The poetic devices of metaphor and personification are different. The history of the emergence of personification

Speech is a powerful means of influencing the human psyche and at the same time a subtle tool for shaping the worldview. The expressiveness of speech is achieved in many ways, including the active use of tropes - words and expressions used in an indirect, figurative sense. Such a transfer is always based on similarity, which can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent depending on the purpose of speech and its figurative structure.

Metaphor and comparison are considered the most common in live speech and artistic literary texts.

Definition

Metaphor- a word or expression endowed with an indirect meaning, which consists in comparing the objects of speech based on the similarity of external features or internal content.

personification- tropes, thanks to which the properties of character and characteristics of human behavior are transferred to inanimate objects or animals according to the similarity of manifestations in subjective perception: howling wind(sound similarity) birch bows its head(similarity in type of movement).

Comparison

Metaphorical images are born as an indirect comparison, which implies, but does not name, common features or qualities of speech objects. Metaphor is always associative. Its content is ambiguous and multifaceted. The perception and understanding of a metaphor depends on the ability to feel the difference between the direct meaning of the statement and the hidden subtext, which is the content value of the metaphorical image.

The personification has a simpler structure and directly names the features or actions characteristic of a person, transferred to the world of inanimate objects or objects and phenomena of wildlife.

In personification, the figurative meaning of the keyword is obvious: the road is dormant, that is, it is at rest, no one travels along it. The wind makes sounds similar to howling. The horizon is a conditional line that cannot be reached at any speed of movement.

The metaphorical meaning is much more complex. It unfolds into a multi-step phrase: the expression “shivered the quagmire” evokes associations with cold, autumn dampness, the onset of winter, the uncomfortableness of the November landscape, and with the fact that some truly bright period filled with joy and vivid sensations ends in life. The external sign of a trembling swampy area is transferred to the sphere of psychological perception of unkind changes and creates in the imagination a picture far from the real one, not at all connected with either the quagmire or the autumn cold.

Findings site

1. A metaphor is a trope in which the transfer of meaning does not contain a direct indication of the object of comparison. Personification refers to a specific human quality or action transferred to an inanimate object of speech.
2. Metaphor has a more complex structure than personification.
3. The impersonation is clear. The metaphor is ambiguous and in many cases can be interpreted in accordance with subjective perception.

Both metaphor and personification are similar, but differ in their own way. Most often they personify an inanimate object, comparing it with a person, with a person. Metaphor is applicable to absolutely everything, it enhances and emphasizes the properties of an object or the character of a person, for example.

A metaphor is a transfer of meaning from one word to another according to the similarity of signs, - Pushkin put it while we are burning with freedom - we are burning and there is a sign of a metaphor, that is, an alien must be explained that we strive and strongly desire freedom. And the personification is a kind of metaphor, here natural phenomena or inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of living beings. Yesenin mastered this brilliantly - the hands of a sweetheart are a pair of swans, they dive in the gold of my hair.

How much is there in one ... In the question, the personification in some kind of hidden comparison, floats, moves with an air stream. If clouds, like white geese, floated across the blue lake of the sky, then you can take it apart, but a lot of things can float and not a fact - alive.

Personification is also a metaphor to some extent, but it is based

Personification is used to describe nature. Perhaps this is the main distinguishing feature. You can see what examples of metaphors and personification are in the text of famous works here.

In order to distinguish metaphor from personification, let's look at the definitions of these two means of linguistic expression. Metaphor- this is a word or expression used in a figurative sense, which consists in comparing objects or phenomena that have similar characteristics. personification- This is a literary device in which the features of behavior, properties of a person's character are assigned to inanimate objects according to the principle of similarity of manifestations. Metaphor and personification are artistic tropes.

The difference between metaphor and personification

1. In a metaphor, the transfer of meaning does not have a direct reference to the object being compared. In personification is called the quality of a person or his action, transferred to an inanimate object.
2. The metaphor is ambiguous, in many cases it can be interpreted differently in connection with the subjective perception of reality. The impersonation is clear.
3. Metaphor has a more complex structure than personification.

Expression the cloud floats It's a metaphor, not a personification. Not only a person can swim, but also an inanimate object (ship, boat, straw, plastic, etc.).

