Who are the Vikings and where did they live? Historical background that led to the emergence of the Vikings in Europe.

In France they were called Normans, in Rus' - Vikings. Vikings - this is how the people who lived on the territory of present-day Norway, Denmark and Sweden called themselves from about 800 to 1100 AD. Wars and feasts are two favorite pastimes of the Vikings. Swift sea robbers on ships bearing sonorous names, for example, the "Ocean Bull", "Wind Raven", raided the coast of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and took tribute from the conquered.

Their desperate berserk warriors fought like mad, even without armor. Before the battle, the berserkers gnashed their teeth, biting the edges of their shields. To the cruel gods Vikings - the aces were pleased with the warriors who died in battle.

But it was these ruthless warriors who discovered the islands of Iceland (on ancient language- “ice land”) and Greenland (“green land”: then the climate there was warmer than now!). And the Viking leader Leif the Happy in 1000, sailing from Greenland, landed in North America, on the island of Newfoundland. The Vikings called the open land Vinland - "rich". Due to skirmishes with the Indians and among themselves, the Vikings soon left and forgot America, lost contact with Greenland.

And their songs about heroes and travelers have survived to our time - sagas and the Icelandic Althing parliament - the first popular assembly in Europe.

The beginning of the Viking Age is considered to be the year 793. This year there was a famous Norman attack on the monastery, located on the island of Lindisfarne (north-east of Great Britain). It was then that England, and soon the whole of Europe, learned about the terrible "northern people" and their dragon-headed ships. In 794 they "visited" the nearby island of Wearmus (there was also a monastery there), and in 802-806 they reached the Isles of Man and Iona (the west coast of Scotland)

Twenty years later, the Normans collected large army to go to England and France. In 825 the Vikings landed in England, and in 836 London was sacked for the first time. In 845, the Danes captured Hamburg, and the city was so ruined that the episcopate, located in Hamburg, had to be moved to Bremen. In 851, 350 ships again appeared off the coast of England, this time London and Canterbury were captured (and of course plundered).

In 866, several ships were carried by a storm to the coast of Scotland, where the Normans had to spend the winter. In the following year, 867, the new state of Danlo (Danelaw) was formed. It included Northumbria, East England, part of Essex and Mercia. Danlo existed until 878. At the same time, a large fleet attacked England again, London was again captured, and then the Normans moved to France. In 885, Rouen was captured, and Paris was under siege (in 845, in 857 and 861, Paris had already been sacked). Having received a ransom, the Vikings lifted the siege and withdrew to the northwestern part of France, which in 911 was transferred to the Norwegian Rollo. The region was named Normandy.

At the beginning of the tenth century, the Danes again tried to capture England, which they succeeded only in 1016. The Anglo-Saxons managed to throw off their power only after forty years, in 1050. But they did not have time to enjoy freedom. In 1066, a huge fleet under the command of William the Conqueror, a native of Normandy, attacked England. After the Battle of Hastings, the Normans took over England.

Map of Viking raids on England

In 861, the Scandinavians learned about Iceland from the Swede Gardar Svafarsson. Shortly thereafter, in 872, the unification of Norway by Harald Fairhair began, and many Norwegians fled to Iceland. According to some sources, between 20,000 and 30,000 Norwegians moved to Iceland before 930. Later they began to call themselves Icelanders, thus separating themselves from the Norwegians and other Scandinavian peoples.

In 983, a man named Eirik Raud (Redhead) was expelled from Iceland for murder for three years. He went in search of a country that was rumored to be seen to the west of Iceland. He managed to find this country, which he called Greenland ("Green Country"), which sounds rather strange in relation to this snowy and cold island. In Greenland, Eirik founded the settlement of Brattalid.

In 986, a certain Bjarni Bardsson sailed from Iceland, intending to get to Greenland. He stumbled across unknown land three times until he reached the southern coast of Greenland. Upon learning of this, Leif Eiriksson, the son of Eirik Raud, repeated Bjarni's journey, reaching the Labrador Peninsula. Then he turned south and, walking along the coast, found a place he called "Vinland" ("Grape Country"). Presumably this happened in the year 1000. According to the results of the work carried out by scientists, Leif Eiriksson's Vinland was located in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern Boston.

After the return of Leif, Thorvald Eiriksson, his brother, went to Vinland. He lived there for two years, but in one of the skirmishes with the local Indians he was mortally wounded, and his comrades had to return to their homeland.

Leif's second brother, Thorstein Eiriksson, also tried to reach Vinland, but he failed to find this land.
There were only about 300 homesteads in Greenland. The lack of forest created great difficulties for life. The forest grew on Labrador, which was closer than in Iceland, but everything needed had to be brought from Europe, due to the very difficult sailing conditions to Labrador. Settlements in Greenland existed until the 14th century.

Travel map of Eirik the Red and Leif Eiriksson

History of the Vikings

VIKINGS - (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia, who committed in the 9-11 centuries. hikes up to 8000 km long, maybe even long distances. These bold and fearless people reached the borders of Persia in the east, and the New World in the west.
The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "Vikingr". Regarding its origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which raises it to "vik" - a fiord, a bay. The word "Viking" (lit. "man from the fiord") was used to refer to robbers who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. They were known in Scandinavia long before they became notorious in Europe. The French called the Vikings Normans or various variants of this word (Norsmans, Nortmanns - lit. “people from the north”); the British called all Scandinavians indiscriminately Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Vikings.

Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, France, Spain, Italy or North Africa- they ruthlessly plundered and seized foreign lands. In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. The Danish Vikings conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland. Together they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants established colonies on the islands of the North Atlantic - Iceland and Greenland and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, however, which did not last long. The Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east of the Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, descending along the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer navigators.

There are different interpretations of the reasons for the violent outburst of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of the southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was hardly possible to get a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms in the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, absorbed by dynastic strife. During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The defeated leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victorious leaders, shamelessly accepted unhindered robbery as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained authority through participation in one or more campaigns. Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were attracted not only by the lure of prey. The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

The English term "Viking" comes from the Old Norse word vkingr, which could have several meanings. The most acceptable, apparently, is the origin from the word vk - bay, or bay. Therefore, the word vkingr is translated as "man from the bay." The term was used to refer to robbers hiding in coastal waters long before the Vikings gained notoriety in the outside world. However, not all Scandinavians were sea robbers, and the terms “Viking” and “Scandinavian” cannot be considered as synonyms. The French usually called the Vikings Normans, and the British indiscriminately referred to all Scandinavians as Danes. Slavs, Khazars, Arabs and Greeks, who communicated with the Swedish Vikings, called them Russ or Varangians.

