History studies the traces of human activity. The object is a person.

Functions of historical knowledge:

Scientific and educational

Prognostic

Educational

Social memory

The method (research method) shows how cognition occurs, on what methodological basis, on what scientific principles. A method is a way of research, a way of constructing and justifying knowledge. More than two thousand years ago, two main approaches to historical thought arose that still exist today: the idealistic and materialistic understanding of history.

Representatives of the idealistic concept in history believe that spirit and consciousness are primary and more important than matter and nature. Thus, they argue that the human soul and mind determine the pace and nature of historical development, and other processes, including in the economy, are secondary, derived from the spirit. Thus, idealists conclude that the basis of the historical process is the spiritual and moral improvement of people, and human society is developed by man himself, while man’s abilities are given by God.

Supporters of the materialist concept argued and maintain the opposite: since material life is primary in relation to the consciousness of people, it is economic structures, processes and phenomena in society that determine all spiritual development and other relationships between people.

An idealistic approach is more typical for Western historical science, while a materialistic one is more typical for domestic science. Modern historical science is based on the dialectical-materialist method, which considers social development as a natural historical process, which is determined by objective laws and at the same time is influenced by the subjective factor through the activities of the masses, classes, political parties, leaders, and leaders.

There are also special historical research methods:

chronological – provides for the presentation of historical material in chronological order;

synchronous – involves the simultaneous study of events occurring in society;

dichronic – periodization method;

historical modeling;

statistical method.

2. Methods of studying history and modern historical science.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge.

Historical and logical

Abstraction and absolutization

Analysis and synthesis

Deduction and induction, etc.

1.Historical and genetic development

2.Historical-comparative

3.historical-typological classification

4.historical-systemic method (everything is in the system)

5. Biographical, problematic, chronological, problem-chronological.

Modern historical science differs from the historical science of all previous eras in that it develops in a new information space, borrowing its methods from it and itself influences its formation. Now the task of not just writing historical works on this or that topic is coming to the fore, but creating verified history, verified by large and reliable databases created by the efforts of creative teams.

Features of modern historical science.

1. Sociocultural development

2. Spiritual and mental foundations

3. Ethno-demographic features

4. Natural geographical features

5. Political and economic aspects

6. Providentialism (by the will of God)

7. Physiocrats (natural phenomena, not God, but man)

8. Geographical, public, social factors.

9. Interdisciplinary approaches (social anthropology, gender studies).

3. Humanity in the primitive era.

Primitive society (also prehistoric society) is a period in human history before the invention of writing, after which the possibility of historical research based on the study of written sources appears. In a broad sense, the word “prehistoric” is applicable to any period before the invention of writing, starting from the beginning of the Universe (about 14 billion years ago), but in a narrow sense - only to the prehistoric past of man.

Periods of development of primitive society

In the 40s of the 20th century, Soviet scientists Efimenko, Kosven, Pershits and others proposed systems for the periodization of primitive society, the criterion of which was the evolution of forms of ownership, the degree of division of labor, family relationships, etc. In a generalized form, such periodization can be presented as follows:

1. the era of the primitive herd;

2. the era of the tribal system;

3. the era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property).

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly from stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

The Lower Paleolithic is the period of the emergence of the most ancient species of people and the widespread spread of Homo erectus.

The Middle Paleolithic is a period of displacement by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern humans. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.

The Upper Paleolithic is the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the globe during the era of the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general human culture. There is no ceramics.

Neolithic is the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age

The Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic or Chalcolithic is a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 5-6 thousand years BC. e.

Iron Age

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

The term "Iron Age" is usually applied to the "barbarian" cultures of Europe that existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, and therefore information about them has reached us either from archaeological data or from mentions in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe during the Iron Age, M. B. Shchukin identified six “barbarian worlds”:

Celts (La Tène culture);

Proto-Germans (mainly Jastorf culture + southern Scandinavia);

mostly Proto-Baltic cultures of the forest zone (possibly including Proto-Slavs);

proto-Finno-Ugric and proto-Sami cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);

steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);

pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

The transformation of historical knowledge into historical science was carried out over a long period of time. Now in the development of historical science the following most important stages are distinguished.

1. Historical ideas of the Ancient World. At first, historical thought developed in the form of legends and myths. A feature of mythological thinking, characteristic of many ancient peoples, was historical pessimism - the idea that “what happened before is better than now.” Thus, the ancient Indians believed that the “golden age” of humanity had already passed, and that only hard work and all kinds of trials lay ahead.

In addition, mythological thinking linked the course of history with the deeds of the gods. Thus, in Homer’s Iliad, the cause of the Trojan War was a quarrel between the goddesses. At the same time, a concept was developed according to which heroes create history with the help and will of the gods. In general, the history of mankind was presented to them as a manifestation of the will of the deity: Fate determined the fate of nations.

The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC) believed that the development of history is carried out thanks to the discoveries and inventions of geniuses.