The main features of metaphors and personifications are known to us from school, but for clarity, I will give their brief definitions:

metaphor called the use of a word or several words when the author uses a figurative meaning, guided by the similarity of one phenomenon or object to another according to any of the selected features. For example: the dawn of life.

personified called a trope, the essence of which is that the author ascribes to one or another inanimate phenomenon or object one or another property of a living being. For example: the wind is howling.

As we can see, metaphor and personification, in fact, are in hyperonymic-hyponymic lexical relations. If it is simpler, then personification is a kind of metaphor (very often - a dry, petrified metaphor).

A cloud floats is not a personification, since not only a living being can float, but also a piece of paper, a straw or a burnt match. But since the main meaning of the verb to swim is to move on or in the water, and the cloud is not in the water, the combination cloud float is a path. This is a metaphor. Fairly dry, from a linguistic point of view.

A metaphor is just an enhancement of some quality of the subject or hero of the story in order to emphasize this characteristic. And personification is when an initially inanimate or fictional creature acquires the properties of a living person.

An example of impersonation: A birch in the forest began to whisper with other trees from the gentle swaying of the wind.

An example of a metaphor: The birch was whiter than snow, it was hard to look at. (the example is weak, but I hope you understand the logic).

Let's start with personification. Personification is an artistic device (tropes) in literature, when an inanimate object is endowed with the properties of a living being. For example: an icicle is crying (that is, melting) - a child is crying; the volcano woke up - the owner woke up; Man rests, nature rests.

Metaphor, as an artistic trope, is based on the transfer of the properties of one object to another according to the principle of their SIMILARITY in something (there are some points of intersection in the lexical sense, function, form, color, etc. of two phenomena). Here are examples of metaphors:

1) in shape: a haystack - a head of hair;

2) in direction, outlines: the sole of the shoe is the sole of the mountain; a mushroom cap is an elegant hat;

3) by function: our wiper -- car wipers;

4) by color: rose petals -- rose-colored glasses, etc.

By and large, personification is a kind of metaphor, but it appears when, as I noted above, the qualities or actions of a living person are attributed to an inanimate object. In my opinion, the concept of metaphor is much broader than personification.

The cloud floats - the ship floats. I would attribute this phrase to a metaphor: as a ship floats along the sea plain, so the cloud floats across the blue sky, similar to the ocean.

Personification and metaphor are tropes that are used to give expressiveness to a literary text.

Personification is understood as such a technique when inanimate objects and animals are endowed with the features and properties of a person.

For example: Willow is crying.

Spring came.

A metaphor is understood as such a technique when a word is used in a figurative sense to emphasize the similarity with another object or phenomenon.

For example: Golden braids.

Sunny smile.

Music of the waves.

The sentence The cloud floats is more of a metaphor, the cloud is compared to a ship. And not only animate objects can swim, so this is not a personification.

Metaphor and personification have, let's say, the same function, but different meanings.

Personification (Personification) has the ability to revive inanimate objects, improving their quality. When, for example, some inanimate object can be revived in this way, for example:

AND Metaphor can paint anything Metaphor- this is the transfer of a phenomenon or objects of reality to others, there must be contrast between them. Here is an example:

And on your question, the cloud floats, the answer will be different, depending on the sentence in which it is written.

• Both of these belong to tropes, they give poetic imagery to the narrative. It can be difficult to distinguish, but not for those who understand that personification - when the qualities or actions of a living person are attributed to an inanimate object - feel this definition.

  • the window breathes, the living pattern, the grove dissuaded, time flies, the river rises, the sound of the waves, blind fury, the tongue limps, etc.

  And the metaphor is primarily built on associations of similar features, to some extent synonymous amplifications:

  • an icy heart, iron nerves, a diamond eye, a hare about a stowaway, a sunny smile, a golden grove, labyrinths of love, bronze muscles, and so on.

Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons - all these are means of artistic expression, actively used in the Russian literary language. There is a huge variety of them. They are necessary in order to make the language bright and expressive, to enhance artistic images, to draw the reader's attention to the thought that the author wants to convey.

What are the means of artistic expression?

Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons belong to different groups of means of artistic expression.

Linguists distinguish sound or phonetic visual means. Lexical - those that are associated with a specific word, that is, a lexeme. If the expressive means covers a phrase or a whole sentence, then it is syntactic.

Separately, they also consider phraseological means (they are based on phraseological units), tropes (special turns of speech used in a figurative sense).

Where are the means of artistic expression used?

It should be noted that the means of artistic expression are used not only in literature, but also in various areas of communication.

