Pedagogy is a complex system that consists of independent (of course, relatively) disciplines interconnected with each other. Any of these disciplines considers education from its own individual position and studies individual areas of pedagogical reality.

But in the entire system of general pedagogy, what stands out, first of all, is the theory of learning, called didactics, and the theory of upbringing, which explore the laws of a pedagogical nature in certain areas of education.

Didactics deals with the study of learning at the theoretical level, which is the most general, and does not focus on teaching any specific subject. She is mainly interested in the driving forces and functions of the educational process, as well as its structure and. Didactics also deals with the formulation of the principles of teaching, the creation of different ways of constructing its structure, forms of presenting educational material and its assimilation, as well as forms of interaction between students and teachers. It is didactics that will be discussed further.

Instead of introducing

Society constantly makes every effort to ensure that the knowledge, skills, abilities and experience that it has accumulated at a certain point in time and at a certain point in development is mastered by the new generation through the most effective and fruitful ways. This goal is pursued by both training and educational systems, representing strategically built processes of supplying people with information that reflects the accumulated and generalized experience of humanity.

The task of didactics at any stage of its development in history was to determine the content of the education of new generations, to find the most effective ways to equip them with relevant knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as to determine the patterns of this process. However, if we take into account the fact that the educational process is directly related to the process of education, mainly moral and mental, we can say that didactics is a theory not only of training and education, but also of upbringing. And above all, this includes the formation of the worldview of people receiving education.

At this point in time, the subject of didactics consists of the process of learning and education in general, in other words, the content of education, which is implemented by curricula and programs, means and methods, textbooks, organizational forms, educational elements and conditions that favorably affect the active and creative work and mental development of students.

Along with pedagogy, didactics went through the path of historical development, during which it fulfilled the tasks that arose before educational institutions at each individual stage of social development. Development of various scientific areas, changes in the field of trade, production, technology, etc. had a direct impact on the development of the educational sphere, reflecting a special form of human activity in the era of Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over time, this led to the emergence of learning theory itself. This happened in the 17th century, when the most serious work “” was written, the author of which was Jan Comenius - it was he who first set before humanity the task of “teaching everyone everything”, and also set out the principles and rules for teaching children.

Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1671) was a humanist teacher of Czech origin, a public figure and writer, a bishop of the Czech Brethren Church, a man who systematized and popularized the classroom-lesson system of education, and the creator of scientific pedagogy. During his life, he was engaged in pedagogy in many European countries (Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland and others), and also compiled textbooks for Sweden, which were subsequently used to study in many different countries, thanks to which he gained fame during his lifetime.

Comenius's view of pedagogy

The main feature of the pedagogical views of Jan Komensky was that it was education that he saw as one of the main prerequisites for establishing constructive, friendly and fair relations between individuals and entire nations. Along with this, Comenius’ teaching is imbued with a humanistic approach to man and learning. Comenius's religious education and way of life were reflected in the entire educational system he created.

The entire teaching of Comenius is based on the principles of conformity to nature, didactics and family pedagogy. For example, the principle of conformity with nature states that what is subject to development is what is already “embedded”, and it must be developed from the inside, waiting until “the forces ripen”, avoiding pushing nature in the wrong direction - to where it itself does not want to go. Supporting the idea that the seeds of intelligence, piety and morality, as well as the desire of nature to develop them, are characteristic of all people, Jan Comenius designated the role of education in “the easiest impulse and some reasonable guidance” as a naturally occurring process of self-development of the student.

The principle of conformity to nature is rightfully considered the most important, and on the basis of it Comenius created a truly unique and large-scale project for the education of a person, lasting from birth to 24 years. The scientist considered this project to be universal and scientifically grounded due to the correspondence of the pedagogical process to the nature of man and him on the planet. This project was aimed at “teaching everything to everyone”, in other words, at the rational creation of a “mass school”. The most important element of this project was and remains to this day the stages of human maturation.

Stages of human maturation

Presenting the stages of human maturation, Comenius still relied on the principle of conformity to nature. Thus, they were allocated four stages, each consisting of six years, and each had its own tasks.

So, based on human nature, the following stages are distinguished:

• Childhood (lasts from birth to 6 years)
• Adolescence (lasts from 7 to 12 years)
• Youth (lasts from 13 to 18 years old)
• Adulthood (lasts from 19 to 24 years of age)

The basis of this division is age characteristics:

• Childhood is characterized by: increased physical growth and development of sensory organs
• Adolescence is characterized by: imagination, as well as their executive organs - the tongue and hands
• Youth is characterized by: development of a higher level of thinking (in addition to all of the above)
• Maturity is characterized by: and the ability for a harmonious existence

Each of the presented periods, based on their characteristic features, presupposes an individual stage of education. Children under 6 years of age, according to Comenius, must be “educated” in a mother’s school, where the mother provides preschool education. During adolescence, the child is sent to a six-year school in his native language, which should be available in any community, village, etc. Young men are educated in gymnasiums or Latin schools, available in all cities. Mature young people are trained in academies, also available in all major settlements of any state.

In order to substantiate the idea of ​​a native language school, Comenius always spoke about the natural conformity of human development. Disciplines such as, for example, civics and homeland studies are argued by the natural aspirations of the child and the conditions of the reality surrounding him. In the Latin school there should be a "class of ethics" where man with his own actions - man who is the ruler of things - will be studied. The “core subject of history” should also be studied, knowledge of which can “illuminate the whole life.” Also subject to study are: general history (mainly the history of the fatherland), the history of religious rites of different peoples of the world, the history of morality, inventions, and natural sciences. Comenius considered the traditional academic subjects of the Middle Ages school to be the “seven liberal arts,” supplemented by the foundations of the sciences that were new at the time.

"Seven Liberal Arts"

The "Seven Liberal Arts" included grammar, dialectic (logic), rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Comenius, as we have already said, supplemented them with the foundations of modern sciences at that time. The entire content of general education was addressed to a person in order to make his worldview holistic, and the aspirations to speak, act, be able and know were in harmony.

If we turn to the procedural side of learning, then in Comenius it is expressed by the search for a nature-conforming method, focused on the diverse work of his intellect, his holistic personality and “natural knowledge”, contrary to “book learning”, taken by the student with the help of memory and intense will.

The spiritual world of John Comenius was a very complex and unique set of views of the eras of Antiquity and the Renaissance, Protestantism and Catholic theology, natural science and contemporary humanitarian knowledge. Jan Comenius was able to substantiate the humanistic and democratic idea of ​​universal education, which for several centuries remained fundamental among people for whom universal education was the right of all people.

Pedagogical system of Comenius

Comenius' pedagogical system is a “strict” pedagogy, implying an attitude towards the student as a responsible, active and conscious being in both thoughts and actions. The activity of a teacher in this system is considered as the most complex art of human development in a person. Comenius’ system shines with optimism and faith in human potential, the potential of education, “the unification of generous, courageous, sublime people.” The tasks of education were associated by Comenius with a direct appeal to the inner world of a person and the cultivation of the spiritual in him, and the attitude to knowledge as a value is another integral feature of his system.

Each subsequent age level is an occasion for the introduction of new theological and ethical rules and norms of behavior, designed to spiritualize the inner life of the student with an attitude of value not only to knowledge, but also to oneself and to the people around him. A humane person, according to the scientist, must have a number of “cardinal virtues” that can be traced in medieval Christian ethics and rooted in the philosophy of Plato: justice, courage, moderation and wisdom.

In an effort to develop and elevate spirituality in people, Comenius tried to form morality and piety as a constant active spiritual life and practical work of a person. Based on this, the pedagogical system appears as a humanistic model of the educational process aimed at the targeted, value-based and holistic development of the natural forces and potential of the developing individual.

This goal is realized by organizing the life of students in a healthy environment from a moral point of view, rich spiritually, and constantly stimulating comprehensive development, where a person is surrounded by a variety of activities that contribute to the natural development of abilities and everything human; in an environment where humane relations between students and students, between students and teachers prevail, due to which the tasks and goals of the educational process become the students’ own tasks and goals, and the process of education is transformed into the process of self-education.

The result of the entire pedagogical process will be the achievement by the student of a high level, including self-determination, self-awareness, and the need for continued self-development, self-education and self-education. The freedom that characterizes the development of a student’s personality is ensured by equal opportunities for self-development for everyone and pedagogical influence that excludes “violence” in any form. This pattern can be traced back to the most effective pedagogical systems of the past. In addition, it is quite harmoniously integrated into modern education systems, for which reason Kamensky’s discoveries can safely be called universal.