The highest achievements of historical thought in the era of the Ancient World were the works of ancient authors - Herodotus and Thucydides. The Greek historian Herodotus (between 490 and 480 - c. 425 BC) was considered the "father of history". He described Ancient Greece, as well as the peoples and countries he visited: Persia, Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Scythia. His main work is “The History of the Greco-Persian Wars.”

The ancient Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460-400 BC) author of “History,” which includes eight books dedicated to the Peloponnesian War, and is considered the pinnacle of ancient historiography. Polybius (c. 200-c. 120 BC) was also a great ancient historian, who attempted to create world history. His work “History” (40 books) covers the history of Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Rome and other countries from 220 to 146 BC.

In the Ancient East, an important role was also attached to the cult of the past. Thus, in China, under each appanage ruler (later after the unification of China - at the court of the emperor) there was a historiographer. By the 2nd century BC. Many chronicles and annals appeared, mostly local. These sources were summarized by the son of the court historiographer Sima Tan, Sima Qian (145 or 135 - c. 86 BC), nicknamed the “Chinese Herodotus.” The main work of Sima Qian’s entire life was the “Historical Notes” (“Shi Tsei”), which had a significant influence on the development of historical science in China. Since that time, the histories of all ruling dynasties began to be compiled in China.

2. The historical thought of the Middle Ages developed under the influence of church and religious ideology, therefore, in the works written by historians of different countries and peoples of this period, the historical process of social development was interpreted idealistically. The leading historical concept of early medieval thought in Western Europe was the concept of providentialism (by the will of Providence), developed by Augustine the Blessed (354-430). The theory of great people and heroes was popular, as in ancient times. Among the European historians of this era, Gregory of Tours (538 or 539-593 or 594), Raoul Glaber (985 - ca. 1047), Michael Psellus (1018 - ca. 1078 or ca. 1096) are distinguished. Gregory of Tours is the author of the “History of the Franks” in ten books. This work is considered a historical monument of the early Middle Ages; its author is called the “father of barbarism.”

In the Arab East, the most prominent historical scientists were the authors of “universal histories” Yakubi (10th century AD), Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri (9th century) and Tabari (late 9th - early 10th centuries). In China in the 11th century. statesman and historian Sim Guang created a huge work (294 books), covering the history of the Chinese people from the 5th to the end of the 9th centuries.

In medieval Russia at the beginning of the 12th century. An outstanding work of Russian socio-political thought, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” was created, the author of which is called the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, chronicler Nestor. Then the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” appeared, dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsians. The author notes the destructiveness of the fragmented state of the Russian principalities and the need for their unity in the face of the threat of enemy invasion.

The study of human history received new development during the Renaissance, the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, when the dominance of medieval religious ideology was opposed to the cultural heritage of antiquity. Interest in ancient monuments is growing. New approaches to understanding history emerged. The Italian politician N. Machiavelli (1469-1527) in his work “The Prince” (1513) named one of the reasons for the struggle of people in history - property.

3. In the modern era, some Western European historians and philosophers, rejecting the idea of ​​God as the creator of history, tried to explain the cause-and-effect relationship of the material world based on itself. The Italian philosopher, one of the founders of historicism D. Vico (1668-1774), argued that the historical process has an objective and providential character.

All nations develop in cycles consisting of three eras: divine (stateless state, subordination to priests); heroic (aristocratic state) and human (democratic republic or representative monarchy). A. Turgot (1727-1781) - French statesman, enlightenment philosopher, economist - believed that the history of society is driven by the human mind. Modern philosophers believed that ideas rule the world. After Cicero (106-43 BC), they developed the idea of ​​natural law and later came to the idea of ​​an enlightened monarch.

However, in general, Western European historical science during the period of formation and establishment of capitalist relations, i.e. Modern times, despite the struggle against feudal-church views on the history of society, remained on idealistic positions. The views of scientists of this time were characterized by dualism: approaching natural phenomena materialistically (albeit metaphysically), they remained supporters of idealism in the study of history, explaining the course of the historical process as a manifestation of the “will of God,” “divine providence,” “divine world spirit,” or the absolute "ideas".

Its largest representatives in the West were F. Guizot (1787-1874), O. Thierry (1795-1856), F. Mignet (1796-1884), M. Henry (1818-1881), T. Carlyle (1795-1881) , M. Macaulay (1800-1859). French historians F. Guizot, O. Thierry, F. Mignet in the first half of the 19th century. created a bourgeois theory of class struggle, in which they recognized class differences in society, but denied the exploitative nature of the bourgeois state.

In the 19th century German historians F. Schlosser (1776-1861) and W. Onkekn created “World History” (19 and 46 volumes, respectively).

The statement in the 19th century was of great importance for the development of historical science. historical method of knowledge and the emergence of Marxism.

The historical method (principle) of approaching reality as changing over time and developing was recognized before Marx by representatives of German classical idealism, for example, Hegel (1770-1831). However, the principle of historicism was consistently developed by K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895). Its distinctive feature is its spread to all spheres of objective reality - nature, society, thinking.

