people were the following:

1. Creation of a written historical monument of the era;
2. Comparison of historical events;
3. Working with old books, etc.

It is worth noting that the chronicle of ancient Rus' is a unique historical monument containing a lot of interesting facts about specific events. Among the common chronicles, one can single out those that told about the campaigns of Kiy, the founder of Kyiv, the travels of Princess Olga, the campaigns of the no less famous Svyatoslav, etc. The chronicles of Ancient Rus' are the historical basis, thanks to which many historical books have been written.

Video: SLAVIC CHRONICLES in CHARACTERISTICS

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  The question of the origin of the state of Ancient Rus' still worries many scientists to this day. On this occasion, you can meet a large number of scientifically based discussions, disagreements, opinions. One of the most popular in our time is the Norman theory of the origin of Old Russian

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  Traditionally, petroglyphs are images on stone that were made in ancient times. It is worth noting that such images are distinguished by the presence of a special system of signs. In general, the petroglyphs of Karelia are a real mystery for many scientists and archaeologists. Unfortunately, while scientists have not given

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  The origin of money is a very important and difficult issue, which entails a lot of controversy. It is worth noting that in Ancient Rus', at a certain stage of development, people used ordinary cattle as money. According to the oldest lists, in those years, very often local residents

Among the written monuments of Ancient Rus', one of the most honorable places rightfully belongs to the annals. Ancient Russian chronicles are a completely unique phenomenon of ancient Russian culture; they have made a unique and invaluable contribution to the treasury of world culture and writing. According to many scholars (A. Shakhmatov, D. Likhachev, A. Kuzmin, P. Tolochko), Russian chronicles were strikingly different from Byzantine chronicles and Western European annals. In the Byzantine chronicles, the narration was always conducted not by year, but by the time of the reign of patriarchs, emperors and empresses, and in Russian chronicles already from the beginning of the 11th century. there was a "weather grid" of the most important historical events in Russian and even world history that occurred in one or another "summer". In the annals of Western Europe there was also a "weather grid" of the most important historical events, but information about them was scarce and inexpressive. On the contrary, Russian annalistic collections often presented detailed narratives about various events and characters of ancient Russian and world history, which contained a very personal, expressive and extremely emotional assessment of many historical events and characters. The chronicles themselves were filled with numerous texts of official documents and treaties, obituaries of prominent state and church figures, philosophical treatises and religious teachings, folk traditions and legends.

The question of the time of the appearance of the first chronicles is still debatable. This is due, first of all, to the fact that the oldest lists of The Tale of Bygone Years have come down to us as part of later chronicle collections created in the 14th-15th centuries. For a long time, the hypothesis of academician A.A. Shakhmatov, the author of the fundamental monograph “Research on the most ancient Russian annalistic collections” (1908), that the first Russian annalistic collection was created in 1037–1039 in connection with the creation of a separate metropolis in Kiev and the arrival in the capital of Rus' of the first Russian metropolitan, the Greek Theopemt. On the basis of this "Ancient Kyiv Code" at the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral in 1050, the "Ancient Novgorod Code" was created. Then, in 1073, the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon created the "First Kiev-Pechersk vault", and in 1095, on the basis of the "Ancient Novgorod vault" and the "First Kiev-Pechersk vault", the "Second Kiev-Pechersk vault" was created ”, which A.A. Shakhmatov called the "Initial Chronicle", which became the direct basis for the creation of the famous "Tale of Bygone Years" (PVL), which was preserved in three different editions of 1113, 1116 and 1118.

Almost immediately, the scheme of Academician A.A. Shakhmatova, who deduced the entire PVL from a single chronicle tree, aroused sharp objections from a number of prominent scientists, in particular Academician V.M. Istrin, the author of the well-known work “Remarks on the Beginning of Russian Chronicle Writing” (1922), and Academician N.K. Nikolsky, who created a generalizing fundamental work "The Tale of Bygone Years as a Source on the History of Russian Culture and Literature" (1930). In the second half of the 20th century, many well-known scientists proposed various hypotheses for the beginning of Russian chronicle writing. But at the same time, all Soviet philologists and historians, with the exception of Professor A.G. Kuzmin, did not reject A.A. Shakhmatov "about a single tree", but only offered different dating of the most ancient chronicle and the place of its writing.