But we will look at modern educational systems a little later, but for now let’s say a few words about Comenius’ didactic principles.

Principles of Comenius didactics

Jan Komensky is a man who, for the first time in the history of didactics, told people about the importance of using principles in teaching and outlined them:

The principle of consciousness and activity- according to him, training should be such that students acquire knowledge not through mechanical tasks or memorization, i.e. passively, but actively, with maximum involvement and . If there is no consciousness, then teaching will only be dogmatic, and formalities will dominate knowledge;

The principle of visualization of learning- here it is assumed that students must acquire knowledge through direct observations of objects and phenomena, through their perception by their senses. Comenius called this rule “golden”;

The principle of gradual and systematic knowledge- means that the study of any knowledge and sciences should only be systematic. However, for this, students must receive information in a specific methodological and logical sequence.

In order for this principle to be properly observed, Kamensky gives some rules:

1. Information should be distributed so that specific learning objectives are assigned for each class hour, day, month and year. They must also be carefully thought out by the teacher and understood by the student;
2. The solution to all educational problems must be distributed taking into account age characteristics, and therefore must correspond to the tasks of each individual class;
3. Each subject should be taught until the student has mastered it entirely;
4. Lessons should be designed so that the basis of any current material is the previous one, and the subsequent one consolidates it;
5. Learning must be built from the general to the specific, from simple to complex, from close to distant, from known to unknown.

Such a sequence, according to Comenius, must be observed everywhere, and the understanding of things with the mind must move from the historical to the rational, and only after that to the application of everything learned.

The principle of exercise and lasting mastery of skills- says that the only indicator of how complete knowledge and skills are are systematically performed exercises and their repetitions.

There are also a number of requirements developed by Comenius for the last principle:

1. Any rules must necessarily serve to maintain and consolidate practice;
2. Students should do not what brings them pleasure, but what the laws say and what teachers point out;
3. For mental exercises, special lessons should be created, based on Kamensky’s system;
4. Any problem should initially be illustrated and explained, then you need to make sure whether the students understood it and how they understood it. It is recommended to arrange repetitions after a week.

All these provisions tell us that Comenius compares the assimilation of knowledge with the task of complete and conscious study of the material. Perhaps this is why the pedagogical principles of this outstanding person, even in our time, remain significant both in theory and in practice.

Transformation of Comenius' teachings

Comenius made an invaluable contribution to the history of pedagogy, which consisted in revealing two sides of learning - objective, including the laws of pedagogy, and subjective, including the practical application of these laws. This was the beginning of didactics and the art of teaching.

The impact of the ideas of Comenius’ didactics had a huge impact on education in European countries, but in practice in the Middle Ages, society was still dominated by established traditions, according to which diligence and obedience were especially valued, and the student’s own initiative, firstly, was not encouraged, but, -secondly, it served as a reflection of his “sinfulness.” For this reason, didactics itself was not fully accepted.

With the development of society, some social phenomena were replaced by new ones, and Comenius’ ideas either became part of some others or were supplemented by them. Due to the emergence of more and more new problems in the field of education, new theories have emerged, based on completely different factors and concepts. However, only by knowing the basics of Comenius’ teachings can one understand and trace the changes that have occurred in this area.

Modern theories of education

Below we invite you to familiarize yourself in general terms with modern theories of education, some of which can serve as an alternative to didactics, and some of which are fundamentally different from it.

Progressivism

Progressivism is an educational theory that arose as a reaction to traditional education, which emphasized formal methods of influencing the student and memorization of material.

The main ideas of progressivism were the idea of ​​self-expression and personal development, the idea of ​​free activity of children, the idea of ​​learning through experience, the idea of ​​mastering skills and abilities to achieve, the idea of ​​maximizing the potential of the present and the idea of ​​understanding and applying the dynamics of an ever-changing world.

Humanism

Humanism arose from the foundations of progressivism, from which it took most of its ideas. For humanists, the child should be at the center of the educational process, the teacher is not an absolute authority, the student is always active and involved in the process of acquiring knowledge. In addition, humanism includes ideas about cooperation and the principles of democracy.

One of the foundations of humanism was also the creation of a special educational environment in which there is no competition between students, and. The goal of the humanists was to get rid of the relationship of hostility between students and teachers and to form a relationship in which trust and a sense of security prevail.

Perennialism

Perennialism can be called a response to progressivism, according to the views of perennialists, which is destroying the entire education system. In their opinion, education should not help the student adapt to the world, but should adapt him to the truth. The content of the curriculum should not depend on the interests of students, but should be based only on what is currently relevant for society.

Professional pedagogy here is not a function of education, the school should educate mainly the intellect, and the educational system should guide a person to the knowledge of eternal truth. Hence the main focus on fine arts, philosophy, natural sciences, mathematics, history and languages.

Essentialism

Essentialism was a second reaction to progressivism. The similarity between essentialism and perennialism is that progressivism is also too soft a system for it. Essentialists argued that school should provide basic knowledge, the basis of which was the basic arts and subjects that could instill mastery and prepare for life in society.

The primary school must adhere to a school curriculum that promotes the development of literacy skills and... The emphasis was on mathematics, writing and reading. History, mathematics, natural sciences, native and literature should be taught in high school. In general, the essentialist program is based on teaching the younger generation only fundamental knowledge.

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism was the absolute opposite of the traditional education system. Education in it was not just a transmitter of culture, but the dominant organ of social reform. If education is built correctly, it will be able to reconstruct the social order.

According to reconstructionists, traditional schools can only transmit social, political and economic evils that are a problem to society. A person is facing the threat of self-destruction, and to avoid this, it is necessary to radically change the education system. Educational methods should be based on the principles of democracy, where the natural intelligence of the majority is at the forefront, which is aimed at finding solutions to the problems of mankind and their practical application.

Futurism

Futurism arose much later than the theories that we examined - if they all arose in the period from the 30s to the 50s of the 20th century, then futurism arose already in the 70s. According to its supporters, the modern (at that time) education system, even in the best educational institutions, is erroneous and ineffective, because the theories and methods that it uses are no longer relevant, because society has managed to move from the industrial era to the super-industrial one.

The result of this is teaching the new generation what was important, necessary and in demand in the past, despite the fact that they live in a constantly changing and developing world. To get out of this situation, it is necessary to create a super-industrial educational system, oriented towards the future, which can prepare people for life who are able to navigate new conditions, quickly respond to them, and.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism turned out to be not only, but also the strongest system of educational views. He was able to expand the scope of psychological interests to pedagogical interests.

From the perspective of behaviorism, education is a process of behavioral technology. According to its supporters, the environment in which people live programs them to behave in a certain way. People are rewarded for some actions, but punished for others. Actions that led to the receipt of a reward will be repeated, and the opposite ones will be extinguished. This forms the behavioral patterns of the individual.

Based on the above, it follows that people’s behavior can be manipulated. And the task of education is precisely to create such environmental conditions that will promote optimal human behavior. Thus, educational institutions should be considered as institutions for the formation of the culture of society.

Pedagogical anarchism

Pedagogical anarchism originates from the publication of “Deschooling Society” by Ivan Illich, which became a reaction to hundreds of unsuccessful attempts. The approach of its adherents to the structure of society was based on the rejection of any educational institutions due to the fact that they managed to monopolize all opportunities and services of education, establishing prohibitively expensive ways to obtain it.

School was considered the enemy of a decent life, because... forced students to look at the existing educational system as a standard, to perceive not the content, but the form, to confuse the concepts of “learning” and “teaching”, the transition from class to class with real education, a diploma with professional suitability, etc.

Anarchists called for the disorganization of schools, the abolition of compulsory education, and the introduction of a system of teacher subsidies, through which educational funds would be sent directly to the people interested. Also, a proper educational system should allow those who want to have access to any sources, allow those who are able to teach to find those willing to learn, and allow everyone to provide their ideas and works to society.

The theories of education that we have discussed have greatly influenced the form of education in general. Today it has reached the level where a real war for education is being waged. All theories of education have become the basis of many pedagogical experiments and literature worthy of attention and study. But, be that as it may, it is Jan Komensky who, even now, is the only teacher-philosopher who was able to see in education and teaching the basis of human progress. For this reason, in the next lesson we will talk in more detail about the basic principles of didactics and reveal all their features.