Definitions

VIKINGS (ancient Scandinavian), Scandinavians - participants in maritime trade, predatory and conquest campaigns in the late 8th - mid-11th centuries. to European countries. In Rus' they were called Varangians, and in Western Europe they were called Normans (Scand. Northman - "northern man"). In the 9th century captured Northeast England, in the 10th century. Northern France (Normandy). Reached North America.
Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius

About three centuries from 800 to 1050 AD. e. Viking warriors sailed on their ships, terrorizing Europe. They sailed from Scandinavia in search of silver, slaves and land. The Vikings mainly attacked Britain and France while they invaded Russia. The Vikings explored many unknown lands by sailing the vast Atlantic Ocean.

"The influence of the Vikings on the formation of the Anglo-Saxon state."

Early medieval Europe lived in fear of the invasion of the warlike northern barbarians. Everywhere they were called differently: in France - Normans, in England - Danes, in Ireland - Finngall and Dubgall, in Germany - Askemann, in Byzantium - Varangians, in Rus' - Varangians, in Scandinavia they were called Vikings, so that period, which researchers prefer to neutrally call the early Middle Ages, is also called the Viking Age

Despite the fact that the British called the Vikings Danes, among the attackers on English lands were not only them, but also Vikings from other parts of Scandinavia. An example is the famous Olaf Tryggvasson (or, in English transcription, Trigvasson -Trigvasson), great-grandson of the Norwegian king Harald Fair-haired. For the sake of simplicity, I think it is possible to group both under the general and generally accepted term Normans.

The raids of the Normans, originally predatory, from the 60s of the 9th century take on a completely different character. Their main goal is to seize territories. It is difficult to unequivocally identify the reason for such a powerful conquest and colonization movement of the northerners. Some (J. Brönsted, for example), following the idea put forward by J. Steenstrup a hundred years ago, believe that this was the result of overpopulation due to polygamy, others - that this most likely happened due to the beginning of the desire of individual Scandinavian kings to unite under its power scattered dominionsindependent leaders. Some obeyed them and became their jarls, some fought hard, and some rushed across the sea in search of a new homeland. And restless sea wanderers reared all of Europe. From the 830s, and especially from 840, the coastal regions of France began to periodically be subjected to invasions of the Normans.
Since the mid-1950s, their aggression has been growing, and they are moving more and more resolutely into the interior of the country.

Horror filled the hearts of Christians when northern barbarians broke into churches and killed bishops, blood poured directly onto the altar - this was the greatest defilement, shocking those around. Such sudden and unseen misfortunes were incomprehensible to the mind, but the wisdom of church hierarchs knew no bounds - the answer was found: the Lord was angry and decided to punish his people, you just have to wait until heaven changes anger to mercy and that's it! But the Normans did not leave ...

During my work, I came across only one very detailed periodization of the Viking invasions. The Soviet researcher of the Viking Age G.S. Lebedev gives his chronology of the spread of northern aggression:

Stage 1 - 793-833. G.S. Lebedev begins the Viking Age with the sack of Lindisfarne. The largest enterprise of this period, he considers the Nabegdat king Gottfried to Friesland in 810.

Stage 2 - 834-863. During this period, G.S. Lebedev notes changes in the tactics of the Vikings: strandhugg appeared - the capture of livestock and other food in the war zone, as well as the construction of intermediate bases on the coastal islands. The number of armies during this period is especially high and reaches 77 thousand people, as if the entire combat-ready population rushed to rob their neighbors. Fleet formations fluctuate between 100-150 ships, which is somewhere between 6-10 thousand soldiers. The most famous figure of this period is the famous Ragnar Lothbrok and his sons.

Stage 3 - 864-891. During this period, the Vikings made a large-scale attempt to conquer England, forming the Danish Law Region.

Stage 4 - 891-920. For this time, according to G.S. Lebedev, a high wave of emigration is characteristic: in 877 Iceland was discovered. In addition, the 890s are the time of the activity of Hrolf the Pedestrian, whom historians associate with Rollo, who received the Duchy of Normandy in 911.

Stage 5 - 920-950. During these years, a fierce struggle flared up in England for Northumbria between the Danes settled there and the heirs of the Wessex king Alfred.

Stage 6 - 950-980. From this thirtieth birthday, G.S. Lebedev begins the era of the Viking kings.

Stage 7 - 980-1014. The kings Sven Forkbeard and Olaf Tryggvason again lead a large-scale campaign to conquer England. In 1000, in the "battle of three kings" in the waters of the Sound, Olaf heroically fell in battle, and Sven won the English throne at the end of 1013, although he died on February 2, 1014. In the same period, in 982, Eric the Red discovered Greenland, from 985 to In 995 Bjarni Herjulfson, Leif Erikson and Frigdis the daughter of Erik the Red made expeditions to the shores of North America.

Stage 8 - 1014-1043. These are the years of the Danish dynasty in England: Knut the Great and his sons Harold Harefoot and Hartaknut.

Stage 9 - 1043-1066. The final stage in the chronology of G. S. Lebedev. In 1041, Magnus Olafson united Denmark and Norway under his rule, and on September 25, 1066, the last Viking king Harald Hardrada died in England at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

The Viking Age began and ended, according to Lebedev, on English soil. Not a single researcher writing about these tragic times denies himself the pleasure of quoting or at least mentioning the entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which depicts the appearance of the Normans off the English coast in the minds of the Anglo-Saxons as a most terrible event, accompanied by mysterious and frightening signs: "793. This year terrible phenomena were in Northumbria and greatly frightened the inhabitants: there were unimaginable flashes of lightning and terrible dragons soared in the sky, and soon a severe famine began, and after that in the same year the pagans devastated and destroyed God's church in Lindisfarne ".

And another text paints a slightly different picture, but also accompanied by a terrible event: "787. In this year, King Beothric took Idburg, daughter of Offa, as his wife. And in these days three ships first appeared: and the rive galloped there and tried to force royal manor, because he did not know who they were, and they killed him. These were the first ships of the Danes that came to England. " Both passages are imbued with horror of the new enemy, who was to have a great influence on the development of the Anglo-Saxon state.

housecarls

We can more or less confidently assume that during the reign of Cnut in England, warriors acted as the guard of the king throughout the kingdom, whose organization is still a mystery to historians, but who cause big interest and covered with legends - to the Huscarls.

"1018. This year all England paid that tribute. In total there were 72,000 pounds, in addition to which the inhabitants of London paid 10,500 pounds. And then part of the army went to Denmark, and forty ships remained soon after Knut, and the Danes and the British came to an agreement in Oxford according to the laws of Edgar" (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

It is believed that the teams of these remaining ships formed the basis of the royal guard, which was the object of very close attention and study.

Huscarls were royal servants and played a key role in battles, being the core of the army. The general opinion reached by scholars regarding the Huscarls, and which has only recently been questioned again, is that they were professional warriors whose organization was established within the royal entourage of the Danes.