Marx and Engels wrote: “We know only one single science - the science of history. History can be viewed from two sides; it can be divided into the history of nature and the history of people. However, both these sides are inextricably linked: as long as people exist, the history of nature and the history of people mutually determine each other.”

Historical thought of the East in the XVII-XIX centuries. is in decline; historians of this time do not put forward new ideas and concepts, but imitate ancient authors - both in the content of their works and in their form.

In Russia in the 18th century. The first attempts were made to create a systematized code of Russian history. This is the 7-volume “Russian History” by V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1756), “Russian History” by M.M. Shcherbatov (1733-1799) in 20 books.

The largest Russian historian of the early 19th century. was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826). His main work is “History of the Russian State,” written in simple, living language. This work by Karamzin was followed by the 29-volume “History of Russia since Ancient Times” by S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879), “Russian History” by N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) and “Course of Russian History” by V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911). A specialist in general history was T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855).

4. Historical science has developed rapidly in modern times (late 19th-20th centuries). At this stage, various concepts of historical development were developed in Western historical science. Here we should name the Englishman Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975), the American Walt Rostow (b. 1916), Max Weber (1864-1920), Mark Blok (1886-1944), Alvin Tofler (b. 1928) and others.

Among the most famous Russian historians of modern times are F. Platonov (1860-1933), M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932), E.V. Tarle (1876-1955), V.V. Struve (1889-1965), S.D. Skazkin (1890-1973), E.A. Kosminsky (1886-1959), M.V. Nechkina (1901-1985), I.D. Kovalchenko (1928-1995), A. Narochnitsky, M.N. Tikhomirov (1893-1965), S.V. Bakhrushin (1882-1950), M.A. Barg et al.

In the 50s The USSR Academy of Sciences prepared and published the 13-volume World History. Volumes of the new “World History”, conceived as a 24-volume edition, are now being published. In 1996, more than 10 volumes were published.

Historical science and historical education
in the modern information space.

Russian historical science today stands on the threshold of a new stage of its development. This stage seems to be due to the challenges of the time both within the country and in the world as a whole.

History today for Russia is the most problematic area of ​​science. It is enough to refer to discussions about school education, about 3rd generation standards in history, about the unified state exam in history and its place in the system of “compulsory-optional disciplines,” about educational literature, etc.

When assessing the state of historical science, it is necessary to take into account several external and internalfactors influencing its development. This is, first of all:

A transitional state of society, which is in the stage of socio-economic and political transformation. In this situation, the distrust of a significant part of society in previous schemes is interspersed with receptivity to pseudo-historical sensational “discoveries” that are far from science.

Tendencies are developing to transform history into an element of “media culture,” which is actively and successfully promoted by the media.

Government support for natural sciences is visible. And this belittles the importance of the humanities.

But the development of society requires answers to the emerging problems of our time.

Now the task of not just writing historical works on this or that topic is coming to the fore, but creating a history verified by large and reliable databases.The historical community is divided into various status groups. There is academic science, there is university science, historical knowledge is “produced” by various structures (centers, foundations, institutions). Historical assessments are given and replicated not only by historians, but also by journalists and philologists; sometimes writers who are far from professional make their contribution to the situation. Besidesthe use of Internet resources hasdual character - they are capable, with a properly organized search, of providing important information, but this information is often unreliable and often contains errors and falsifications. There must be verified banks and databases created by the scientific community and young researchers.

By now, a new subject area of ​​history has taken shape quite clearly. – post-Soviet period. Refusal of the Marxist interpretation of history sometimes reaches extreme forms of denial of the theory of progress, the forward movement of world history in general. An experienced teacher also uses the works of classics (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. Lenin) in his work.

Sergey Pavlovich Karpov, Dean of the Faculty of History, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences wrote: “ In the training of historians, the most important place is occupied by general humanitarian training and the education of students. The practice of recent years shows that along with the widespread introduction of the Internet into education, everyday life, and even into the communication system of young people, there is an obvious decline in literacy and erudition. This is facilitated by the Internet resources themselves, which are replete with gross spelling and syntactic errors, and the deplorable state of studying the Russian language and literature in high school, which is aggravated by the abolition of the essay as an entrance test to universities, and its replacement by the ineffective and formal Unified State Examination in the Russian language. This has already given rise to a disdainful attitude among applicants and students towards the classics, towards the culture of words. The penetration of computer slang into everyday speech, into reports, essays, term papers and diploma essays has also become a dangerous phenomenon.”

Speaking about the Bologna education system, he said that the reform led to simplification, homogenization and a decrease in the level of education. And in the field of writing and teaching history, the focus is not on systematicity, but on the search for the unusual. And the sacrifice becomes training, breadth of historical horizons.

The historical past of Russia forms an important part of the humanitarian space at different levels of public consciousness - from the political language of politicians to the everyday life of the population.And Russian historical sciencelags behind the modernization tasks of Russian society and education reforms. Why? Firstly, there is a noticeable generational “gap” in the corporation of historians. A generation of Soviet-style scientists has passed away, faculties have been reorganized, and the composition of the scientific community has changed for various reasons. And in general there has been a devaluation of history as a profession in market conditions.