Section II. Pedagogy

Topic 8. Pedagogy as a theory of learning

8.1. General characteristics of training

Training is a conscious, organized and purposeful process of joint cognitive activity of the teacher and trainees, which equips students (schoolchildren) with the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for them to competently perform their professional duties in the future. As a social phenomenon, this phenomenon represents the assimilation by young people of the social experience accumulated by older generations.

Basic training requirements:

• Raise the quality of specialist training, productively and creatively apply new technologies in the educational process;
• Give training a greater practical orientation;
• Increase the organization and intensity of teaching activities;
• Rational and competent use of educational materials, especially computer technologies.

Components of the training system:

1. Target (learning goal)– determines the social order for preparing young people for work (for example, in the banking, financial sector).
2. Active– includes the joint work of teachers and students.

   The main pedagogical objectives are:

   • Organization of educational activities and competent management of them;
   • Presentation of material in accordance with the program and plan;
   • Developing students' interest, creativity, activity, and initiative in learning;
   • Formation of students’ ability to independently acquire knowledge, skills and abilities;
   • Checking the preparedness of specialists.
3. Meaningful– determines such parameters as the volume of material, forms, methods, techniques, teaching aids.
4. Resultant– includes what the teacher strives for and what the students must achieve. They are required to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, and important professional qualities. If the result of the training corresponds to the goal, then the training has fulfilled its role.

Training functions:

1. Educational– equips students (schoolchildren) with knowledge, skills, and abilities;
2. Educational - inextricably linked with the first, it forms in students the personal qualities of a citizen - a patriot of their homeland;
3. Developmental – actively influences the intellectual and professional development of students (schoolchildren). Today we need young people with creative imagination, the ability to think outside the box, take initiative, be diligent, efficient, conscientious, competent, with high moral and labor potential;
4. Psychological preparation function– involves the formation in students (schoolchildren) of constant readiness and stability when performing complex tasks of curricula and programs, and practical work.

Rice. 1. Learning process

Knowledge is the totality of information, concepts and ideas about objects and phenomena of objective reality acquired by a student (student).

Skills are automated motor, sensory and mental actions that are performed accurately, easily, quickly with little effort of consciousness and ensure the effectiveness of human activity.

Skills are the creative application of knowledge and skills to achieve the desired result in continuously changing conditions of practical activity.

Rice. 2. Interrelation of knowledge, skills and abilities with each other

Process steps

1. Awareness of the cognitive task, understanding of its essence, meaning, relevance;
2. Perception of information under the influence of previous experience, existing knowledge;
3. Understanding the material, its creative processing, dissection, highlighting the main thing, summarizing the main parts, etc.;
4. Memorizing information;
5. Application of knowledge in practice. They should be used for the main goal - increasing competence and professionalism.

Classification of knowledge

1. Knowledge-dating– determine orientation in the environment in the most general terms;
2. Knowledge-reproductions– serve to reproduce information;
3. Knowledge and skills - allow you to confidently use them in any situation;
4. Knowledge-transformation– make it possible to use them creatively and create new ones with their help.

Teaching is the activity of a teacher in organizing, implementing and managing the process of developing knowledge, skills and abilities in students (pupils), developing their psyche and scientific worldview.

Teaching is the work of students to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities in accordance with the requirements of modern life.

Educator – a teacher (teacher), through the means of pedagogical influence, influencing the psyche of a student (student), developing it, forming their knowledge, skills and abilities.

Trainees are students (pupils) who reflect information in their minds and actively respond to the influences of the teacher (teacher), while mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

Today's reality requires further intensification of the educational process.

Let us highlight the main directions for its improvement:

• Improving the quality of teaching, improving the pedagogical style and methods of teaching. They must be characterized by organization, professionalism, competence, a sense of the new, creativity, responsibility, morality, culture, decency;
• Scientific approach to planning the educational process;
• Strengthening the individualization of student learning. It is necessary to teach what is necessary in the specialty, based on general preparedness, abilities, and personal qualities;

Intensify training of specialists- means condensing class time through the optimal selection of the content of the theory and practice of teaching, its methods and forms.

Optimize the learning process– to find such means and technologies of training that would allow convincingly convey the most important thing.

Thus, learning process– multifunctional. It solves the problems of education, upbringing, development, and psychological preparation.

8.2. Principles and methods of training

8.2.1. Principles of training

Principles are fundamental provisions that express the requirements for the content, organization, and teaching methods. By their origin, they are a theoretical generalization of pedagogical practice and, therefore, have an objective nature, become guiding, regulate the activities of teachers (teachers) in the process of teaching students (pupils). However, in the form of their existence, the principles are subjective in nature, since they are reflected in the consciousness of the teacher with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy. Ignorance of them, reluctance to follow them, and misunderstanding make the education system unproductive.

The principle of consciousness, activity and independence

It requires such a setting of learning in which students (students) consciously understand their goals and objectives, while showing high activity, initiative and independence.

Principle requirements:

• Awareness of responsibility for the goals and objectives of classes, their practical significance;
• The use of new technologies that stimulate students’ cognitive activity, their independence, initiative, and creativity;
• Fostering a sense of critical self-assessment of students’ (schoolchildren’s) actions;
• Encouraging positive decisions and actions.

The principle of systematicity, consistency and complexity

It is implemented through the organization of the educational process. On its basis, programs are compiled in all disciplines. In order to successfully and competently perform professional duties, it is important to master knowledge, skills and abilities, and apply them in combination. This can be achieved by establishing logical connections between subjects, sections, and topics.

Principle requirements:

• Clearly plan classes;
• Consistently distribute the material;
• New knowledge is closely linked with previously studied knowledge, revealing the main problems;
• Move on to the next one after completely mastering the previous one;
• Ensure constant and effective monitoring of the results of classes;
• Supervise the independent work of students (pupils), increase the sense of responsibility for the knowledge, skills and abilities they have acquired.

The principle of learning at a high level of difficulty

It reflects the dependence of the pedagogical influences of the teacher (teacher) on the nature of the activity, individual characteristics and capabilities of the students (students). Its essence lies in the fact that the organization and content of training put young people in such conditions under which they would master knowledge, skills and abilities with maximum effort of mental and physical strength.

The need for this principle is due to the following reasons:

1. It has been established that knowledge, skills and abilities are intensively formed when students see, realize the difficulties of studying, and actively move towards the intended goal, milestone;
2. practice confirms that it is impossible to achieve success without overcoming difficulties.

Principle requirements:

• Encouraging young people to solve complex problems of educational activities;
• Ensuring that training is feasible in terms of volume, depth and intensity;
• Providing individual assistance to students (students);
• Moral encouragement for those who consistently show good academic results;
• The creative attitude of the teacher to his professional responsibilities.

The principle of strength in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities

Difficult situations of today's life require specialists to make decisions competently, productively and independently, relying on their intellect and social experience. That is why strong knowledge, skills and abilities are so important now. They are also necessary in order to successfully and further improve the level of their education.

Principle requirements:

• Explaining to students (students) the significance of the information received for their practical activities;
• Setting for strong and long-term memorization;
• Conducting classes in a dynamic, interesting, exciting manner;
• Encouraging students to meaningfully master the material;
• Application of acquired knowledge in practice;
• Stimulating independent work of students (pupils);
• Encouraging integrity and initiative.

The principle of group and individual approach

Usually, common interests and the first shoots of mutual assistance quickly appear in a student group (class), a friendly atmosphere and competition are established. Young people are enriched by the experience of their comrades, act more confidently, and evaluate their actions self-critically. In the classroom, you need to develop the search for joint actions, decency, empathy, and mutual understanding. The effectiveness of group learning largely depends on the teacher’s ability to approach each person individually, relying on the team, its mood, opinion, and traditions.

Principle requirements:

• Training youth in coordinated, harmonious joint actions;
• Taking into account public opinion, sentiments, traditions, etc.;
• Approach each student individually, take into account psychological characteristics and abilities;
• Training the team through solving significant problems, using positive aspects in achieving them;
• Instilling a sense of responsibility for the state of affairs in the group, nurturing moral principles, support, mutual assistance;
• Application of optimal means of teaching influence in the classroom.