They were regularly paid salaries. Thus, the housecarls formed a kind of military elite.
English historians viewed the Huscarl Guards as some type of military vigilantes, and considered them to be a purely English formation.

Norwegian historians lead the origins of this institution to the famous Viking brotherhood in Jomburg (X century).
Others, on the contrary, argue that this organization was borrowed from Norway and housecarls existed there 100 years before the pirate brotherhood in Jomburg:
huscarl is a Norwegian word and one of the oldest in the language. In the Eddas, it sometimes denotes a servant, and sometimes a follower, a companion.
But when we open the court poetry of the first half of the 11th century, the latter meaning prevails.
So housecarl is a general designation for a member of the royal entourage.

Despite the fact that the sagas give different dates for the founding of the guard: the Jomsviking Saga and the Saga of St. Olaf - until the death of Sven Forkbeard; Knutlingasaga - immediately after his death, first in Denmark, and then in England; and finally, the medieval Danish historians Sven Aggeson and Saxo Grammatik attribute the organization to Knut, which is accepted by all historians.

According to Sven Aggeson, anyone who had a double-edged sword with a handle set in gold could become a guardsman, "and rich warriors were in such a hurry to get the appropriate swords that the ringing from the forges forging swords was heard throughout the land." The selection was most likely made in 1018, when Cnut, after the conquest of England, sent most of the troops back to Denmark.

In any case, in 1023 the guard already existed. Sven Aggeson describes the laws by which Knut's military squad was governed. Huscarls were placed at the king's tables in accordance with the celebrity feats of arms, superiority of service or nobility of birth. Moving to a lower place meant disgrace.

In addition to daily maintenance and entertainment, housecarls received a monthly salary. For payment, tribute was collected from all over the country for the maintenance of the army, the so-called. "army money"

It is possible that the Huscarls collected this tax themselves. An example would be when they sacked the city of Worcester during the reign of Cnut's son Harthacnut. The bonds of service were not permanent, but could only be broken on the day of the new year. All quarrels were to be resolved by an oath of two housecarls in a kind of council of the guard, where the king was also supposed to be present. Those who were found guilty of minor offenses (for example, did not take good care of a friend's horse) were moved to lower places at the royal table. If someone was accused of such offenses three times, then he should have been given the last and lowest place at the table, where no one, under any pretext, was to associate with him, and the feasters could throw bones at him with impunity. If disagreements arose over land and booty, the oaths of six housecarls selected from the detachment to which the disputants belonged were necessary, but the power to resolve the dispute belonged to the council. Whoever kills his comrade, he may lose his head or be in exile: "he must be expelled from the royal possessions and outlawed; and must be expelled from all the lands ruled by Knut," Sven Aggeson tells us. Betrayal was punishable by death and confiscation of all property of the traitor. If the king marked someone, a magnificent blade with a golden handle became a gift. In general, it seems that it was a tradition of the Scandinavian kings to give a sword to anyone who entered their service.

It is believed that there were about 3 thousand people in the guard. Apparently, if for each Huscarl Knut had stocked up with a golden handle, then no treasury would have been enough. Therefore, it is most likely that the housecarls were mainly recruited from noble and wealthy families.
In the new year, namely on the seventh day of the Christmas holidays, the guardsmen had the right to leave the service and receive their salary. On the same day, the most worthy were presented with gifts; changes were made in the guards.

This custom also comes from Norway and goes back to the time of St. Olaf. Norwegian kings usually only New Year arranged a feast where they ate and drank with their guards.

There is an assumption that the housecarls in some cases could act as the king's council.
In addition, it is likely that in the time of Knut, the housecarls became a new layer of the English nobility. In addition to regular pay, they seem to have been allotted land. By receiving land, the housecarls "actually ceased to be mercenaries, becoming landowners holding the land on terms of military service."

As a military organization, little is known about the guild. Saxo the Grammaticus writes that in the summer the housecarls were abroad, guarding the kingdom; in winter - they were billeted all over England. He also says that the housecarl could have had his own house.
From the history of Sven Aggeson it follows that the guard was divided into four formations, and they, in turn, into smaller units. But on this issue modern sources remain silent.

And, finally, historians who adhere to this (so-called traditional) point of view on the housecarl guards express different points view of her death. Some believe that the last housecarls were dissolved in 1051. Others agree in principle, but believe that the Huscarl units were re-established by Harold, the last king of Anglo-Saxon England. And everyone else who turned to this story is convinced that the guard existed until 1066, when William the Illegitimate led the last victorious invasion of England in history.

The housecarls were the only ones in Harold's army who did not retreat after the king himself was killed. The entire guard was killed in this battle and has never been restored.
The age of the Vikings is over.

"Round Viking forts in Denmark."
Trelleborg.

The round concentric forts of Denmark are probably the most impressive and unusual phenomenon of the Viking Age.
The first fort found was Trelleborg - it was excavated by archaeologists about 60 years ago. It is located on a cape between two rivers and in order to create the foundation for such a strictly geometric fort, it was necessary to move a huge amount of land to this place.

Trelleborg consists of a round main fort and outer fortifications. The main fort is 134 meters in diameter, surrounded by a rampart around the circumference, has four entrances connected by paths and dividing the interior into four equal parts.
Each quarter contains a block of four longhouses arranged around a courtyard.

In the outer fortifications, also surrounded by a rampart, there were 15 more buildings lined up in parallel, and a cemetery.
Trelleborg's longhouses (there were about 30 of them) were almost 30 meters long and were all made of wood. A lot of wood was also used to strengthen the fortifications of the main inner fort, which was surrounded by a wooden palisade both outside and inside.
Trelleborg was built around 980, during the reign of Harald the Bluetooth, who is also considered the builder of other major Epohiviking structures.

The size of the fort and its strict geometric plan, in which nothing seems to have been left unattended, testify to the fact that Denmark already had a strong royal power at that time, which could mobilize significant resources for such a construction.
The military functions of Trelleborg, like other similar forts, most likely combined with administrative and commercial ones to form a stronghold of royal power throughout the country.

This is confirmed by finds in Trelleborg burials. Mostly these are the graves of young men, but sometimes there are burials of women and children, which suggests that families lived in the fort.

Situated on a small promontory jutting out into a wide river valley, Fort Fyrkat is virtually identical to Fort Trelleborg. Both are built according to the same strict geometric plan- a round shaft with four gates interconnected by paved paths so that they divide the inner area into four equal parts. On the territory of each quarter there was a block of four buildings that formed a square with a courtyard.

Reconstruction internal device fort.

Furkat differs from Trelleborg only in size - Furkat is somewhat smaller and has no external fortifications.
Both forts were built at about the same time - around 980. Burials related to Furkat indicate that it was inhabited by men, women, and children.
Only one of the four buildings in each quarter was later used as residential.