Textbooks should be created by university and academic scientists, but under one condition: they must be tested by secondary school methodologists and school teachers. Because scientists know the current state of science, but do not sufficiently evaluate the psychology of schoolchildren. It is difficult for them to judge what a student will accept and what not. The ideal textbook is written by a school teacher and a scientist together. This is the type of textbook that will be the most interesting and adapted. But so far there are few such examples, because textbooks are written either by scientists or methodologists.

In addition to the textbook, you need a wholecomplex educational literature : reading book, anthology, atlases, teaching materials. For a school teacher, one textbook and one program are not enough. We must read additional literature, but not purely scientific literature. The teacher must be an expert in all history. Therefore, we need a book to read, an anthology that would reflect modern scientific achievements with interesting facts.

The Internet is, of course, important because you can get a lot of information from there. It is necessary to be able to select what is most important, because now the information flow is increasing. You need to be able to navigate and choose the main thing, because it is impossible to comprehend everything. I enjoy reading magazines such as “Rodina”, “Russian History”, and others that show the true history of our Motherland.

About two thousand years ago, the great Roman orator and philosopherMarcus Tulius Cicero said: “The first task of history is to refrain from lying, the second is not to conceal the truth, the third is not to give any reason to suspect oneself of bias or biased hostility.”

Textbook analysis:

The methodological apparatus of textbooks allows you to organize effective work in the classroom and at home. Textbook for grade 5 “History of the Ancient World” Vigasin A.A., Goder G.I. characterize:

1. scientific nature, accessibility and popularity of presentation in volumes that take into account the age of students;
2. contains excerpts from historical documents, which develops skills in working with historical written sources;
3. work with basic historical concepts and terms, as well as dates of the studied period of history, has been thought out;
4. a large number of bright illustrations, reproductions of historical paintings, architectural monuments of the era, giving a figurative idea of ​​culture and life.

Conclusion:

The guidelines in historical education should be professionalism, education of citizenship and patriotism through an objective analysis of events and facts, based on a general humanitarian culture. In the absence of a deep internal culture, imitation of foreign cultures increases, which inevitably dooms us to lag behind.

The key subject in teaching history, along with historiography and methodology, issource study. Tradition of scrupulous study of sources; respect for fact; the desire to find, study, describe and define specific Russian realities has been largely lost. But this scientific discipline is the foundation of historical analysis. There are few serious theoretical developments in this area, but there are an innumerable number of problems.

There must be a moral responsibility of the historian for the reliability and objectivity of information.

AGRONOMY SCIENCE IN THE XX CENTURY

In the science department of the Central Committee, the understanding of the groundlessness of T. D. Lysenko’s numerous promises and the pseudoscientific nature of his theoretical constructions is becoming more and more firmly established. By the end of the war, the country's leading scientists began to sharply oppose stagnation in biology. The organizer and leader of this movement was Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Belarusian SSR A.R. Zhebrak is a geneticist and plant breeder who in 1930-1931. Trained in the USA, including at the California Institute of Technology with one of the founders of genetics, creator of the chromosomal theory of heredity, President of the US National Academy of Sciences T. H. Morgan. Since 1934, A. R. Zhebrak headed the Department of Genetics at the Moscow Agricultural Academy. K. A. Timiryazeva. He understood that it was impossible to eliminate the difficult situation in Soviet science, to eliminate the monopoly position in it without the participation of the country's top leadership. The spokesman for the opinion of the post-war generation of young party workers on the development of biological science is Yu. A. Zhdanov, appointed head of the science department of the Propaganda and Agitation Directorate of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. His own high position and the support of his father A. A. Zhdanov, the secretary of the Central Committee, allowed his son to take a relatively independent line in the leadership of science in the initial period of his activity. He undoubtedly carefully studied materials on biology from the archives of the Secretariat of the Central Committee, knew about the critical attitude towards T. D. Lysenko of a number of members of the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee, and the appeals of scientists to the Central Committee of the party.

This was facilitated by external and internal factors. External factors included the strengthening of international cooperation, as a natural continuation of the military and political interaction of the great powers within the framework of the anti-Hitler coalition. Cooperation in the military and scientific fields required the interaction of the scientific forces of the world community. T.D. Lysenko, due to his archaic scientific views, was not ready for such cooperation, so he prevented this in every possible way. The prospects for the development of the country's national economy also objectively required an increase in the role of truly scientific research, which was facilitated by the arrival of new scientific personnel to the leadership. In addition, his brother went over to the side of the occupiers and after the war remained in the West, and S. I. Vavilov, the brother of N. I. Vavilov, came to lead the USSR Academy of Sciences.

For these reasons, at the end of 1947 - beginning of 1948, discussions on the problems of genetics and Darwinism intensified. In November-December 1947, at the Faculty of Biology of Moscow State University and in the Department of Biological Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences, meetings were held to discuss the problems of intraspecific struggle, in In February 1948, a conference on the problems of Darwinism was held at Moscow State University. At these meetings, the fallacy of T. D. Lysenko’s theoretical positions and the agricultural methods he proposed, which were detrimental to agriculture, were again noted.