Academician L.V. Cherepnin dated the emergence of the Russian chronicle in 996 and directly connected it with the construction and consecration of the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv. Academician M.N. Tikhomirov dated the appearance of the first chronicle to 1007, when the solemn transfer of the relics of Princess Olga to the Church of the Tithes took place. At the same time, M.N. Tikhomirov believed that the historical basis of the first chronicle was the "Tale of the Russian Princes", created in Kyiv shortly after the official Baptism of Rus' in the 990s. Academician D.S. Likhachev claimed that the first annalistic code arose in the 1030s-1040s. on the basis of a collection of various "Lives" about the baptism of Princess Olga and Prince Vladimir, about the death of two Varangian Christians and a number of other sources, which he combined under the general title "Tales of the initial spread of Christianity in Rus'." It was this "Tale", created by Bishop Hilarion, that later became the basis of the first Russian annalistic code, created in 1073 by the rector of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon. Academician B.A. Rybakov and his Ukrainian colleagues, Academician P.P. Tolochko and Professor M.Yu. Braichevsky believed that the first weather records of the most important historical events arose during the time of Prince Askold, shortly after the baptism of the Dnieper Rus by Patriarch Photius of Constantinople in 867. It was these records (“Askold's Chronicle”) that formed the basis of the “First Kiev Chronicle Code”, which was created by Anastas Korsunian in 996-997. at the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv.

A little later, this point of view was partially supported by Professor A.G. Kuzmin, but at the same time he emphasized a number of important circumstances.

1) All ancient Russian chronicles were a generalized collection of different character and different times, often contradicting each other, more ancient chronicle and non-chronicle materials.

2) Almost all ancient chroniclers did not recognize the "copyright" of their predecessors, so they often edited the previous text, not paying much attention to the inevitable contradictions.

3) Most likely, the first chronicles, created in the 10th century, did not have absolute dates and the years were counted according to the years of the reign of one or another prince. Absolute dates appeared only in the 11th century, and different cosmic eras (Antiochian, Constantinople, Old Byzinthian) were introduced into various chronicle sources, which, obviously, was associated with different origins of Russian Christianity itself.

4) The centers of ancient Russian chronicle writing were not only such large cities as Kiev, Novgorod, Chernigov, Smolensk and Rostov, but also various monasteries and churches, in particular, the Kiev-Pechersky, Vydubitsky and Yuryevsky monasteries, the Church of the Tithes in Kiev, etc. ., where different chronicle traditions originally existed. Therefore, The Tale of Bygone Years did not stem from a "single chronicle tree", but was a multi-syllabic chronicle code.

A new all-Russian annalistic code arose approximately in the 1060s-1070s. According to many scholars (A. Shakhmatov, M. Priselkov, D. Likhachev, B. Rybakov, J. Lurie), the rector of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon the Great began work on this chronicle in 1061. In the process of this work, he collected a large number of new historical sources, including the legends “On the First Russian Princes”, “On the Baptism of Princess Olga”, “On the Campaigns” of Princes Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav to Constantinople and a number of other materials. Moreover, according to many authors, it was then that the “Korsun legend” about the baptism of Prince Vladimir and the “Varangian legend”, the author of which was the Novgorod governor Vyshata, who took part in the last campaign of Russian squads against Byzantium in 1043, got into the new chronicle. In total, work on this chronicle was completed in 1070/1072, during the congress of the "Yaroslavichs" - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod in Vyshgorod. Although, I must say, some historians did not quite share this point of view. Some of them (A. Kuzmin, A. Tolochko) believed that the well-known student of Theodosius of the Caves, Sylvester, was the author of this chronicle code, while others (M. Priselkov, N. Rozov, P. Tolochko) claimed that several authors of this code were at once Caves monks-chroniclers, including Nikon the Great, Nestor and John.

During the reign of the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk in 1093-1095. a new chronicle code was created, which became the direct basis of the Tale of Bygone Years itself. According to many scholars (A. Shakhmatov, M. Priselkov, D. Likhachev, P. Tolochko), the first edition of this "Tale" was created in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor, who, in addition to the previous chronicles of 1050 and 1070/1072 used the "Chronicle" of George Amartol, the "Chronicle" of John Malala, "The Life of Basil the New" and other chronicle and non-chronicle sources. Back in the 1970s. a number of Soviet historians (A. Kuzmin) stated that Nikon not only had nothing to do with the creation of the PVL, but was not even familiar with this chronicle, and the real author of the first edition of the PVL was the future rector of the Vydubitsky Mikhailovsky Monastery Sylvester, who continued the chronicle traditions Church of the Tithes, not the Kiev Caves Monastery.

According to the same scientists (A. Shakhmatov, M. Priselkov, A. Orlov, D. Likhachev), the second edition of the PVL was created in 1116 by Abbot Sylvester, who was close to the new Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh. Probably, it was at the request of this prince that he revised the first edition of the PVL, especially in that part of it that covered the events of the 1090-1110s, and included the famous “Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh” in it. A number of Soviet historians (M. Aleshkovsky, P. Tolochko) believed that Sylvester did not create the second edition of the PVL, but was only a copyist of its first edition. In 1118, at a similar “request” of the Novgorod prince Mstislav the Great, the third and last edition of the PVL was created, the author of which was either some nameless monk of the Novgorod Yuriev or Antoniev monasteries (A. Orlov, B. Rybakov, P. Tolochko), or schismatic of the Kiev Andreevsky Monastery Vasily (D. Likhachev, M. Aleshkovsky).