Archaeological finds indicate that other buildings were used as forges, storerooms, stables, workshops of gold and silver craftsmen.

Not far from Fyrkat in Vorbasse, the remains of a flourishing farm from the Viking Age have been found.

"Restoration" of ships

Naturally, the "alive" ancient ships, which were sailed a thousand years ago, were not preserved in Scandinavia. The legends mention many ships, each with its own name and special properties, there is some information about the masters - shipbuilders and how the Vikings treated their ships. Alas, the stories are laconic, as always when it comes to something unremarkable, such that people have before their eyes every day. Those who told and then wrote down the tales of ancient and recent events did not at all think about how they would be read in a thousand years by people belonging to a completely different type of culture, people who would be a curiosity about everything that for the ancient Viking it goes without saying.

Scientists, of course, were not going to give up. In addition to legends, they had other sources of information, in particular, rock paintings, the great masters of which the Scandinavians were from primitive times. Drawings relating not only to the Viking Age, but also to the Bronze and even the Stone Age, contain many images of boats and ships. Scientists accumulated various information, gradually composing from them, as if from pieces of a broken mosaic, something like a whole picture. It so happened, however, that the most comprehensive answer to many questions came from ... GRAVE MILLS.

But why, one wonders, did the ancient Scandinavians bury a ship in the ground? The Vikings believed that, once in the Abode of the Gods, the soul of a heroic warrior would indulge in military pleasures, but myths do not mention the afterlife trips on ships. The heavenly squad of the Father of the Gods was imagined rather as a detachment of horsemen hastening to the battlefield. Moreover, burial in a boat was recorded among peoples for whom navigation did not have the same all-encompassing significance as for the Scandinavians, for example, among the Slavs. And the ancient Celts, they did carry the deceased to the burial place on dry land in a boat. Although they were not such born sailors as the Scandinavians. What's the matter? Comparing among themselves the grave goods - the property that was put in the grave along with the deceased - among the most diverse tribes, scientists came to the conclusion: this inventory is inherent not so much to a merchant, a warrior, an artisan, a hunter, or whoever else died during his lifetime, as to a TRAVELER. According to the ancient people, it was possible to get to the next world without any magical tricks, it was only necessary to make a rather long journey. The Scandinavians, when burying the deceased, with certain rituals put on special burial shoes on him and tried to tie them tighter so that they would not fall into long way. And what is characteristic: in almost every religion, a WATER OBSTACLEMENT is mentioned, which a person traveling to another world will have to overcome. For Scandinavian mythology, this is a mad mountain stream carrying stones and pieces of ice, or a bottomlessly deep sea strait - that is, something inherent in Scandinavian nature. That is why it was highly desirable for the deceased to have a reliable "watercraft" with him on the afterlife journey. Initially, a small boat was used for this purpose, when they began to build and actively use large ships, it is quite natural that they were considered suitable for the afterlife journey of a noble person.

This is how the warships of the Viking leaders sometimes ended up inside the mounds, under a layer of dense blue clay that did not allow atmospheric oxygen to pass to the wooden structures. That helped save them for science.

Anyone who wants to learn more about these courts, as well as others not described here, is advised to refer to Jochen von Firx's book "The Viking Courts", published in Rostock in 1979 and translated in St. Petersburg in 1982.

ship tree

Having studied in all details the vessel from Gokstad and Oseberg, experts at one time believed that oak was the favorite material of shipbuilders. The statement wandered from book to book that ash, beech, birch, pine, spruce, linden, willow and even alder were also used, but insofar as ... This opinion was held until they began to build copies of ancient ships. It was then that it turned out that the Gokstad and Useberg ships were not "serious" sea vessels - rather, both of them served as something like royal yachts, on which the king or, in the case of the Useberg boat, the widowed ruler took walks. It is also possible that both ships were lined up for a solemn burial. One way or another, in a real sea voyage, both ships would have had a bad time. Although the dimensions and contours of both are kept in the best traditions of their time.

Experienced sailors, who were given a try "in action" of the recreated Viking ships, were shocked by the flexibility and elasticity of the hull on the wave, especially in a storm. The ship literally "flowed" from ridge to ridge, while its sides "breathed" under the pressure of the waves so that at first the crew's hair stood on end: now they will crackle! Only later the sailors realized that this was not a disadvantage, but an advantage ... And the scientists again turned to the ancient chronicles that told about ship affairs, and found there a mention of the elasticity of the hull. It turns out that the Vikings knew very well that this was the way to build ships of this type. There was also an explanation that they gave to the phenomenon that frightened modern sailors: the ship, they say, bends along the waves, like a fish or a seal, and therefore moves faster. This explanation is not as naive as it seems at first glance. People understood. that it is better to resist the pressure of forces not with blunt mechanical strength, but with elasticity and flexibility, redistribution of emerging loads ... In the course of further tests, it turned out that the requirements that the sea imposes on ship sides are better met not by oak, but by ash. The oak is too cruel; during sea trials, in the conditions of a fierce storm, it also happened that the oak parts broke, while the ash ones withstood. Then they again turned to the ancient annals and found out that the inhabitants of the European coasts, frightened by the attacks of the Vikings, often called the formidable newcomers "askemanns" - "ash people", because "ask" in translation from the ancient northern - "ash". "Askami", according to the same annals, was sometimes called the Viking ships themselves. Here you can return to the section on the Creation of the World and remember that the World Tree, which connected the Nine Worlds, was an ash tree, the Gods-Ases also carved the first person from an ash tree, and that was his name - Ask. And the courageous warrior in songs and sagas was called the "ash tree of battle" ... And it is no longer possible to know what came from what: a tree from mythology or vice versa ...

The shipbuilders of the Viking Age were not only well versed in what kind of wood to make this or that part of the ship, but also how to best use this particular wood or part of it. For example, they knew that for the most important details it is better to take wood from that part of the trunk that was facing north during the life of the tree: it received less sun and heat, which means that the wood here turned out to be thinner and denser. In addition, a tree that has grown in thick, and, therefore, stretched upwards all its life, towards the light, does not have lower branches, the wood fibers in it are even, therefore, such a trunk can make an excellent log for a keel or several long even boards. A tree grown in an open area, with a dense crown and powerful lower branches, could be cut into boards for the bow or stern (boards in these places should have had a natural curvature), or into bars, again with a natural bend, for frames, stems and other parts that are supposed to combine elastic flexibility with considerable strength. Their requirements existed for oars, for deck boards, for masts, for blocks, rollers and many more ship parts and accessories. Choice wood was used everywhere, and what was not suitable for one went to another ...
How much wood did it take in total to build one ship? Experts calculated: for the construction warship twenty to twenty-five meters long, it was necessary to cut down at least eleven trees of a meter thickness with a trunk length of about five meters and another fifteen - eighteen meters - on a keel. This gave fifty to fifty-eight cubic meters of wood of the required quality.