In connection with the controversy that unfolded on the pages of the American magazine “Science” about the situation in Soviet biology, A. R. Zhebrak addresses a long letter to G. M. Malenkov, in which he, to raise the

Main problems:

1. The essence of the world-historical process and its study in the system of humanities.

2. Features of the study of history: subject, sources, methods, concepts, functions of historical knowledge.

3. Specifics of studying the history of Russia:

a) in Russian historiography of the 18th – early 20th centuries;

b) in the Soviet era (problems of ideological influence on science);

c) in modern Russian science.

4. Ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs and its study in historical science.

5. Prerequisites and features of the formation of the Old Russian state.

Topics of reports and abstracts:

1. Historical ideas and schools of Antiquity, the Middle Ages and Modern times.

2. Modern Western historical schools and concepts.

3. Soviet historical science: the contradiction between partisanship and objectivity.

4. Hypotheses about the influence of cosmic cycles on the history of mankind.

5. Auxiliary historical disciplines: historiography, source studies, archeology, heraldry, numismatics, etc.

Basic concepts: history, historical process, chronotope, historicism, objectivity, the principle of alternativeness in history, formation, civilization

Names of the main representatives of historical science and philosophy of history: Herodotus, G. Scaliger, G.Z. Bayer, G. Hegel, N.M. Karamzin, P.Ya. Chaadaev, S.M. Soloviev, M.N. Pokrovsky, R. Pipes, A.N. Sakharov.

Literature[main – 1 – 15; additional – 2, 4, 12]

Seminar 2. Formation of Old Russian statehood (IX – XII centuries)

Main problems:

1. The state of Kievan Rus of the 9th – first half of the 12th century: socio-economic and political development.

2. Historical conditionality of the adoption of Christianity. Baptism of Rus'. The role of Orthodoxy in the formation of the culture and moral values ​​of the Russian people.

3. Political fragmentation of Kievan Rus: prerequisites and essence of the process. Russian lands and principalities in the 12th – 13th centuries: features of socio-economic development and political structure (Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod and other lands)

4. Culture of Rus' IX - first half of the XIII century.

Topics of reports and abstracts:

1. The question of the origin of the Old Russian state: Disputes around the “Norman theory”.

2. Paganism of the Eastern Slavs

3. The Baptism of Rus' and the problem of dual faith in the spiritual life of the ancient Russians.

4. The emergence of monasteries in Kievan Rus and their influence on the morality and culture of ancient Russian society.

5. The main architectural monuments of Pre-Mongol Rus'.

6. Literature of Ancient Rus' XI - early XIII centuries.

7. Metropolitan Hilarion and his “Sermon on Law and Grace.”

Basic concepts: ethnogenesis, “Norman theory”, Polyudye, “Russian Truth”, veche, Cyrillic alphabet, cross-domed style, paganism, Orthodoxy, dual faith.

Main historical figures: Rurik, Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, Hilarion, Nestor the Chronicler.

Literature[main – 1 – 15; additional – 1, 6 – 8, 11 – 13, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25]

Lecture 1. History of the Fatherland.

“Respect for the past is the trait that distinguishes civilization from savagery.”
(A.S. Pushkin)

INTRODUCTORY

Plan

1. The role of historical education in the training of university-level specialists.
2. Subject, content, sources of the course "National History". Domestic historiography in the past and present.
3. Methodology of historical science: on the formational and civilizational approach to the study of history.

Literature

Afanasyev Yu.N. Instead of an introduction // Soviet society: emergence, development, historical finale. T.1. - M.: RSUH, 1997.
Gumilev L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. - M., 1989.
Danilevsky I.N. and others. Source study. Theory, history, method. Sources of Russian history: Uch. allowance For humanitarian specialties. - M.: RSUH, 1998.
History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the 19th century: Course of lectures / Ed. prof. B.V.Lichman. Ed. 3rd, add. - Ekaterinburg, 1994.
Klyuchevsky V.O. About Russian history. - M., 1993.
Methodology of history. Textbook for university students. - Minsk, 1996.
Problems of historical knowledge: Materials of the international conference in Moscow on May 19-21, 1996 - M., 1999.
Savelyeva I.M., Poletaev A.V. History and time in search of the lost. - M., 1997.
Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations. - M., 1995.
Soviet historiography. Series: Russia of the twentieth century. - M.: RSUH, 1996.
Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. - M., 1991.

1. The story has always aroused wide public interest. In the last decade and a half, there has been an explosion of general attention to the Russian past. The condition for the increased interest in the country's past was the policy of openness implemented by the state. In accordance with this policy, new archival documents, previously prohibited publications by domestic and foreign historians, became available to the general public.