Most often, epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons can be found, of course, in artistic and journalistic speech. They are also present in colloquial and even scientific styles. They play a huge role, as they help the author to bring his artistic idea, his image to life. They are also helpful to the reader. With their help, he can penetrate the secret world of the creator of the work, better understand and delve into the author's intention.

Epithet

Epithets in poetry are one of the most common literary devices. Surprisingly, an epithet can be not only an adjective, but also an adverb, a noun, and even a numeral (a common example is second Life).

Most literary critics consider the epithet as one of the main techniques in poetic creativity, decorating poetic speech.

If we turn to the origins of this word, then it comes from the ancient Greek concept, meaning "attached" in literal translation. That is, which is an addition to the main word, the main function of which is to make the main idea clearer and more expressive. Most often, the epithet comes before the main word or expression.

Like all means of artistic expression, epithets developed from one literary era to another. So, in folklore, that is, in folk art, the role of epithets in the text is very large. They describe the properties of objects or phenomena. They highlight their key features, while extremely rarely refer to the emotional component.

Later, the role of epithets in literature changes. It is expanding significantly. This means of artistic expression is given new properties and filled with previously uncharacteristic functions. This is especially noticeable among the poets of the Silver Age.

Nowadays, especially in postmodern literary works, the structure of the epithet has become even more complicated. The semantic content of this trope has also increased, leading to surprisingly expressive devices. For example: diaper golden.

Function of epithets

The definitions of epithet, metaphor, personification, comparison come down to one thing - all these are artistic means that give salience and expressiveness to our speech. Both literary and colloquial. A special function of the epithet is also a strong emotionality.

These means of artistic expression, and especially epithets, help readers or listeners to visualize what the author is talking about or writing about, to understand how he relates to this subject.

Epithets serve to realistically recreate a historical era, a particular social group or people. With their help, we can imagine how these people spoke, what words colored their speech.

What is a metaphor?

Translated from the ancient Greek language, a metaphor is a "meaning transfer". This is the best way to characterize this concept.

A metaphor can be either a single word or a whole expression, which is used by the author in a figurative sense. This means of artistic expression is based on a comparison of an object that has not yet been named with some other one based on their common feature.

Unlike most other literary terms, metaphor has a specific author. This is the famous philosopher of ancient Greece - Aristotle. The original birth of this term is associated with Aristotle's ideas about art as a method of imitating life.

At the same time, those metaphors used by Aristotle are almost impossible to distinguish from literary exaggeration (hyperbole), ordinary comparison or personification. He understood metaphor much more broadly than contemporary literary scholars.

Examples of the use of metaphor in literary speech

Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons are actively used in works of art. Moreover, for many authors, it is metaphors that become an aesthetic end in themselves, sometimes completely displacing the original meaning of the word.

As an example, literary researchers cite the famous English poet and playwright William Shakespeare as an example. For him, what is often important is not the worldly initial meaning of a particular statement, but the metaphorical meaning it acquires, a new unexpected meaning.

For those readers and researchers who were brought up on the Aristotelian understanding of the principles of literature, this was unusual and even incomprehensible. So, on this basis, Leo Tolstoy did not recognize the poetry of Shakespeare. His point of view in 19th-century Russia was shared by many readers of the English playwright.

At the same time, with the development of literature, the metaphor begins not only to reflect, but also to create the life around us. A vivid example from classical Russian literature is Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol's story "The Nose". The nose of the collegiate assessor Kovalev, who went on his own journey around St. Petersburg, is not only a hyperbole, personification and comparison, but also a metaphor that gives this image a new unexpected meaning.

An illustrative example is the Futurist poets who worked in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Their main goal was to move the metaphor as far as possible from its original meaning. Such techniques were often used by Vladimir Mayakovsky. An example is the title of his poem "A Cloud in Pants".

At the same time, after the October Revolution, the use of metaphor became much less common. Soviet poets and writers strove for clarity and straightforwardness, so the need to use words and expressions in a figurative sense disappeared.

Although it is impossible to imagine a work of art, even of Soviet authors, without a metaphor at all. Words-metaphors are found in almost everyone. In Arkady Gaidar's "The Fate of a Drummer" you can find such a phrase - "So we parted. The clatter was silent, and the field is empty."