It would be, however, the greatest mistake to assume that the choice of wood was determined solely by its "consumer" characteristics. Cutting down a tree, especially a "noble", covered with legends breed, the ancient man perfectly understood that he was killing a living creature that had the same rights to life as he himself. Before using the ax, he blamed the tree for a long time, explaining to him what urgent need had brought him to the forest. When it came to cutting, treats were placed aside, for example, a piece of bread and butter, so that the tree soul, tempted by the delicacy, would leave the trunk for a while and not experience unnecessary torment. Subsequently, having committed WOOD-KILLING, a person subjected himself to cleansing rites like those that accompanied the killing of an enemy.

In addition, the tree should not have fallen with its top to the north, in which case it was not taken. The fact is that the north was considered the focus of evil forces, the sun “died” there, there was a dwelling of cold, death and darkness. Even the Scandinavians were suspicious of the east. Seen from Norway, there were inhospitable mountains with glaciers, landslides and rockfalls. It is no coincidence that the Norwegian equivalent of "go to hell" sounded like "north and into the mountains!". In a word, before taking on the construction of a ship a tree that fell with its tip to the north or east, the ancient Scandinavian would have thought three times. After all, he was going to trust the ship with his life, which means that he had to invest in it only the best and brightest, kind to the Gods and obedient to man!

Cutting into boards

Having finally cut down a tree, it was butchered immediately, not leaving it to age. Modern shipbuilders prefer seasoned wood, but the ancient craftsmen knew what they were doing. According to experts, they were guided by two considerations: firstly, raw wood is easier to process, and secondly, when kept, it dries out and may crack. Rot, as the researchers write, did not threaten shipboards at all: the Vikings built open-type ships with a well-ventilated hold.
In modern industry, logs are sawn into boards with special saws. The Vikings acted differently: the prepared log was split lengthwise with the help of wedges into two halves. Then - again and again in half. As experiments showed, about twenty identical boards up to thirty centimeters wide came out of a trunk with a diameter of about a meter. Primitive technique? Vikings didn't know saws? They knew very well. And a saw and a hacksaw.

Simply, as scientists write, modern woodworking technology is focused on quantity, and in ancient times, quality was at the forefront. Especially in such a vital matter as building a ship. Boards obtained from a log split by wedges had a number of advantages over sawn ones. They are stronger, less prone to drying out, do not warp and crack so much. Still, after all, the wedge acts along the fibers, as it is "more convenient" for a split log, and the saw cuts and tears at random. In addition, the chipped boards on one side turned out to be somewhat thicker. It is easy to see that when joining sideboards with a lap (a favorite technique of the Vikings), this, at first glance, a disadvantage turned into a virtue. The thicker part made it possible to make a cutout in it for the tightest fit of the adjacent board.

Tools

The woodworking tools that the Vikings used to build ships also became known to scientists, mostly after the excavation of ancient graves. Experts are unanimous in the fact that the choice of these tools is very wide and in skillful hands sufficient for all necessary operations. The study of the found sets, a careful examination of the surviving images, as well as the traces left by various tools on wooden parts, made it possible to conclude that the AX was undoubtedly the most important tool. The ancient masters owned it truly masterfully. "Incredible!" - the researchers exclaim, noting that even the final finishing of side and deck boards was sometimes carried out with an ax, although there were also more, it would seem, suitable devices: TESLO and SKOBEL.

Axes were used in several types, depending on the type of work. In one ancient image, four types of axes were found at once. One felled trees, another chopped off branches, the third smoothed the boards and the fourth produced the final processing after fitting the board to the hull. Such an addiction to an ax is by no means accidental and is not a distinctive feature of the Vikings, based, they say, on the fact that, acting as their "favorite weapon" - an ax - in battles, they preferred it in peaceful construction ... The fact is that she saw shaggy and loosens wood fibers, while an ax, on the contrary, smoothes and flattens them. A wooden part carved with an ax absorbs moisture much less than sawn one, which means it rots less and lasts longer than an example ... Something like a ROTOR was used to drill holes: a sharpened iron "spoon" on a wooden handle with a cross, so that you can rotate. There were also KNIVES of various shapes and sizes, CHISELS and CHISLS, including semicircular and figured ones, a variety of CUTTERS, as well as HAMMERS and wooden MALLETS.

Shipbuilding skill

Did the Vikings use blueprints? No diagrams or drawings have yet been found, but it would be a mistake to assert in advance that they were not made at all. What if, literally at this time, something similar is being dug up on the Scandinavian peninsula or in Iceland? Let's accept for now that science has not yet found the answer. Connoisseurs of shipbuilding only assume that the Vikings may have used some kind of levels to measure the angle of the planks of the sheathing, as well as templates to derive the best contours.

But what is known for sure is that there were craftsmen of the highest qualification who were able even "by eye" to build an excellently stable and fast ship. Such a master was accompanied by a whole team of various specialists: woodworkers, board masters, carvers in figured details and blacksmiths, as well as a number of auxiliary workers. Every self-respecting Scandinavian could build a boat or a small vessel for coastal fishing alone, at worst - with an assistant. But when a wealthy person needed a large and high-quality combat or merchant ship, a good craftsman was invited.

The Vikings spent their whole lives on ships and, of course, they were well versed in them. Everyone considered himself a great connoisseur of shipbuilding, so conflicts between the master and the customer, between different masters, inevitably arose. Decidedly everyone "knew what was best" and insisted on their own. Sometimes remarkable courage was required from the master, especially if the ship was built for a high-ranking person and, moreover, tough and fast for reprisals. However, history shows that such masters had enough courage. Here, for example, is an ancient legend about how, at the very end of the 10th century, they built for Olaf the king, his son Tryggvi famous ship, subsequently called the "Great Serpent":
"... The builder of the ship was called Thorberg Strohala. But many others helped him - who rallied the boards, who hewed, who hammered nails, who brought timber. Everything in the ship was very carefully done. The ship was long and wide, with a high side and from large forest. When the side of the ship was already being made, Thorberg needed to go home for some reason, and he stayed there for a long time. And when he returned, the side of the ship was already ready. That same evening, the king and Torberg with him went to see how ship. Everyone said that they had never seen such a big and beautiful ship. Then the king returned to the city. Early the next morning, the king again went to the ship, and Thorberg with him. And the masters had all already arrived earlier, but did not start working. The king asked why they did not start. They answered that the ship was spoiled: someone went from bow to stern, chopping the side with oblique blows. The king came up and saw that this was true. Then he swore that out of envy so spoiled the ship, he would pay with death if he finds it. And whoever names this person to me will receive a great reward from me. Then Thorberg says:
- I can tell you, king, who did it.
- From no other person - says the king - I could not expect that he knows this and can tell me.
- I'll tell you, king, - says Thorberg, - who did it. I did it.