The principle of visibility in teaching

Its essence lies in the fact that the student (pupil) acquires knowledge, develops skills and abilities on the basis of sensory perception of objects, objects, phenomena or their images during training sessions.

Principle requirements:

• Development of educational materials that correspond to the content of the topic, their systematic use;
• Comprehensive preparation of the teacher for the lesson, the ability to methodically correctly use visual aids;
• Information must be attractive, understandable, accessible, and meet the ethical principles of pedagogy and psychology.

Thus, the content and requirements of the principles of training were considered from the perspective of traditional approaches.

There are other formulations of teaching principles:

• The principle of social conditionality and scientific character - expresses the importance of compliance in the preparation of students (pupils) with the requirements and recommendations of the educational concept accepted in the state and society;
• The principle of practical orientation – focuses on the formation of skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of professional duties;
• The principle of purposefulness, systematicity and consistency - determines the direction, logic and consistency of the educational process;
• The principle of accessibility and a high level of difficulty - forms the position and attitude of students (students) towards their understanding of the essence of cognizable problems, conviction in the practical value of knowledge;
• The principle of strength in mastering the components of professional competence;
• The principle of a differentiated and individual approach - determines the organization of group educational and cognitive activities in classes in various subjects, with an individual approach to each student;
• The principle of complexity and unity of teaching and upbringing is achieved through the efforts of all its participants (teachers and trainees, educators and trainees).

8.2.2. Theories (concepts) of learning

Learning theory is a system of views that characterizes the essence, content, methodology and organization of the educational process, features of the activities of the teacher (teacher) and student (student) during its implementation.

The following concepts are used in practice:

1. Associative-reflex;
2. Stage-by-stage formation of mental actions;
3. Problem-based learning;
4. Problem-based learning;
5. Programmed learning.

The ultimate goal of these learning theories is to form a system of knowledge, skills and abilities in students (pupils), and to successfully prepare them for practical professional activities.

Methods and forms of training

Teaching methods are ways of organizing cognitive activity, collaboration between the teacher and students, with the help of which the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, and the development of mental and physical abilities is achieved.

Consolidation of acquired knowledge Formation of skills and abilities Application of knowledge, skills and abilities in practical activities

Table 1. Classification of teaching methods based on didactic tasks

Oral presentation of educational material

This method involves an active, productive influence on students. It is used to communicate new knowledge, explain a device, talk about new facts and events.

Types of oral presentation of material:

• Story. Imaginative, emotional and consistent presentation of factual material, complex issues, rules, principles, combined with demonstration.
• Explanation. A brief, lively explanation of the meaning of the phenomena, processes and events being studied.
• Instruction. Laconic, clear instructions (recommendations) on how to perform a particular action.
• Lecture. An extended theoretical argument that combines elements of story and explanation.

Requirements for the presentation of educational material:

• High content and scientific content;
• Close connection with life, practice;
• Logicality, persuasiveness;
• Emotionality, clarity and brightness of speech;
• Skillful combination with other methods, especially display (demonstration), visual aids;
• Problematic consideration of the material;
• Efficiency, productivity.

Discussion of the material being studied

This method determines the active interaction and influence of the teacher and student (student) on each other. It is used to deepen, consolidate and systematize knowledge on the subject.

Types of discussion of material:

1. Conversation. The conversation can be informative (heuristic), detailed, control and testing. It is important to be able to use the knowledge and personal experience of students in order to develop their cognitive activity, involving them in productive mental search, independent formation of conclusions and generalizations.
2. Cool group lesson. All students (students) take an active part in considering issues, show interest, energetically enter into discussions, citing convincing figures, facts and arguments.
3. Seminar. A form of collective search through an effective solution, scientific analysis of a theoretical or practical problem. The most difficult task is to organize a creative disclosure of the questions posed, using visual aids, discussion of reports, abstracts, fixed messages.

Requirements for discussing the material being studied:

• Problem formulation of questions and active work around them;
• Clear control of the course of the lesson;
• Diagnostic and polemical in nature, stimulating creativity;
• Objective assessment of performances;
• Orientation of trainees for further work.

Show (demonstration)

The method is based on demonstrating to students real life events, natural phenomena, scientific and production processes, the operation of instruments and equipment for the purpose of their analytical consideration and discussion of various problems associated with them. It is a set of techniques with the help of which an image of the object being studied is created and specific ideas about its structure are formed.

Types of display (demonstrations):

1. Personal demonstration of teaching techniques, actions, behavior;
2. Display with the help of specially trained people;
3. Display of equipment, equipment, devices;
4. Demonstration of visual aids, films, videos, etc.

Requirements for the display (demonstration) method:

• Competent selection of material;
• Determining the most appropriate types of demonstrations, their quantity and sequence;
• Justified and strict dosage of visual aids, their differentiated and complex use;
• A skillful combination of words and demonstration.

Exercise method:

A method of conscious, repeated, ever-increasingly complex repetition of mental and practical actions in order to develop, consolidate and improve skills and abilities. The functions of the method are to transform part of the student’s (pupil’s) knowledge into skills and abilities, to prepare for practical activities. Exercises are required for any discipline. Their systematic implementation fosters curiosity, perseverance, attention, and diligence.

Types of exercises:

1. Depending on the academic subject, the nature of the skills and abilities being developed.
   • Physical;
   • Special;
   • Complex.
2. Depending on the didactic purpose.
   • Introductory;
   • Basic;
   • Workout.

Exercises can also be collective And individual.

Conditions for successful implementation of exercises in training:

• High-quality preparation of the teacher (teacher) for the lesson;
• Students’ understanding of the purpose of the exercise, the content and consistency of the actions being learned;
• Maintaining interest in the exercise and a conscious attitude towards its implementation among students;
• Maintaining a certain sequence and rhythm;
• Formation of self-control and self-esteem skills when performing actions;
• Organization of competition.

Independent work of students

This method involves the individual activity of students (pupils) in consolidating knowledge, skills, abilities and preparing for classes.

Types of independent work:

1. Working with printed sources;
2. Independent search;
3. Viewing and listening to video and audio recordings;
4. Training, etc.

Conditions for effective organization of independent work of students:

• Creative nature of independent work;
• Inducing the need for it in students (pupils) by presenting them with various educational problems;
• Taking into account the personal characteristics of students, individualizing tasks;
• Organization of effective assistance and mutual assistance;
• Monitoring and evaluating independent work.

To increase the efficiency of the educational process, active teaching methods. They help to liberate the consciousness, use the intellectual potential of the individual, and acquire strong skills and abilities.

Such methods:

• They place the student (student) in the position of an active participant in the lesson;
• Allows you to increase the productivity of study time;
• They ensure the improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of social and value positions, psychological qualities and practical experience.

While reading lectures the following methods are used:

1. Logical-compositional: inversion ((Latin inversio - turning over, rearrangement) - a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech.), contrastive comparison, “intriguing” beginning, intermittent presentation of the thesis, expressive conclusion;
2. Psychological and pedagogical: an attractive form of announcing the topic, an unusual introduction to it, question-and-answer reasoning, posing problem situations, relying on convincing facts and examples;
3. Speech: the use of literary images and quotes, lexical-semantic translation of concepts and numbers, artistic presentation, intonational expressiveness;
4. Audiovisual: the use of diagrams, tables, graphs, paintings, film fragments, posters, sound and video recordings.

Seminar activated through dialogue, discussion, intellectual warm-up, brainstorming, business games, solving situational problems, “playing roles”, socio-psychological training (SPT), etc.

Intellectual warm-up is asking questions, the answers to which require a clear understanding of the topic being studied. It lasts 10–15 minutes, is carried out at a fast pace, on basic concepts, categories, definitions, events, facts, etc. The main thing here is to activate the mental activity of students before discussing problems.

Brainstorming is used when there is a deadlock in solving a question. It is important to follow certain rules:

• Everyone becomes equal participants with the right to defend any point of view;
• It is forbidden to criticize the ideas put forward, it is only allowed to clarify questions;
• Each speaker should be concise and clearly express his thoughts.

Role-playing (business) play is appropriate when it is necessary to develop techniques and skills in performing functional duties. For example, it is used in developing professional leadership traits in students.

Social-psychological training (SPT)– this is the training of students in order to develop in them the necessary qualities, abilities, skills. Pedagogical experience shows that a young person needs to be taught a lot in practice: how to deal with bosses, elders, equals, overcome difficulties in communication, interaction with others, diagnose personality traits, orientation, character, abilities, etc. The SPT system should be regular, useful, interesting, and bring pleasure.