In the Soviet poetry of the 70s, Konstantin Kedrov introduced the concept of "meta-metaphor" or, as it is also called, "metaphor squared". The metaphor has a new distinctive feature - it is constantly involved in the development of the literary language. As well as speech and culture itself in general.

For this, metaphors are constantly used, talking about the latest sources of knowledge and information, using it to describe the modern achievements of mankind in science and technology.

personification

In order to understand what personification is in literature, let us turn to the origin of this concept. Like most literary terms, it has its roots in the ancient Greek language. In literal translation it means "face" and "I do". With the help of this literary device, natural forces and phenomena, inanimate objects acquire the properties and signs inherent in man. As if inspired by the author. For example, they can be given the properties of the human psyche.

Such techniques are often used not only in modern fiction, but also in mythology and religion, in magic and cults. Personification was a key means of artistic expression in legends and parables, in which the ancient man was explained how the world works, what is behind natural phenomena. They were animated, endowed with human qualities, associated with gods or superhumans. So it was easier for the ancient man to accept and understand the reality surrounding him.

Examples of personifications

To understand what personification is in literature, examples of specific texts will help us. So, in a Russian folk song, the author claims that "bast of grief girded".

With the help of personification, a special worldview appears. It is characterized by an unscientific view of natural phenomena. When, for example, thunder grumbles like an old man, or the sun is perceived not as an inanimate cosmic object, but as a specific god named Helios.

Comparison

In order to understand the main modern means of artistic expression, it is important to understand what comparison is in literature. Examples will help us with this. At Zabolotsky we meet: "He used to be sonorous, like a bird"or Pushkin: "He ran faster than a horse".

Very often comparisons are used in Russian folk art. So we clearly see that this is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another on the basis of some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to find in the described object new and important properties for the subject of artistic expression.

Metaphor, epithets, comparisons, personifications serve a similar purpose. The table in which all these concepts are presented helps to visually understand how they differ from each other.

Comparison types

Consider for a detailed understanding of what a comparison is in the literature, examples and varieties of this trope.

It can be used as a comparative turnover: the man is stupid as a pig.

There are non-union comparisons: My home is my castle.

Comparisons are often formed at the expense of a noun in the instrumental case. Classic example: he walks around.

In order to make a written text or speech bright, memorable and expressive, the authors use certain artistic techniques, traditionally called tropes and figures of speech. These include: metaphor, epithet, personification, hyperbole, comparison, allegory, paraphrase and other turns of speech, where words or expressions are used in a figurative sense to give more expressiveness to what was said.

What are epithets and metaphors

The most common in literary speech are epithets and metaphors.

The word "epithet" in Greek means "attached". That is, in the name itself there is already an explanation of the essence - this is a definition that figuratively characterizes an object or phenomenon. The sign, which is expressed by the epithet, is thus, as it were, attached to the object being described, it complements it in an emotional and even semantic sense.

In linguistics and lexicology, there is still no generally accepted theory that accurately explains what epithets and metaphors are. There are usually three types of epithets:

• general language - those that have stable, often used in literary speech connections (silver dew, bitter frost, etc.);
• folk poetic - used in folklore works (beautiful girl, sweet speech, good fellow, etc.);
• individually-author's - created by the authors (case considerations (A.P. Chekhov), scratching look (M. Gorky)).

Metaphors, unlike epithets, are not only one word, but also an expression that is used in a figurative sense. Metaphors are selected on the basis of the similarity or, conversely, the contrast of any phenomena or objects.

How and when to use metaphor

You can understand in more detail what epithets and metaphors are, as well as what is their difference, if you understand that the main requirement for using the latter is their originality, unusualness, ability to evoke emotional associations and help present some event or phenomenon.

Here is an example of a metaphorical description of the night sky in the story “Three” by M. Gorky: “The Milky Way spread like a silvery cloth across the sky from edge to edge, it was pleasant and sad to look at it through the branches of a tree.”

The use of template metaphors that have lost their originality and emotional richness from frequent use can reduce the quality of a work or spoken speech.

No less dangerous can be an excess, an abundance of metaphors. Speech in such cases becomes unnecessarily flowery and ornate, which can also disrupt its perception.

How to distinguish between metaphor and epithet

In works, it is sometimes quite difficult to distinguish exactly which tropes the author uses. To do this, you need to understand again in comparison what epithets and metaphors are.

Metaphor is a pictorial technique based on analogy, the transfer of meaning by similarity, similarity: “The morning laughed at the windows. Her eyes are dark agates."