A young person acquires the ability to understand all the published historical diversity as a result of historical education. The state formation of Russia in recent years has strengthened the humanitarian component in university education. This will allow the future specialist to acquire in-depth knowledge of Russian history.
Historical knowledge is one of the most important components of human culture, and in the absence of this component, human education cannot be considered complete. Without knowledge of history, as social practice shows, there is not and cannot be a complete and coherent system of philosophical, economic and socio-political views. According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, “... you can not know thousands of sciences and still be an educated person; but only a person who is completely undeveloped mentally can not love history” (Chernyshevsky N.G. Complete collection of works: In 15 volumes - T.11. - M., 1949. - P.549).
The study of history gives people historicism of thinking - one of the prerequisites for active, purposeful activity of the individual.
The emerging democratic society in Russia creates a stable social need for historical knowledge. It is historical knowledge that carries the function of social self-awareness of society, its social memory. Society's refusal or oblivion of its history, of everything that constituted the meaning and purpose of the activities of previous generations, gives rise to groundlessness and loss of historical memory. History is the collective memory of a people. To kill the memory of a people means to kill the people themselves, to turn them into a mankurt.
Another social function of historical knowledge is the need for social foresight. It is historical knowledge that saves us from fatalism and shows us the ways of self-development of society. V.O. Klyuchevsky notes the instructiveness of historical experience and the danger of neglecting it. History teaches even those who do not learn from it: it teaches them teaches a lesson for ignorance and neglect. Whoever acts in addition to it or in spite of it always in the end regrets his attitude in it" (Klyuchevsky V.O. Letters. Diaries. Aphorisms and thoughts about history. - M., 1986. - P. 266).
Turning to history and the past is determined, first of all, by the need to better understand the present, to “look” into the future. It was this property of historical knowledge that V.G. Belinsky pointed out, noting that “we question and interrogate the past so that it explains the present to us and hints to us about the future” (Belinsky V.G. Complete collection of works. - M., 1956. T.10. - P.18).
The educational potential of history is great. The complex of historical knowledge influences the formation of people's worldview. The course of "National History" in this sense is aimed at educating patriots, respecting the past of their homeland and its critical understanding. Russia will not be prosperous and democratic until we learn to value it not only for what it will become Tomorrow, but also what she was yesterday.

1. So what is history? For a long time, history was considered not as a science, but rather as a literature and art. It is no coincidence that in Greek mythology one of the muses was considered the patroness of history, depicted as a young woman with a spiritual face and with a scroll of papyrus or parchment in her hand. The name of the muse of history - Clio - comes from the Greek word “I glorify”. The first chronicles, chronicles, and biographies mainly glorified the rulers. The word "history" (Greek) means narratives of events and is currently used in two senses: 1) to denote the process of development of human society over time; 2) when it comes to science studying this process. It became a science in the modern sense of the word in the 18th century. In modern historical literature there are up to 30 definitions of the subject of history as a science. The definition of the subject of history is connected with the worldview of the historian, his philosophical views.

Whatever ideological positions historians hold, they all use scientific apparatus and certain scientific categories in their research. The most important of them category "historical time" (including periodization). In this category, any event can be measured by temporal and spatial characteristics. History as a process - this is not just a set of nearby point events, but rather a movement from event to event. Historical science deals with facts that form the basis of historical knowledge. It is on facts that ideas and concepts are based. The historian gives a fact a certain meaning, which depends on his general scientific and ideological-theoretical views. There is therefore a variety interpretation historical facts. This allows us to have a diverse view of the facts, which brings us closer to the truth. Since absolute truth does not exist, the movement of science goes from incomplete, relative truth to more complete truth.
That is, history as a science begins when we move from the description and retelling of events to their explanation. Studying history means explaining the events and processes of the past, clarifying cause-and-effect relationships, taking into account objective and subjective factors of the historical process. The dialectics of objective and subjective in the historical process always provide the possibility of alternative options for its outcome.
This approach to the study of history is based on the following fundamental principles:
Scientificity and objectivity- study of the totality of facts related to the issue in their interrelation, inconsistency, and interaction. This eliminates the idea of ​​historical facts and phenomena as a chaos of accidents and reveals a pattern.
The principle of historicism- study of historical processes, phenomena, facts, taking into account the specific historical situation, in chronological order.
Creative approach to studying the subject- means taking into account new trends, phenomena of social development, and rejecting dogmatism.
Thus, subject of history is the study of society as a result of the activities of people (both individual and social groups, classes, nations), objective and subjective factors in the formation and development of the historical process, a complex multifaceted one, consisting of various flows: common and united, opposite and contradictory. The content of the course "Domestic History" will be the history of Russia as an integral part of the world community.
All historical sources, on the basis of which we obtain specific historical data, that is, historical knowledge, can be divided into 6 groups:

1. The largest group of sources is written sources(ancient inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, dishes, etc.; birch bark letters, manuscripts on papyrus, parchment, paper, printed materials, etc.).
2. Physical monuments(tools, coins, weapons, jewelry, household items, dishes, clothing, architectural structures, etc.).
3. Ethnographic monuments from the ancient life of various peoples.
4. Folklore materials- monuments of oral folk art.
5. Linguistic monuments- geographical names, personal names, etc.
6. Film and photo documents.