8.3. Forms of training

Forms of teaching are a purposeful, clearly organized, content-rich and methodologically equipped system of cognitive and educational communication, interaction, relationships between a teacher (teacher) and a student (student).

Forms of training represent the organizational side of this process. They provide for the composition of groups (classes), structure, place and duration of classes, the specifics of the activities of the teacher (teacher) and student (student), close connection with methods, providing external and internal conditions for their application.

Forms of training:

1. Academic plans:
   • Lesson;
   • Lecture;
   • Seminar;
   • Homework;
   • Exam, etc.
2. Unscheduled:
   • Brigade laboratory exercises;
   • Consultations;
   • Conferences;
   • Mugs;
   • Excursions;
   • Classes in advanced and auxiliary programs;
3. Auxiliary:
   • Group and individual lessons;
   • Alignment groups;
   • Tutoring.

Curriculum forms ensure that students (students) master specific disciplines and develop skills and abilities. Unscheduled - allow them to improve their knowledge and broaden their horizons. Auxiliary - they determine the differentiation and individualization of the educational process, help overcome the backlog of individual students, as well as accelerate the advancement of those who successfully master the program.

Unscheduled

Table 2. Functions of training forms

Educational– serves to create favorable conditions for the transfer of knowledge, skills, abilities to students (pupils), the formation of a worldview, the development of talents, practical abilities, etc.

Educational – aimed at the productive use of all the spiritual forces of young people.

Psychological– consists in developing in students (students) the correct biorhythm of activity, the habit of studying and resting at a certain time.

Integrating-differentiating– promotes the exchange of information, learning mutual understanding and mutual assistance.

Systematizing and structuring– provide a breakdown of educational material into parts and topics.

In relation to each other, forms of education perform integrating and coordinating functions.

Stimulating – takes into account the characteristics of the age of children, the specific development of their body and psyche.

From the form side, the lesson is structurally composed of three parts:

1. Introductory;
2. Basic;
3. Final.

When preparing for a lesson (using the example of a lecture), you must:

• Familiarize yourself with the requirements of the curriculum, with sections (topics) of related subjects;
• Formulate the purpose and objectives of the lecture;
• Make a plan for it;
• Study literature on the topic;
• Select and classify educational material, highlight the main thing;
• Find interesting examples, facts, arguments;
• Write the text of the lecture;
• Select visual aids and TSO;
• Think over the methodology for conducting the lesson;
• Determine tasks (methodological advice) for subsequent independent work.

8.4. Testing and assessment of knowledge, skills, abilities

This is an integral part of the learning process and is carried out in the form of constant monitoring of its progress, which allows the teacher to influence the activities of students: to determine what they are successfully learning, what difficulties they encounter, who needs help. At the same time, he continues to train and educate them, helps them deepen and consolidate knowledge, skills and abilities, develop attention, thinking, memory, and develop emotional and volitional stability.

Pedagogical requirements for testing:

• Must be carried out systematically;
• Be educational, interesting, useful;
• It is important to combine individual control with inspection of the entire team;
• The process must be comprehensive, objective and conducted through a variety of methods;
• It is necessary to place high demands on students (pupils), combined with respect for their dignity and practical assistance to them;

Checking teaches young people to self-control.

The check can be:

• Current;
• Preliminary;
• Final;
• Control;
• Inspector's office.

Current – ​​carried out in every lesson.

Preliminary– consists in identifying the level of preparation of students (students) over a period of time; the teacher (teacher) talks with them, observes their actions, and demands that they perform certain techniques.

Final – organized for the purpose of obtaining grades and their final results for the period of study.

Inspection - carried out by representatives of higher educational structures.

Test methods:

1. Control observation;
2. Analysis of the results of practical activities;
3. Oral and written survey;
4. Verification using technical means.

Assessment of knowledge, skills, abilities

It can be expressed in the form:

• Emotional attitude (approving head nods, brief remarks, etc.);
• Value judgment (“acted correctly, but uncertainly”);
• Marks (“excellent”, “good”, “satisfactory”, “unsatisfactory”).

When assessing knowledge, the following is taken into account:

• The amount of knowledge on educational issues;
• The degree of their systematization and depth;
• Understanding of what has been learned, independent judgment, confidence in presentation;
• The effectiveness of knowledge, the ability to apply it in solving practical problems.

When assessing skills and abilities, the following is taken into account:

• Content of skills and abilities;
• Their precision, strength and flexibility;
• The ability to apply them in practical activities;
• The presence of errors, their number, nature and impact on work;
• Confidence, independence, systematicity and consistency of actions.

When grading, the teacher (teacher) is guided by pedagogical criteria:

1. “Excellent” if the student (student) deeply studied the educational material, discovered its comprehensive understanding, exhaustively presented and substantiated the conclusions, correctly, confidently and quickly completed the task;
2. “Good” when the student knows the material firmly, answers without leading questions, and performs practical work without errors;
3. “Satisfactory” if the student (student) knows only the basic material, can apply it in practice, but makes mistakes that do not affect the quality of the task he completed;
4. “Unsatisfactory” when the student has a superficial understanding of the topic and cannot correctly apply his knowledge in practice.

The assessment in all cases should be:

• Objective;
• Clear and understandable;
• Perform a stimulating function;
• Comprehensive and fair.

Education is an interdependent activity of two parties: the teacher (teacher, lecturer), who exerts pedagogical influence, and the trainees (pupil, student), who reflect the information received in their minds, mastering knowledge, skills, and abilities. The work of a teacher is designed to encourage schoolchildren and students to actively work (study), and they, in turn, are obliged to show diligence.

Literature on the topic

• Babansky Yu.K. and others. Pedagogy. M.: 1988
• Baranov S.P. The essence of the learning process. M.: 1986
• Verbitsky A.A. New educational paradigm and contextual learning. M.: 1999
• Gessen S.N. Fundamentals of pedagogy. M.:1995
• Davydov V.V. Developmental training. M.: 1996
• Dyachenko V.K. Collaboration in learning. M.:1991
• Clarin M.V. Innovation in learning. Metaphors and models. M.: 1997
• Likhachev B.T. Pedagogy. Lecture course. M.: 1998
• Pedagogy: pedagogical theories, systems, technologies: Textbook / Ed. Smirny S.A. M.: 1998
• Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. New course: Textbook. In 2 books. M.: 1999
• Psychology and pedagogy. Textbook / Edited by Abulkhanova K.A. and others. M.: 1998
• Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. M.:1990

Didactics(from Greek didakitos- instructive, didasko- studying) is a branch of pedagogical science that reveals the theoretical foundations of education and training in their most general form. Didactics reveals patterns, principles of learning, objectives, content of education, forms and methods of teaching and learning, stimulation and control in the educational process, characteristic of all educational subjects, at all age stages of education. Didactics studies the patterns and specifics of education and training in general education, vocational, secondary specialized, higher schools and other educational systems. The object of didactics is the learning process. The subject is revealing the laws of the learning process, studying the system of relationships: student - educational material, teacher-student, student-other students.

This word first appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571-1635) to denote the art of teaching. In a similar way, Ya.A. interpreted didactics as “the universal art of teaching everyone everything.” Comenius. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German teacher I.F. Herbart gave didactics the status of a holistic and consistent theory of educational teaching. The main tasks of didactics have remained unchanged since Rathke's time - developing problems: what to teach, how to teach; modern science intensively studies such problems as when, where, who and why to teach, how to teach effectively.

The relationships between the main didactic categories as structural components of the holistic didactic process are shown in the figure:

The main categories of didactics: training, teaching, teaching, education, knowledge, abilities, skills, as well as the purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, means, results (products) of training. Recently, it has been proposed to assign the status of the main didactic categories to the concepts of “didactic system” and “teaching technology”.

Education- a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, their joint activities, during which education, upbringing and development are carried out. Communication, during which the accumulation of knowledge, skills, development, education occurs. Learning is divided into teaching and learning.

Teaching- orderly activity of the teacher, aimed at realizing the learning goal, ensuring information, awareness and practical application of knowledge.

Teaching- the process of student activity to master knowledge, skills, experience, creativity and emotional-value relationships, during which new forms of behavior and activity arise, previously acquired knowledge and skills are applied.