The epithet is one of the cases of a metaphor, to put it more simply, an artistic definition (“Warm milky twilight, icy cold stars”).

Based on the foregoing, it is already possible to understand what a metaphor, epithet, personification is and find them in the above example: “It was seen how long needles were rushing from a cheerful blue sky, from a high smoky cloud, drops ...” (I. Bunin, “Little novel").

It is clear that metaphors were used in it (drops were carried by long needles), and epithets (from a smoky cloud) and personification (a cheerful blue sky).

Personification - a special metaphor-allegory

So what is a metaphor, epithet, personification? This, as you already understood, is a means of conveying the author's attitude to a phenomenon or object, a kind of peculiar colors that make it possible to make what is written or spoken bright and memorable.

And from this series, one can single out the personification - a special trope that has a long history, rooted in folk art. Personification is the same as allegory, the transfer of the properties of a living being to phenomena or objects.

One of the genres closest to folklore, the fable, is also built on the use of personification.

Unlike such tropes as metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification, this is also a very economical device. When applying it, one does not need to describe the subject in detail, it is enough to compare it with something already familiar to evoke the necessary associations: “And how pitiful are the huts of rural landless poor peasants, rooted in the ground, belly-deep in shabby straw!” (I. S. Sokolov-Mikitov, "Childhood").

What is comparison

It is impossible to imagine a work devoid of comparisons, comparisons of something with something, likening of one phenomenon to another, allowing to describe them more accurately, more figuratively and at the same time convey one's attitude towards them.

They masterfully mastered the art of applying epithets, metaphors, comparisons: “On the blue velvet of heaven, dotted with bright stars, the black patterns of foliage looked like someone’s arms outstretched to the sky in an attempt to reach its heights” (M. Gorky, “Three”).

Difficult Cases in Determining Comparison

Sometimes the expressive device described above - comparison - can be quite difficult to distinguish from cases where the sentence simply uses words with the conjunctions "like", "as if" and "as if", but with other purposes.

We repeat once again - epithets, metaphors, comparisons are paths that help to enrich, "color" what was said. This means that in the sentence “We saw how he slowly walked towards the forest” there is no comparison, there is only a union connecting the parts. In the sentence “We went out into the corridor, where it was dark and cold, like in a cellar” (I. Bunin) the comparison is explicit (cold, as in a cellar).

Ways of Expressing Comparison

And so that in a series of metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification, you can finally deal with each trope, let's linger a little more on the comparison.

It is expressed in different ways:

• with the help of turns with the words “like”, “exactly”, “as if”, etc. (“Her hair curled like a pea mustache”);
• or adverbs ("tongue sharper than a razor");
• the instrumental case of a noun (“love sang like a nightingale in the heart”);
• and also lexically (using the words “similar to”, “similar”, etc.).

What is hyperbole

From the use of such tropes as metaphor, epithet, comparison, hyperbole is distinguished by a special saturation, exaggeration of the essence. Many authors willingly use this technique: "He had a completely impassive, some kind of stone, rusty face."

The fairy-tale giants, and Thumbelina, and the Boy-with-a-finger, inhabiting fairy tales, can be attributed to hyperbolic techniques. And in epics, hyperbole is an indispensable attribute: the strength of the heroes is always exorbitant, and the enemy is fierce and countless.

Even in everyday speech one can find hyperbole: “We haven’t seen each other for a thousand years!” or "A sea of ​​tears has been shed."

Metaphor, epithet, comparison, hyperbole are often used in combination, giving rise to hyperbolic comparisons or personifications and metaphors (“it rained like a solid wall”).

The ability to use tropes will make your speech figurative and vivid.

At one time, V. G. Belinsky argued that speaking well and speaking correctly are not the same thing. After all, even impeccable, from the point of view of grammar, speech can be difficult to understand.

And from the above, you probably already understood what a metaphor, epithet, personification is, and that it is extremely important to be able to use these techniques. A thoughtful reading of the works of the classics will help you in this, since they can be considered the standard for applying all the stylistic richness of the Russian language.

Get a grasp of Gogol's lines: "Words... similar to flowers, just as gentle, bright and juicy...", in which the author was able to clearly convey his impression of the sound of the words in a small set. And remember that metaphor, hyperbole, epithet are the tools that will hone your speech, which means you need to learn how to use them!