The king answers:
“Then you must make sure that everything is as it was before. Your life depends on it.

And then Thorberg came up and cut off the board so that all the oblique scars disappeared. The king and all the others began to say that the ship was much more beautiful from the board that Thorberg had cut off. And the king told him to do the same with the other side and said that he was very grateful to him ... "
Let us pay attention to one phrase of the passage just quoted. The board, which was given the best, from the point of view of navigation, form, became, according to experts, MUCH BEAUTIFUL. What an eye, what experience and intuition one must have in order to determine the quality of a ship by the nobility of its contours!

The ancient masters considered it a special "chic" to build a ship in such a way that, when sailing on oars, it could carry shields on the sides. The ship with shields along the side has become downright a "calling card" of the Viking Age, and for good reason. But not everyone knows that the shields were not "nailed to the sides according to custom", but were held by a special rail from the outer (or inner) side of the side. The oars were not inserted into the oarlocks, but passed through special holes - "rowing hatches". For battle, ships usually converged on oars; if at the same time it was possible to keep shields on board (that is, if the ship was built in such a way that the shields did not block the holes for the oars and did not interfere with rowing), they served as additional protection for the rowers until the very moment of hand-to-hand combat.

Side handlebar

To date, a lot of remodels of Viking ships have been built. The very first trip on a recreated copy of the Gokstad ship took place in 1893. Since then, such ships have been used on all known historical routes of the ancient Scandinavians: around Europe, along the Russian rivers, and to America through Atlantic Ocean. And even further: enthusiasts have sailed around the world. And in Denmark every summer a "Viking festival" is held, the program of which certainly includes the "Viking regatta" - races on replicas of ancient ships that gather for the holiday from all over Scandinavia. In a word, considerable experience has been accumulated. And what is characteristic, modern "Vikings" invariably speak of the sea qualities of their ships in superlatives. Moreover, the ship behaves the better, the closer the replica is built to the ancient model, the more accurately they try to observe every little thing.

One of these "little things" turned out to be the SIDE RUDDER. Looking at the drawings and drawings, it is easy to make sure that the rudder of the Viking ships was not located along the center line of the stern, as we are used to, but on the side, on a special mount. And trial modern voyages prove that even with a fierce wind and strong seas, ONLY ONE PERSON easily steered the ship with the help of this side rudder! However, with all the physical ease of managing the ship, this is a very responsible occupation, it requires a lot of attention and concentration, and therefore it is very tiring. And, given that, unlike the rowers, the helmsman could not even warm himself by rowing on a cold and damp night, they tried to make life easier for him at least by setting up a special seat at the stern. It was located above the usual benches, so that the heads of the comrades did not obscure the helmsman's view.

Mast

The Viking ship didn't look particularly "slim". So, at the Gokstad ship, with a hull length of more than twenty-three meters, the height of the mast was, according to scientists, no more than twelve meters; as will be shown below, a fair amount of sail area was achieved mainly due to the width. But how many people now know that the masts on the Viking ships were made .. REMOVABLE

The Normans often used ships for burials. According to their beliefs, it was possible to get from the World of the Living to the World of the Dead after a long journey, as well as overcoming a water barrier (it was enough for you to walk along a straight road for a long time and you would undoubtedly get into THAT world). It is for this reason that the Scandinavians buried the dead, and especially noble people, in ships prepared for a long journey. And so many of the Viking ships known today were found in barrows.

In January 1880, in order to occupy themselves and get rid of boredom (as well as having heard about the treasures found in the burials of the Vikings), the sons of the tenant of a small estate in Gokstad (Norway) began to dig up a hill that bore the proud name "Royal". In May, the excavations continued, but already under the guidance of the archivist of the museum in Oslo, Nikolaysen. So the Gokstad ship appeared to human eyes.

The ship from Gokstad served as the grave (according to the assumptions of scientists and the Yngling Saga) to King Olaf. He was fully equipped for sailing with oars, a sail, an anchor and provisions. On each side there were 16 round shields about 1m in diameter, painted black and yellow. The tomb was looted, but, nevertheless, many interesting things were found. For example, quite unexpectedly, the remains of a peacock were found in the stern area.

After restoration, the ship was exhibited at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo.

The main dimensions of the vessel:

Maximum length - 23.3 m
Maximum width - 5.2 m
Maximum height - 2.1 m

The ship from Gokstad is often called the most beautiful of all Viking ships found. It has been reproduced many times in replica ships, from "Vikingr" 1892 to "Mother Earth" ("Gaia" 1998). You can find some of them in Replicas.

This ship was found in 1903 in Norway by Professor G. Gustavson. On November 5, 1904, the excavations were completed, but the ship's adventures were just beginning. According to Norwegian law, the ship belonged to the owner of the land where it was found. The owner of the Useberg estate set a price, but it turned out to be too high for the museum. In the meantime, rumors spread about the possible sale of the ship abroad. To prevent this, the Norwegian parliament hastily passed a law prohibiting the sale of historical property outside of Norway. In the end, the ship was bought by the owner of a neighboring estate, and "as it lies there" was donated to the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, where it is now located.

Firstly, traces of robbers were found in the tomb. who, leaving 14 wooden spades and three stretchers, apparently completely cleaned the bow of the ship and carried away all objects of precious metals. However, they did not reach the stern, and archaeologists managed to find an equipped galley with two boilers for cooking, frying pans, spoons, knives, axes and an intact hand mill for grinding grain. In addition, items intended for women were found in the tomb, namely: a large spinning loom and two small ribbons suitable for making ribbons, fragments of hollowed boxes and wooden buckets, the remains of woolen cloth and silk ribbons, as well as the remains of a carpet.

It is not surprising that with such a set of objects, scientists found two female skeletons, whose age was determined to be 50 and 30 years old. Older. was probably Queen Asa. This corresponds to the Yngling saga, in which Snorri Sturlasson in the 13th century. described the history of the Oslo Fjord with the districts of Ostfoll and Vestfoll.

Of the fate of Queen Asa, the saga says:
"Gudrod was the name of Halfdan's son, who became king after him. His wife's name was Alfhild. They had a son Olaf. When Alfhild died, Gudröd sent his messengers to Agde (southwestern Norway) to the king who ruled there. His name was Harald Rotlip The messengers were supposed to ask to give his daughter Asa to the king as his wife, but Harald refused them.The messengers returned back and informed the king of the refusal.

Shortly thereafter, Gudröd went to sea with big army and arrived in Agde. The army came quite unexpectedly and landed on the shore. At night it reached the estate of King Harald. When the latter discovered that an enemy was standing against him, he went out to the enemy with the people whom he had with him. There was a battle, but the forces were too unequal, and Harald and his son Gird died.