Education- the process of becoming a cultured person and the result of training, a system of acquired knowledge, abilities, skills, ways of thinking, worldview, morality and general culture.

Knowledge- information that can be transformed and used, a set of human information ideas that express theoretical mastery of this subject. I.N. Lerner talks about three levels of knowledge: assimilation and reproduction, use in practice, transfer to non-standard situations.

Skills- mastering ways to apply knowledge in practice. They are divided into four groups: universal, general educational (writing), search and information (libraries), organizational.

Skills- skills brought to automaticity.

Purpose in didactics is the image of the final result, what the learning process strives for.

Cognitive activity- characteristic of student activity, which consists in the mobilization of intellectual, moral and volitional forces to solve an educational and cognitive task. Without student activity, the learning process will not take place. However, the teacher must actively influence students and motivate them.

Didactics objectives:

1. Scientific description and explanation of the learning process and the conditions for its implementation.
2. Improving the learning process and creating new learning technologies.

As a theory of learning and education, didactics develops the following problems:

• it determines the pedagogical foundations of the content of education;
• explores the essence, patterns and principles of learning, as well as ways to increase its developmental influence on students;
• studies the patterns of educational and cognitive activity of students and ways of its activation in the learning process;
• develops a system of general pedagogical teaching methods and conditions for their most effective application;
• determines and improves organizational forms of educational work in educational institutions.

Didactics as a science studies the laws operating in the field of its subject, analyzes the dependencies that determine the course and results of the learning process, determines methods and organizational means that ensure the implementation of planned goals and objectives. Thanks to this, it performs two main functions:

1. Theoretical (mainly diagnostic and prognostic).
2. Practical (normative, instrumental).

Didactics covers the teaching system in all subjects and at all levels of educational activity. Based on the breadth of coverage of the reality being studied, general and specific didactics are distinguished.

Subject of study general didactics- the process of teaching and learning together with the factors that give rise to it, the conditions under which it occurs, and the results to which it leads.

Private didactics are called teaching methods. They study the patterns of the process, the content, forms and methods of teaching various academic subjects. Each academic subject has its own methodology.

The fundamental requirements for the practical organization of the educational process in pedagogy are usually called didactic principles. The most important didactic principles include:

• Education must be scientific and have a worldview orientation.
• Training should be characterized by a connection between theory and practice.
• Training must be visual.
• Learning must be active and conscious.
• Training must be accessible.
• Training must be systematic and consistent.
• Training must be robust.

These principles constitute a system, are determined by the goals of education and are historical in nature. Some principles lose their meaning in new conditions, and new ones appear, which reflect the new requirements of society for learning.

The principles are implemented through the rules of learning, which are the means of implementing the principles. Rules are specific instructions to the teacher on how to act in a typical teaching situation. These are guidelines that reveal individual aspects of the application of a particular teaching principle. The rules follow from the principles of learning.

Education as a holistic system. It is possible to characterize the learning process as a system only in dynamics, by following its composition (elements), structure (connections) in accordance with the functions:

Characteristic features of the educational process as a system:

• integrity in the unity of learning and teaching, the unification of knowledge, abilities, skills into a worldview system;
• systematicity, complexity;
• purposefulness and orderliness;
• dynamism;
• uncertainty of the result.

The educational (didactic) process contains the following main links of interaction:

Activities of a teacher	Activities of trainees
Clarification by students of the goals and objectives of learning	Own activities to create positive motivation for learning
Familiarization of students with new knowledge (phenomena, events, objects, laws)	Perception of new knowledge and skills
Managing the process of awareness and acquisition of knowledge and skills	Analysis, synthesis, comparison, comparison, systematization
Managing the process of transition from theory to practice	Acquisition of skills and abilities, their systematization
Organization of heuristic and research activities	Practical activities to independently solve emerging problems
Checking and assessing measurements in student learning and development	Self-control, self-diagnosis of achievements

The following characteristics are characteristic of training:

1. Bilateral character.
2. Collaborative activities between teachers and students.
3. Guidance from the teacher, which consists in organizing the activities of students, stimulating and motivating them
4. Development of creative abilities.
5. Systematic organization and management.
6. Integrity and unity of goals, means and results.
7. Compliance with age patterns.
8. Along with training, development and education of students.

Functions - displaying the properties of an object. Functions characterize the essence of the learning process. There are three functions: educational, educational, developmental.

Educational. It consists in the fact that the learning process is aimed at the formation of knowledge, abilities, skills, worldview and experience of creative activity. What matters is that the acquired knowledge must be characterized by completeness, consistency, awareness and effectiveness.

Developmental. It means that during the learning process the student develops in all directions: the development of speech, thinking, sensory, motor, emotional-volitional and need-motivational spheres of the individual.

Educational. It consists of the formation of moral and aesthetic ideas, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, to comply with the laws adopted in it.

To understand the role of learning as a means of development and personality formation, it is of great importance that this process is not limited only to the mastery of knowledge by students, the development of practical knowledge and skills. Training has a broader developmental and formative impact on the individual. Knowledge as a subject of acquisition has 3 interconnected aspects:

1. Theoretical.
2. Practical.
3. Worldview and moral.

With proper training, students master all three aspects of the material.

The developmental and educational-formative influence of training on the individual led to the emergence in pedagogy of a special concept denoting this process. This process is called education. Under education one should understand a person’s mastery of a certain system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities and the associated level of development of his mental, cognitive and creative activity, as well as moral and aesthetic culture, which in their totality determine his social appearance and individual identity. Education as a concept includes, on the one hand, the process of mastering the material being studied, i.e. learning, and on the other hand, the educational and formative influence of this process on the individual, personifying their unity and organic interconnection. And when didactics is sometimes defined as a theory of learning and education, they thereby want to emphasize that it explores both the theoretical foundations of the learning process and its educational and formative influence on the mental, ideological and moral-aesthetic development of the individual.

1. Didactics as a theory of education and learning.

2. The learning process as a holistic system.

3. Principles and methods of teaching.

4. Organizational forms and training systems.

Literature:

main - 31, p.390-458; 33, p.30-246

additional11, 12, 23, 24

1.Didactics as a theory of education and training

Didactics, which is one of the most important and most developed sections of pedagogy, deals with theoretical and applied problems of education and training. This is a relatively independent science that studies the general patterns of learning, its principles and organizational forms.

The term “didactics” is borrowed from the Greek language (“didaktikas” - means “instructing”). It was first introduced into scientific circulation by a German educator Wolfgang Rathke(1571 - 1635), who called his course of lectures "A Brief Account of Didactics, or the Art of Teaching Ratihius." By didactics he understood the scientific discipline that studies the theory of learning. The fundamental work revealing the foundations of didactics as a science was the outstanding work of the Czech scientist-teacher John Amos Comenius(1592 - 1670), published in 1657 in Amsterdam, "The Great Didactic, presenting the universal art of teaching all things to all."

A significant contribution to the development and development of didactics was made by the Swiss democratic teacher I. G. Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827) and the outstanding Russian teacher - democrat K. D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870). Thus, K. Ushinsky, in his pedagogical works, distinguished by their depth and originality, considered teaching as the most important means of education. He believed that the learning process should be based on taking into account the age and psychological characteristics of children's development. K. Ushinsky highlighted such important principles of learning as feasibility, consistency, clarity, meaningfulness, strength, repetition, consistency. Criticizing the routine in conducting lessons and taking into account the rapid fatigue of children, he recommended a change in classes and a variety of teaching methods.

The didactic ideas of K. Ushinsky were developed by such followers as P. Kopterev, V. Bekhterev, V. Vodovozov, N. Levitsky and others. They created a methodological system of primary education, which had no equal in world pedagogy.

In the second half of the 19th century. in Western Europe, the works on didactics of the German teacher and public figure A. Disterweg (1790 - 1866) were also known. He, like K. Ushinsky, put forward progressive didactic ideas and advocated a public school.

IN beginning of the 20th century world didactics developed on the basis of pragmatism. American philosopher, psychologist and educator J. Dewey (1859 - 1952) created the pedagogical theory of pedocentrism (guidance of practical experience based on children's and teachers' initiative).

V. Sukhomlinsky made a worthy contribution to the development of didactics in the 50-60s. In his works he showed examples of a didactic approach to teaching. He paid special attention to the idea of ​​children's mental development, as well as an individual approach both in the course of learning and in practical activities.