Means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. The concept of a path. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

A trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.

The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

An epithet is a definition attached to a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (second life).

An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used in both poetry and prose.

Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (mother-Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature, without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.

Under us with a cast-iron roar
Bridges instantly rattle. (A. A. Fet)

Metaphor (“transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, a word or an expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs a function,

Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).

Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word.

In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (usual, erased metaphor).

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: "The hunger for books continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying."

A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."

Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M.A. Bulgakov);

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)

Comparison

Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to reveal new, important properties that are advantageous for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature). One of the distinguishing features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.

Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.

Comparison types

There are different types of comparisons:

Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as hell." Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the help of a noun in the instrumental case: "he walks like a gogol." Negative comparisons: "An attempt is not torture."

Crazy years, the extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);

Under it is a stream lighter than azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);

Metonymy

Metonymy (“renaming”, “name”) is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is indicated replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.

Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words “by adjacency” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, class representative instead of the whole class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa) and metaphor - “by similarity”. Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.

Example: "All flags will visit us", where "flags" means "countries" (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from the action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

In early Soviet literature, an attempt to maximize the use of metonymy both theoretically and practically was made by the constructivists, who put forward the principle of the so-called "locality" (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, their limitation by real dependence on the theme). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the promotion of metonymy at the expense of metaphor is illegitimate: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena that do not exclude, but complement each other.

Types of metonymy:

General language, general poetic, general newspaper, individual-author's, individual-creative.

Examples:

"Hand of Moscow"

"I ate three plates"

“Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there”

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a trope, a kind of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Usually used in synecdoche:

Singular instead of plural: "Everything is sleeping - both man, and beast, and bird." (Gogol);

Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);

A part instead of a whole: “Have you any need? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);

The generic name instead of the specific one: "Well, sit down, luminary." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);

The specific name instead of the generic one: "Better than all, take care of the penny." (Gogol) (instead of: money).

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (“transition; excess, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said. For example: "I've said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation depicted can also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of pathetic uplift, as well as the romantic style, where pathos is in contact with irony.

Examples:

Phraseological units and winged expressions

"sea of ​​tears"

"fast as lightning", "lightning fast"

"as numerous as the sand on the seashore"

“We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”

Prose

Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were blown up, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich

A million Cossack hats suddenly poured into the square. …

... for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.

N. Gogol. Taras Bulba

Poems, songs

About our meeting - what is there to say,
I waited for her, as they wait for natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of detrimental consequences!

Litotes

Litota, litotes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, so it is called inverse hyperbole in another way. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Many litots are phraseological units or idioms: “turtle pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

There is a litote in folk and literary tales: “Boy-with-a-finger”, “man-with-nail”, “girl-inch”.

Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing the assertion of some feature with an expression that denies the opposite feature. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “low”, “famous” - “notorious”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe", "good" - "not bad". In this meaning, litote is one of the forms of euphemism (a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.).

... and love for his wife will grow cold in him

Irony

Irony (“mockery”) is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of due, is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit `meaning`. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...” Here, positive statements have a negative connotation.

Forms of irony

Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the described phenomenon.

Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows the object of anti-irony to be underestimated.

Self-irony is irony directed at one's own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements can imply a reverse (positive) connotation. Example: "Where can we, fools, drink tea."

Socratic irony is a form of self-irony constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “not knowing the truth” subject.

An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various "generally recognized values" too seriously.

"Did you all sing? This is the case:
So come on, dance!" (I. A. Krylov)

Allegory

Allegory (narrative) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning.

Example: justice - Themis (a woman with scales).

The nightingale is sad at the defeated rose,
hysterically sings over the flower.
But the garden scarecrow is shedding tears,
who secretly loved the rose.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. two loves

Allegory is the artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific representations. Religion, love, soul, justice, strife, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of weights and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.

That with a quivering relish,
then a friend in the arms of the soul,
like a lily with a poppy,
kisses with the heart of the soul.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.

personification

Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a trope, the attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.

Examples:

And woe, woe, grief!
And grief girded itself with a bast,
Feet are entangled with bast.

folk song

The personification was widespread in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the work of the Oberiuts.

paraphrase

In stylistics and poetics, periphrase (paraphrase, periphrase; “descriptive expression”, “allegory”, “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.

Paraphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).

Often the paraphrase is used to descriptively express "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, the paraphrase is also a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M.; L .: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.

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