Studying all types of sources together allows us to recreate a fairly complete and reliable picture of the historical process.
The presence of different approaches to the study of history explains different interpretations of the historical process. It is necessary to take into account the specific nature of historical science, which, to a greater extent than natural science, depends on the ideological situation in society, and for which the monopoly of one or another ideology on spiritual dominance in society is destructive.
Domestic historiography The first written sources - chronicles - open. The review of Russian history was begun by the ancient Russian chronicler Nestor (XI - early XII centuries), the author of the first edition of "The Tale of Bygone Years" ("Where did the Russian Land come from").
With the formation of the Russian state with its center in Moscow, there is a need to determine its place among other countries, to substantiate the origin, inviolability and eternity of the tsarist autocracy. In 1560-63. An attempt is made to write the history of the country by publishing the “Degree Book,” where history is presented as a change of principalities and reigns.
During the formation of the empire of Peter I, "the chick of Petrov's nest" - Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev(1686-1750) in his work “Russian History from Ancient Times” (in 4 books) - makes the first attempt to create a generalizing work on the history of Russia. He introduced many new sources into scientific circulation: “Russian Truth”, “Code Code of 1550”, a number of chronicles. In his work he proves the usefulness of autocracy, the harm of aristocratic rule, and the need for obedience to the king. A review of the events of his work covers from Scythian times to the end of the 16th century. (reign of Ivan the Terrible). Thus, in the era of Peter I, the history of Russia was comprehended as the history of the Russian state.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin(1766-1826), being the founder of Russian sentimentalism, publisher of popular magazines ("Moscow Journal", "Bulletin of Europe"), devoted his main work to history - "History of the Russian State" in 12 volumes. His concept is “statehood”: Russia is a huge country and its political system should be a monarchy. According to Karamzin, the successes of the autocracy determined the well-being of Rus'; periods of decline of the autocratic regime brought troubles to the country. Using positive and negative examples of the rule of Russian monarchs, he wanted to teach how to reign for the benefit of the people.
Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev(1820-1879) defined a whole stage of historical science in the 19th century. His work “History of Russia from Ancient Times” (in 29 volumes) is significant in content and abundance of sources used; it examines the development of Russian statehood from Rurik to Catherine II. Considering statehood to be the main force of the social process, he recognized the internal conditionality and regularity of the historical process, successes in the development of statehood, did not attribute to the tsar, autocracy, and attached importance to nature and the geographical environment in history. All phenomena in history were explained by internal causes.
Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky(1841-1911) - follower of Solovyov’s ideas. In the “Course of Russian History” (in 5 volumes), V.O. Klyuchevsky was the first among Russian historians to move away from periodization according to the reigns of monarchs. In his opinion, history is divided into periods: Dnieper, Upper Volga, Moscow or Great Russian, All-Russian. Klyuchevsky’s theoretical construction is based on the triad: “the human personality, human society and the nature of the country.” The main place in the "Course of Russian History" is occupied by questions of the socio-economic history of Russia. The term “people” is used in an ethnic and ethical sense. Gives vivid characteristics of historical figures, an original interpretation of sources, and a broad presentation of the cultural life of Russian society.
At the end of the 19th century. As a result of the spread of Marxism in Russia, a new interpretation of the facts of Russian history appears. The starting point of the concept is the socio-economic predetermination of the development of society, and the historical process is interpreted as a change in socio-economic formations as a result of the class struggle. The Marxist concept of history is created Mikhail Nikolaevich Pokrovsky(1868-1922). It is reflected in his work “Russian History from Ancient Times” (in 5 volumes). M. Pokrovsky is considered the founder of the school of Soviet historians. Despite the dominance of the Marxist concept in Soviet historiography, a number of historians worked fruitfully, solving problems: the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, the origin and development of Russian statehood, the history of Russian culture, etc. The initial centuries of Russian history were studied by B.A. Rybakov, A.P. Novoseltsev, I. Y. Froyanov, P. P. Tolochko, L. N. Gumilyov; the Middle Ages - A.A. Zimin, V.B. Kobrin, D.A. Alshits, R.G. Skrynnikov, A.L. Khoroshkevich; the era of Peter's transformations - N.I. Pavlenko, V.I. Buganov, E.V. Anisimov; history of Russian culture - D.S. Likhachev, M.N. Tikhomirov, A.M. Sakharov, B.I. Krasnobaev and others. Many works of these authors were published and received recognition not only in our country, but also abroad. A unique historical concept in historical science is confirmed by the works Lev Nikolaevich Gumilev(1912-1992). Full member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Doctor of Geographical Sciences and Doctor of Historical Sciences, created a new direction of science - ethnology, lying at the intersection of several branches of knowledge: history, ethnography, psychology and biology. L. Gumilev wrote about the Huns, Turks, Khazars, Mongols, Russians. Among his monographs one can highlight: “Geography of an Ethnic Group in the Historical Period”, “Ethnogenesis and Biosphere of the Earth”, “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe”, “From Rus' to Russia”, etc.
Among historians and works of recent years, the research of Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of Moscow State University is of particular interest. M.V. Lomonosova Lyudmila Ivanovna Semennikova. In his work “Russia in the World Community of Civilizations,” the author gives his view on the peculiarities of choosing the path of development of the country, comparing its history with the countries of the West and the East.
A characteristic feature of the state of historical science at the present stage is the phenomenon of “blank spots”. We are surprised to learn that much of our historical information is false and does not correspond to what happened. Another circumstance characteristic of modern historiography was the change in the idealization of the Soviet period of history, accompanied by the “denigration” of the pre-October period, and the exact opposite trend - the idealization of the pre-October period and the “denigration” of the Soviet period. This gives rise to doubt about the objectivity of historical knowledge and indicates its dependence on political or other conditions.
It must be admitted that it has not yet been possible to create a multi-conceptual history of Russia in the twentieth century.