In the 50-80s, such famous theorists contributed to didactics as:

like M. Skatkin, M. Danilov, Y. Babansky, L. Zankov.

Of great importance for the development of didactic problems is the practical activity of innovative teachers who develop the direction of “pedagogy of co-

cooperation", such as I. Volkov, E. Ilyin, S. Lysenkova, V. Shatalov, N. Guzik and others.

Modern domestic didactics strives to achieve global positions. She studies and develops new technologies, forms and methods of teaching.

Didactics as a pedagogical discipline operates with the general concepts of pedagogy “upbringing”, “education”, “pedagogical activity”, etc.

IN At the same time, as a theory of education and training, it has its own specific concepts, which are “learning”, “teaching”, “teaching”, “cognitive activity”, “content of education”, “teaching method”, etc. Let us consider the most important of them.

Training is purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and cognition are assimilated. It is a process of mastering knowledge, transferring and assimilating knowledge, abilities and skills, as well as methods of cognitive activity. In the learning process, the goals of education are realized. This is a two-way process, carried out by the teacher and students in their interaction. Training is always educational in nature, since in its process a worldview is formed, cognitive abilities, thinking, memory, creativity, initiative, independence, etc. are developed.

Teaching is both the activity of the student (learner) and the process of his assimilation of the content of education as part of universal human culture (mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities). It is usually carried out directly under the guidance of the teacher (teacher) or indirectly, in the form of self-education of the student after instruction and under the control of the results by the teacher.

Teaching is the systematic management of the student’s educational activities by the teacher: determining the content of the teaching, its volume, forms and methods, sequence, pace, quality control of assimilation, etc.

The processes of learning and teaching represent a single process of interaction between student and teacher (learner and teacher) - the learning process.

Active cognitive activity– a characteristic feature of educational activities. It expresses the student’s intellectual and emotional response to the learning process, his active participation in the learning process, in the performance of individual and general tasks, his interest in the activities of the teacher and fellow students. Activity in cognitive activity leads to the formation of important personal qualities that contribute to the development of the personality as a whole.

Contents of education- a specially selected and recognized by society (or state) system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain field. It is a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, the mastery of which ensures the comprehensive development of students’ mental abilities, the formation of a worldview, moral qualities and behavior, awareness of their duty and responsibility, and preparation for work. The content of education is one of the components of the learning process.

Knowledge is an integral system of scientific concepts about the laws of development of nature and society, accumulated by humanity in the process of active transformative activity aimed at further knowledge and change of the objective world.

Skills are the ability to successfully consciously perform actions based on acquired knowledge and skills to solve assigned tasks in accordance with given conditions, this is mastery of a way to carry out practical activities, the ability to creatively apply knowledge. Skills include, for example, labor skills, the ability to solve mathematical problems, draw drawings, type and edit texts on a computer, etc.

Skills are strengthened, automated ways of performing actions. In didactics, there are individual skills (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction), practical (labor) and educational (working with a computer, drawings, measuring instruments, reference books, etc.).

Skills are part of skills, and the same skill can be an element of different skills. In addition, individual skills, after repeated repetition (after exercises), can become automated actions, i.e. turn into skills.

The subject of didactics is learning as a means of human education and upbringing. By exploring the laws of the learning process, didactics establishes the principles of learning, determines the content of education, and gives

The main objectives of didactics are:

determining the purpose of education and training (Why teach?);

determination of the content of education and training (What to teach?);

determination of forms, methods, means and organization of educational work (How to teach?).

2. The learning process as a holistic system

Learning process- this is the central phenomenon studied by didactics and constituting its subject. In it, the “actors” of the process are connected into a single unit - the teacher and the student, their goals, as well as the content, forms, methods, means and other attributes of educational activities.

Learning is an artificially organized cognitive activity that ensures the acceleration of individual mental development and mastery of the known laws of the surrounding world.

The methodological basis of the learning process in modern didactics is the scientific theory of knowledge. The process of cognition proceeds from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. By assimilating knowledge, students learn about the objective world. From this point of view, the assimilation of knowledge is a type of cognition. This means that the laws of cognition have methodological significance for the educational process.

Like the process of scientific knowledge, the learning process is complex and contradictory. Its driving forces are contradictions - sources of development and improvement, which can be external and internal. The first are those that arise outside the personality, although they relate to its development, the second, those that arise within the learning process and are associated with its participants.

IN Examples of such contradictions include the following:

between the ever-increasing demands of society for education, which are dictated by socio-economic progress, and the possibilities of the learning process in these conditions. This contradiction is the most important source for improving the educational process itself, the content of education, forms and methods of teaching;

between the cognitive tasks that are put forward by the learning process and the level of knowledge, skills, and mental development of students (between knowledge and ignorance).

There are a number of conditions under which emerging contradictions become the driving forces of the educational process, namely:

a) revealing the significance of knowledge both for the learner and for society as a whole;

b) determination by teachers of the cognitive level and intelligence of students;

c) skillful organization of students’ cognitive activity; focusing on the main thing.

The learning process has its own logic of movement: from ignorance - to knowledge, from incomplete knowledge - to complete knowledge.

Natural science basis of the learning process is the doctrine of the highest uneven human activity. For didactics, the doctrine of the plasticity of the nervous system, dynamic stereotype, signaling systems, human inclinations and abilities is of particular importance. The study of the types of nervous activity gives the teacher the opportunity to individualize the learning process, and knowledge of the patterns of movement of the basic nervous processes (excitation and inhibition)-Right organize it.

The learning process performs three main functions: educational, educational and developmental.

Educational function- basic, defining. The main purpose of training is to equip with knowledge, develop special and general scientific skills. From a philosophical point of view, knowledge is the result of knowledge of reality, presented in the form of facts, conclusions, patterns, ideas, theories that science has. Knowledge is constantly updated, its volume is growing rapidly. They must meet the requirements of completeness, systematicity, awareness, and effectiveness.

Educational function involves the formation of the worldview of students, their spiritual, moral, labor, aesthetic ideas, as well as beliefs, principles, views, etc.

Developmental function provides the process of personality improvement, develops its perception, thinking, volitional, emotional and motivational spheres.

These functions are interconnected and interact in the process of comprehensive planning and solving problems of education, upbringing and personal development of the student using a variety of forms, means and methods of teaching.

The learning process has a certain structure, it consists of the following elements: goal, content, learner (student), teacher (teacher) and principles, methods, means, forms of teaching.

The purpose of learning is a social order, i.e. this or that volume and corresponding quality of knowledge that the student must master. In the learning process there is a teacher's goal and a student's goal. They are not the same and have their own specifics. The order is specified taking into account the types of schools and class levels.

Training content- this is part of the social experience (social culture) that the learner must learn. Content in the learning process has several functions. Firstly, this subject of educational activity, which contains scientific terms, concepts and other information. Secondly, for the teacher and for the students it is object of educational activity. The teacher “processes” it and transmits it (transmits it) to the students so that they understand it. For students, this is an object that is necessary

process, assimilate and appropriate as an element of social culture. Thirdly, for the teacher, the content represents and teaching tool, education and development students. Through the content of learning, it influences their minds, feelings, moral and other culture.

SOCIETY

Principles, methods, forms, teaching aids

			quality,

Rice. 9.1. Structure of the learning process.

The teacher, in the function of a teacher, acts as a subject of the learning process. It determines the purpose of the educational process, the content of the educational material, the structure of the lesson, and the methods of educational activity. Of course, he does all this on the basis of the goals and content of training, which are determined by society in the form of a “social order.” He himself organizes the educational work of students, creating favorable conditions for this. Thus, the teacher guides the learning process.

A student is a person interested in learning. He shows his activity. In this sense, both he and the teacher strive for cooperation.

This is the structure of the learning process. The interaction of its elements constitutes this process.

The learning process is characterized by many regularities, the most important of which are the following:

1. The learning process is determined by the needs of society for educated

And comprehensively developed people who continue the development of society and the state.

2. The learning process is the main part of the comprehensive educational process of an educational institution.

3. The learning process is unified and natural, i.e. its educational, educational and developmental functions are inextricably linked and represent a single whole.

4. The learning process depends on the actual educational and age characteristics of the students.

5. The learning process naturally depends on the material conditions of the educational institution (educational premises, equipment, financing, etc.).