King Gudröd seized a large booty. He took the daughter of King Harald Asa with him and married her. She had a son by him named Halfdan. In the autumn, when Halfdan was one year old, King Gudröd went to "feed" the country. He arrived on his ship in Stiftlesund. There was a big feast, and the king drank heavily. In the evening, when it got dark, he left the ship. When the king was at the end of the gangway, a man ran up to him, pierced him with his spear, and he died. The man was killed immediately. The next morning, when dawn broke, he was recognized as a servant of Queen Asa. She did not deny that the servant acted on her advice ... After the death of her father, Olaf became king. He suffered from a leg disease and died from it. He was buried in a hill in Gjörstad."

Further reported. that shortly after the birth of her grandson, Harald the Fair-Haired, who in 872 established dominion over all of Norway, Queen Asa died at the age of 50. Therefore, it is likely that Queen Asa is buried in Usenberg, and King Olaf is buried in Gokstad (Gjörstad in the saga), since the skeleton of a lame man who suffered from gout was found during excavations.

Ship model from Oseberg

Oak was used to make the ship. A special pine bar was made along both sides, on which shields could be fixed. 15 pairs of oar holes were made in the sides. The ship also had a mast and a sail.

The main dimensions of the ship:

The maximum length is 21.44 m.
Maximum width - 5.10 m.
Maximum height - 1.58 m.

The ship from Oseberg testifies to the high level of shipbuilding and navigation of the Normans. But this ship was still not adapted for sailing on the high seas, like, for example, the ship from Gokstad.

In 1921, in the north of the Danish island of Als, an ancient altar was found in a small peat bog. As it turned out later, it was the oldest altar on the territory of Scandinavia (dated to the 4th-3rd centuries BC). For two years, in 1921-1922, excavations were carried out by the employees of the National Museum of Denmark. The results exceeded all expectations: 8 single-edged swords (the oldest steel weapon found in Scandinavia), 50 long shields, 140 spearheads of various shapes, 30 bone spearheads, wooden plates, boxes, vessels, a bronze needle, etc. were found. Among the most interesting finds was a boat, which, unfortunately, was badly damaged during excavations. Those parts of the boat that managed to be saved are exhibited in National Museum Denmark in Copenhagen.

The boat was made of linden. It was set in motion by strokes and could carry a team of 25 people (armed and equipped) - about 2200 kg (at the rate of 90 kg per person).

Rook model from Hjertspring

The main dimensions of the rook:

Maximum length - 15.3 m
Maximum internal length - 13.28 m
Maximum width - 2.07 m
Maximum height - 0.78 m

The boat from Hjertspring ("Deer Leap") is one of the progenitors of the classic "Viking ships". Mentions of such ships can be found in the book of Tacitus "Germany", written in 98 AD. It speaks of a tribe of Svions, whose ships had a bow on each side, thanks to which they could moor on either side. In addition, images of similar ships have been found in Bohuslän, Sweden.

In 1863, the remains of three ships were found during excavations in the Nydam swamp near the village of Öströsottrup near Alsenzund. One of them is quite well preserved, it is this ship that will be discussed. The ship is on display at the Museum of Prehistoric and Early Culture of Schleswig at Gottorp Castle. It belongs to the second half of the 4th century. When dating, eight bronze pins for clothes - brooches, found on the ship near the stem, played a significant role. The swamp near Nidam was found to have been a place of sacrifice for nearly three centuries. Especially numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, 30 years later, 106 swords, 552 spearheads, 70 steel and bronze umbons for shields, arrow and spear shafts, as well as numerous decorations were found.

The ship, which had lain for so long in the swamp, broke up. Oak cladding boards lay separately from each other, and only separate parts remained from the frames. Therefore, reconstructions of this vessel are of interest. There are 30 places for rowers on the open vessel. There was no device for carrying the sail, and, judging by the stability, the ship could not carry the sail. The ship is built on a keel board of almost 15 meters and a width of 0.56 meters in the middle. The keel itself, cut from this board, has a width of 180 mm, and a height of only 20 mm. In the middle of the keel board between the 10th and 11th frames there was a small through hole, closed from the ingress of sea water with a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water was drained when the ship was pulled ashore. Oarlocks made of knots-forks were tied to the upper board of the sheathing, made with a nap. The oarlocks had holes through which a leather strap passed to hold the oar. To steer the ship, a large rudder hung on the starboard side, about 3.3 meters long with a special-shaped head. Perhaps it was held only by a cable attached to one of the frames and passing through the gunwale from above, otherwise the steering wheel would be completely free. The oars found had a length of 3.05 to 3.52 meters.

The own weight of the vessel is approximately equal to 3300 (according to other assumptions a little more than 3900) kg. Payload, i.e. the mass of a crew of 50 people with weapons and food should have been almost 5000 kg. With a total weight of 8800 kg, the ship's draft was 0.5 m, and the freeboard height was almost 0.6 m.

Aft end and rudder.

The vessel from Nidam belongs to the second half of the 4th century. When dating, eight bronze pins for clothes - brooches, found on the ship near the stem, played a significant role.

The swamp near Nidam was found to have been a place of sacrifice for nearly three centuries. Especially numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, 30 years later, 106 swords, 552 spearheads, 70 steel and bronze umbons for shields, arrow and spear shafts, as well as numerous decorations were found.

The ship, having lain for so long in the swamp, broke up. Oak cladding boards lay separately from each other, and only separate parts remained from the frames. Therefore, the reconstructions of this ship made by S. Engelgard in 1865, H. Shetelig and F. Johanessen in 1930 and H. Akerlund in 1961, who published their drawings, are of interest. Of these, Johannessen's drawing is the most important. The main dimensions of the vessel from Nidam: maximum length 22.85 m, maximum beam 3.26 m and depth 1.09 m.

There are 30 places for rowers on the open vessel. The device for carrying the sail was absent, judging by the stability of the vessel, it could not carry the sail.

The ship was built on a keel board almost 15 m long and 0.56 m wide in the middle. The keel itself, cut from this board, has a width of 180 mm and a height of only 20 mm. In the middle of the keel board between the 10th and 11th frames there was a small through hole, closed from the ingress of sea water with a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water was drained when the ship was pulled ashore. The ends of the keel board had a width of only 280 mm. With the help of two wooden dowels and a horizontal lining attached from below, stems were attached to them.

Both stems, made of oak, are almost the same; a well-preserved stem, made of a single piece of wood, has a length of about 5.4 m. In the lower part, the stem is processed so that sheathing boards can be riveted to it).

The sheathing is made in clinker: there are five boards on each side. Sheathing boards are made of oak, do not have knots and are solid with a length of 20 m and a width of more than 0.5 m. Only the top belt is composite. On the well-preserved left side, the joint falls between the 13th and 14th frames. The boards are butted against each other at a right angle, and only a reinforced gunwale holds them together.