1. An important place in the study of history is given to the methodology of historical science. It defines the "path of inquiry." The methodology of history studies the nature, principles and methods of historical knowledge.

All countries of the world have their own directions, which are called “schools”, methodologies for the study of history.
In American historical science, the direction of psychohistory is popular, which makes it possible to identify the mental motivation of historical processes and create a psychological concept of personality. The direction of the French school "Annals" is very influential in Western historical science. Proponents of this school view history as the interaction of three basic elements of society - economic structure, social organization and culture. A special role is given to individual and mass consciousness in the functioning of social systems. Proponents of this direction strive to approach the understanding of society as an integrity.
In modern historical science of Germany, the neoliberal direction is playing an increasingly important role, which includes elements of different methodologies, including Marxism, in order to adequately reflect the complexity of historical development. There is an awareness of the great and enduring value of the spiritual heritage of Europe, as a guideline for reaching the end of the twentieth century. From the crisis of all humanity, Western civilization is turning from European to global.
In modern Russia, as in the methodology of historical sciences of the CIS countries, the problem of the relationship between formational, civilizational and technological approaches is currently relevant. This problem arose in connection with the crisis of the concept of formational society, which dominated Soviet historical science, and the active introduction of civilizational and information approaches.
What does a formational approach to the study of history mean? It is based on the theory of K. Marx, according to which the primary role in determining formations is associated with the mode of production, forms of ownership and social-class relations. Social development was defined as the process of transition from lower formations to a higher one, a society of social justice. There are five formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, socialist, the final result of which will be the construction of communism. However, the formational approach gave rise to many questions and inconsistencies in the study of the diversity of human history. The peculiarities of countries and peoples with their stable social ties and structure were ignored (for example, China - what formation at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries?). The revolutionary path through the class struggle of changing formations was absolutized, microanalysis at the level of community, family, individual and people's worldview, their psychology, spiritual values ​​was underestimated.
In connection with the departure of some historians from the Marxist interpretation of history, interest in the civilizational concept, developed in the works of N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, increased. The concept of civilization appeared in the 18th century. as a synonym for the concept of "culture".
N.Ya.Danilevsky(1822-1885) in his work “Russia and Europe. A look at the cultural and political relations of the Slavic world to the Germanic world” (1869) formulated the idea of ​​local civilizations. They, like a living organism, go through the stages of birth, maturity, decrepitude, and death.
Civilization concept A. Toynbee(1885-1975), an English historian and sociologist, was developed in his 12-volume work “Comprehension of History”. He divided the world-historical process into 21 relatively closed civilizations that went through all stages of their development.
What is civilization? Civilization (Latin "civilis" - civil, state) - a historically established set of material and spiritual culture, social system, way of life, system of values ​​and norms of behavior of a particular people, society or an entire era. This is one of many existing definitions of the concept of civilization. Among the variety of civilizational flows throughout the studied history of mankind, the author of the book “Russia in the World Community of Civilizations” - L.I. Semennikova introduces a larger unit of analysis - the type of civilization. Types of civilizations are determined by a set of characteristics that reflect those characteristic of many and special for existing societies (See: Semennikova L.I., op. cit., p. 39). The following types of civilizations are distinguished: non-progressive, cyclical (eastern), European (western). The main features, features, and peculiarities of these types of civilizations are given in the above-mentioned work by L.I. Semennikova (p. 40-80).
The civilizational approach to the study of history allows us to include man as the highest value of historical knowledge, to take into account the material, spiritual, cultural and religious characteristics of various societies in their historical continuity. The civilizational approach has its drawbacks: some subjectivity and speculativeness, complexity, and sometimes the impossibility of synchronous comparison and ideas about the progressive development of world history.
Noteworthy is the technological approach to understanding history, which is based on one or another level of technical production. His concept of “post-industrial society” was opposed to the change of social formations through social progress.
The information approach has become widespread (England, the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavian countries). It is associated with the computerization of research work and the emergence of historical computer science. In all the variety of methodological approaches, a combination of them, rather than mutual exclusion, may be reasonable.