5. Old Russian literature

A) General remarks

According to many historians of the literary heritage of Ancient Rus' (N. Gudziy, D. Likhachev, I. Eremin, V. Kuskov, A. Robinson), the emergence and development of Russian literature was due to the fact that in the process of formation and development of the Old Russian state, its role and significance in the ideological cementation of ancient Russian society. Many scientists emphasized that the Russian literature of that time was characterized by the following main features.

1) It was a synthetic literature that absorbed all the diversity of literary traditions, styles and directions of various peoples and ancient states. The vast majority of scientists (A. Muravyov, V. Kuskov, V. Kozhinov) speak of the decisive influence of the Byzantine heritage in the formation and development of ancient Russian literature. Their opponents (D. Likhachev, R. Skrynnikov) argue that neighboring Bulgaria played a much greater role in the development of Russian literature, and its Old Bulgarian language became the literary language of Ancient Rus'.

2) In the era of Kievan Rus, national literature was in the process of genre formation. If some authors (V. Kuskov, N. Prokofiev) argued that Ancient Russia fully adopted the Byzantine genre system, then their opponents (I. Eremin, D. Likhachev) believed that only those literary genres that were directly associated with all religious dogma and the official Church, and with those ideological genres that reflected a new (Christian, not pagan) perception of the world around. Therefore, only those works of early Christian and early Byzantine literature were brought to Rus' that corresponded to the level of its historical development in that period.

3) Speaking about the rich genre specifics of ancient Russian literature, a number of important remarks need to be made.

Firstly, in the early Middle Ages, literature was largely purely applied, utilitarian in nature, so many literary genres of that time - chronicles, walks, apocrypha and other works were primarily cognitive.

Secondly, ancient Russian literature was characterized by syncretism, i.e. interweaving of various both purely literary and folklore genres, in particular epics, incantations, spells, proverbs, sayings, etc. Speaking essentially, the historians of ancient Russian literature, as a rule, separate church and secular literary genres. Church genres included "Holy Scriptures", "Hymnography", "Words" and "Lives of the Saints" (hagiography), and secular - "Princely Lives", historical, military and didactic stories, chronicle tales and legends, etc. Many scientists (D. Likhachev, I. Eremin, V. Kuskov) note the fact that as literary creativity develops, traditional church genres gradually transform, and secular literary genres undergo significant fiction, as a result of which the authors of works began to pay much more attention to psychological portraits of their literary characters, motivations for their actions, etc. The literature of Kievan Rus did not yet know either fictional heroes or fictional historical events, and the heroes of its works were real historical figures and real events of the past and present.

Thirdly, many works of ancient Russian literature, including The Tale of Bygone Years itself, The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovskiy, Vladimir Monomakh’s Teachings, Daniil the Sharpener’s Prayer, Praise to Roman Galitsky, and many other secular writings were outside the specific genre framework.

When studying the history of Russian literature of the era of Ancient Rus', scientists still argue on a number of key issues:

1) What was the specificity of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature. Some scientists (I. Eremin, V. Kuskov, S. Azbelev, A. Robinson) claim that one artistic method was inherent in Russian literature of that time. Professor S.N. Azbelev defined it as syncretic, Academician I.P. Eremin - as pre-realistic, and Professor A.B. Robinson - as a method of symbolic historicism. Other scientists (A. Orlov, D. Likhachev) put forward the thesis about the diversity of artistic methods within the framework of all ancient Russian literature. Moreover, these authors argued that this diversity was noticeable in the work of the authors themselves, and in many works of various literary genres.

2) What was the style of ancient Russian literature. There are many different points of view on this. For example, Academician P.N. Sakulin said that in ancient Rus' there were two styles: realistic, or secular, and irrealistic, or ecclesiastical. Most scientists (V. Istrin, D. Likhachev, S. Azbelev, V. Kuskov) believed that the leading styles of ancient Russian literature were the style of monumental historicism and folk epic style. That is why many works of Russian literature of that time are characterized by numerous historical excursions into the past of different peoples and states, the discussion of complex philosophical, religious and moral problems, etc. It should be noted that, having adopted the theory of linear time and the biblical concept of the creation of the world from Byzantine chronography, many authors of that time paid great attention to practical, behavioral philosophy and moral education of the brightest and most exalted feelings in their contemporaries and descendants.

3) What time should the birth of Old Russian literature be dated. Most scientists, as a rule, date the formation of Russian national literature to the first half of the 11th century, i.e. the time of the appearance of the first original works of Russian authors. Academician D.S. Likhachev argued that ancient Russian literature arises with the appearance of the first literary works, regardless of whether they were original or translated. Therefore, he dated the formation of Russian literature to the end of the 10th century.