6. The leading role of the teacher is also natural when students are consciously active in their cognitive activity.

Thus, specifics of the learning process consists of the following points:

training takes place under the guidance of a teacher;

the source of knowledge is not only the material presented by the teacher, but also books, the media (cinema, radio and television programs, newspapers, magazines), information received from other people in the process of communication, the students’ own experience, etc.;

students study the objective world in a cognized, generalized and systematized form, perceive knowledge expressed in verbal and conceptual form, and sensory perception plays a supporting role;

practice is a means of improving knowledge and a source of new knowledge;

in unity with learning and on its basis, the scientific worldview and moral principles of students are formed;

in the learning process, the mental abilities of the student develop

The theory of knowledge determines the essence of learning, its educational nature.

The learning process includes sequentially repeating stages

or links:

1. Primary diagnosis and updating of previous knowledge(installation

making business contacts, assessing the psychological atmosphere and level of readiness, updating existing knowledge).

2. Setting goals for the teacher and students’ awareness of cognition

ative tasks (announcing the topic, asking questions, formulating the problem).

3. Students' perception of new material. At this stage, use

Various methods and techniques for presenting information are used.

4. Understanding new material.

5. Consolidation and improvement of the initially perceived information

mation (repetition, primary generalization and establishment of connections with existing information).

6. Application of new material(performing exercises, solving problems, working on problematic and heuristic educational tasks).

Theory of education and learning; the essence and driving forces of learning, content of learning; modern concepts of primary and secondary education, their didactic and subject content; the essence and driving forces of learning, motives for learning at different age stages; management of educational and cognitive activities of schoolchildren; principles, methods and organizational forms of training; lesson at school: types of lessons, their structure, requirements for conduct and analysis; diagnostics and assessment of educational achievements of schoolchildren.

Comprehensive goal:

know

• the essence and content of training;
• modern concepts of primary and secondary education, their didactic and subject content;
• motives for learning at different age stages;
• principles, methods, forms of organization of training;
• types of lessons, their structure, requirements for conduct and analysis;
• features of the content and organization of the pedagogical process in the conditions of different types and types of educational institutions at various levels of education;

be able to

• determine the goals and objectives of education, plan, conduct, analyze lessons;
• carry out pedagogical control, evaluate the learning process and results;

own

Skills in organizing the pedagogical process in the conditions of different types and types of educational institutions at various levels of education.

Subject and tasks of learning theory

Theory of education and learning

In the modern world, significant changes and transformations are taking place, which affect all spheres of human life. The main task facing humanity is to determine the direction of its future development path in a situation of ongoing disasters, both natural and man-made. And education stands out today as a key sphere of human activity, through which the choice of the path of development of all humanity as a whole and each person individually can be determined.

Today, most developed countries are coming to the understanding that the most necessary and profitable investments are investments in a person and his improvement, therefore the civilized development of society is possible only if the status and prestige of education is increased. It is thanks to education and targeted training that the upbringing of the human personality, the formation and development of its spiritual orientations occurs. The organization of the process of education of an individual in the process of his training and upbringing is dealt with by the general theory of learning, which is a relatively independent field of pedagogy.

Before we turn to the consideration of theories of education and learning, let us once again return to the definition of the meaning of the concepts " education " And "education". In modern pedagogy under education understands the process of mastering fundamental ideological, scientific, versatile knowledge, developing skills and abilities, as well as developing intelligence. All this together indicates a certain level of theoretical and practical training of the student.

In the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", education is given a generalized multifunctional meaning and it is presented as a purposeful process of mastering by an individual or a group of people a scientific understanding of the world around them, corresponding to the modern level of development of society, scientific and technological progress. An educated person objectively understands and evaluates current events in the world and in people’s lives, and is aware of himself and his place in society. He is distinguished by his possession of spiritual values, the foundations of a culture of relationships and behavior that promote creativity, creation and self-improvement. The result education education, professional competence, and mentality of a person appear as an important property of his personality, which cannot be clearly reduced to the presence of diplomas. Education is naturally related to the upbringing, training and development of a person.

The term " education "coincides in meaning with the term" didactics ", which was introduced into scientific circulation by the famous German medieval scientist Rathke (Ratihiy) (1571 - 1635) and with which he designated the practical application of the art of teaching. This term has its ancient origins in the ancient Greek language, in which the word " didaktikos" meant "instructive, pertaining to teaching" and the word " didasko " – "studying ". Finally, the term "didactics" is equivalent to the term " education " established itself in the field of scientific pedagogical knowledge after the appearance of the famous work of Ya. A. Komensky "The Great Didactics", in which for the first time the principles, methods, content and patterns were set out in a systematized form training. It was from that time didactics as a science of teaching turned out to be called upon to give the practical teacher answers to the key questions of educational practice: how to teach? who and when to start teaching? what and where to teach? and others.

The final definition of the concept " education "into an independent, equal component of general pedagogical knowledge occurred only in the second half of the 20th century, which is associated with the emergence of fundamentally different forms of storing and retrieving information, unknown until then, and therefore the emergence of new teaching tools, forms of organization of training, as well as fundamentally different content education. Therefore, in modern pedagogical theory, the concepts "education" And " didactics " are used as equivalent and denote a purposeful, specially organized, systematic process of interaction between teachers and students, during which the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities that are provided for in the curriculum occurs. During this process, teachers manage the educational and cognitive activity of students and activate it, instill the ability to independently search for knowledge using modern means of storing and transmitting information, create conditions for the development of thinking, memory, imagination and speech, help to study and assimilate the experience of older generations.The result of training is the training of an individual or group of people.

It's important to take revenge training in general, just like education does not exist at all. Education always specifically, occurs on specific material and therefore takes into account the specifics of organizing activities for the study of this specific material. To the concept " education "we address when we characterize the specificity of the learning process and the scope of future professional activity. Therefore education always associated with the specific content of activity and methods of its organization. At the same time, didactics as a general theory of learning studies general patterns training, education and personal development in the educational process, therefore it is closely related to specific subject-specific methods of studying various disciplines and academic subjects, on the one hand, and will provide starting points for their understanding and integration in a single educational process, on the other.

Basic concepts of pedagogy " upbringing ", "education" And "education "represent an interconnected complex trinity that reveals the sequence of human development in the process upbringing, education And training (Fig. 3.1). Therefore, personality development is an integral result of the pedagogical process, implementing educational, educational and training components.

From the one shown in Fig. 3.1 of the diagram clearly shows that the learning process underlies all subsequent phenomena, however, constituting the core of the entire structure of personality development, it is the least conscious and is initially perceived in its most general and obvious manifestations - upbringing and education. The above diagram convincingly shows that the process of considering the category “learning” is impossible in isolation from the categories “upbringing” and “education”, since it reveals the most general laws and principles of their organization and implementation in modern educational practice.

Rice. 3.1.

In the 1960s Soviet poet L. Martynov wrote a wonderful quatrain, which very accurately designates the area of ​​​​value-orientation activity, the formation of which is occupied by the education system:

You don’t consider yourself worthwhile only here, in the present, in existence.

Consider yourself to be walking along the border between the past and the future.

These four lines very accurately and briefly, in almost formulaic language, display the semantic richness and inextricable dialectical relationship of the three basic concepts of pedagogy: upbringing, education And training. Let's try to imagine this process in three successively unfolding steps of human social formation, expressed by three main categories of pedagogy.

Step one is education. To get started consider yourself worthwhile every person needs to get primary education, as a result of which he will one way or another be able to form a certain initial idea of ​​himself: to see his place of being, evaluate it and begin to act in it.

Step two – education. In order to be able to see, understand and evaluate yourself and the surrounding space as existence and present in which his life takes place, a person must be able to isolate the image of the past from this present, understand both himself and society as a continuous education process, in which the present is constantly transformed into the past, and the past with the same constancy determines the nature of the processes of education in the present. And now, having just learned to move in the surrounding space, a person begins to defend his right to his own path of life in the process of receiving a personally significant education.

Step three is training. And then only, at this third stage, does a person acquire an amazing independent ability - the ability to learn, thanks to which he transforms his intuitive sensations into mastered educational tools - the ability to clearly see and distinguish the border between the past and the future, and most importantly, an irresistible craving, the need to overcome this border, to look beyond its horizon. It is then that a person becomes a real student and begins to learn “consider yourself walking along the border between the past and the future” in order to learn to distinguish the boundaries of the future and not be afraid to look beyond them.