Boards overlap each other by 70 mm. Steel rivets with clink washers (quadrangular washers) are installed on the keel board at a distance of 150 mm, on the upper chords - after 160-180 mm, and near the stems - after 110 mm. To seal the cracks between the boards, wool impregnated with a sticky mass was used.

The keel board, and other boards, had clamps made as one piece with the board. 19 frames are tied to the clamps, which were installed only after the completion of the skin assembly. Restoration work showed that the frames, up to the 3rd, were made from one piece of pine kokora (krivuli) and had different cross section. On the top board there is only one clamp to which the frame is tied; at the same time, this clamp served as a support for the can, which was probably fastened with wooden dowels. Rowing banks additionally had vertical supports mounted on frames.

Oarlocks made of fork knots were tied to the top board of the skin. The oarlocks had holes through which a leather strap passed to hold the oar.

To steer the ship, a large rudder about 3.3 m long with a special-shaped head hung on the starboard side. How the rudder was connected to the ship is unclear. Perhaps it was held only by a cable attached to one of the frames and passing through the gunwale from above, otherwise the steering wheel would have been completely free.

The oars found had a length of 3.05 to 3.52 m.

Stones were found on the ship, which caused bewilderment. Initially, they were mistaken for ballast, but a ship from Nidam would need it when sailing on water. Ballast of stones total weight almost 1000 kg on a ship located on the shore was clearly superfluous. Therefore, it was assumed that the stones found were somehow connected with the sacrifice. Such a vessel at one time was of great value, so the ceremony of its burial was not quite ordinary. Probably, stones were loaded onto a ship that reached the swamp, weapons and other sacrificial gifts were added to them. Then ropes were tied to the posts, with the help of which the ship was pulled into the swamp, where, with an open hole on the keel board, it slowly sank under a load of stones.

Johannessen estimates the own weight of the ship from Nidam at 3300 kg, and Timmerman, according to the model at 1/10 of the natural size, is a little over 3900 kg. The payload, i.e., the mass of a crew of 50 people with weapons and food, was supposed to be almost 5000 kg. With a total mass of 8800 kg, the ship's draft was 0.5 m, and the freeboard was almost 0.6 m.

Why is the weapon in the chest, and not hanging on the wall? You see, I often have guests, and where there are guests, there is a feast. And at a feast where there is a lot of beer, anything can happen! When the weapon is out of sight, the worst thing you can do is knock out a couple of teeth.
The Scandinavians have used the spear since ancient times. This is evidenced by numerous finds dating from the beginning of our era and earlier.

In the Viking Age, the most common type of weapon was a heavy spear, which was different from its counterparts from other countries. The northern spear had a shaft about five feet long with a long, up to 18 inches, wide leaf-shaped tip. Such a spear could both stab and chop (which the Vikings, in fact, did with success). Of course, such a spear weighed a lot, and therefore it was not easy to throw it, although this also happened (if we turn to the myths, Odin fought with the Gungnir spear, which always returned to the owner after the THROW). One can imagine the physical form of a person capable of throwing such a spear. However, there were special throwing spears similar to European darts. Such spears were shorter, with a narrower tip.

The shape of the spear tip could vary depending on the purpose. So, for example, there are descriptions of spears resembling a European halberd.

The next step is the axe. a relatively small hatchet on a long (about 90 cm) handle. A second successful blow with an ax was usually not required, and therefore the ax also had a moral impact on the enemy. It didn't take much imagination to figure out what to expect from the axe. On the other hand, the ax is good in attack, it has many disadvantages in defense. Even a spearman is able to disarm a warrior with an ax by catching it at the junction of the blade and handle and pulling it out of the hands of the owner.
I want to note: I almost never saw any mention of double-edged axes, so I doubt their distribution (if they existed at all). there is no doubt about the popularity of ordinary axes, and not only among ordinary hirdmanns, but also leaders (it is unlikely that the nickname of Eirik Haraldsson, the son of the famous Harald Harfagr (Fair-haired) - Eirik Blodeks (Bloody Ax) arose from scratch.

One of the factors behind the Norman victory at Hastings is thought to have been more advanced weapons. William's army was armed with iron axes, while the Anglo-Saxons entered the battlefield with stone axes. But, it should be noted, stone axes were also valued by the Vikings. The reason for this was the age of the weapon, which gave reason to consider it endowed with magical properties. such weapons, carefully preserved, were passed down from generation to generation.

Perhaps the most common weapon in Europe was the sword. He did not bypass Scandinavia.
The first northern swords were similar to the scramasaxes - single-edged blades, rather long knives than short swords. However, they soon "grew" noticeably, and then completely turned into the weapon that is now known as the "Viking sword".

The Scandinavian sword of the IX-XII century period was a long, heavy double-edged blade with a small (almost symbolic guard).

The fighting technique of the Scandinavians did not differ much from the fighting techniques of other peoples of Europe at that time. It should be remembered that in the early Middle Ages, and especially in the Viking Age, there was no special art of swordsmanship. A wide swing, a blow in which all the strength of a warrior was invested - that's the whole technique. The Vikings did not have stabbing blows, which, accordingly, left their mark on the weapon. Specifically, this was expressed in the rounding, which often ended with a Scandinavian sword.

The Vikings have always been famous for the art of decorating their weapons. Which, however, was not surprising. The Scandinavians endowed the weapon with a personality, and therefore it is quite logical to try to distinguish it from the rest of the weapon. Often, a weapon that faithfully served its owner was given a name known to people no less than the name of its owner. So sonorous names arose, such as "RaunijaR" - testing, "Gunnlogs" - the flame of battle ... The axes were laid out with gold and silver patterns, the scabbards and hilts of swords were also decorated with gold and silver, the blades were covered with runes.

One of the most beautiful ways of decorating swords was the following: in the manufacture of the blade, copper and silver wire were forged alternately into the handle, which made the sword "striped".

Authentic Viking armor was truly Spartan in its simplicity - just look at the 10th century helmet and the remains of chain mail found in Gjermundby, Norway. This round helmet is the only well-preserved Viking Age helmet found so far; it is known, however, that the Vikings went into battle in conical helmets.

From time immemorial, landowners of all kinds, from freed slaves who owned tiny plots of land, to jarls who had huge lands, and even kings who disposed of their own allotments, gathered in local assemblies, known as "cause". There they elected local leaders, adopted laws and regulations regarding property, theft of sheep or blood feuds. However, a new force was present in the life of the Vikings, incomparably more influential than any governing body, and filling this life with special content.

The "drergeskapur" occupied a central place in the moral code of the Vikings. This concept includes a number of qualities that were considered mandatory both for society as a whole and for those who could be considered a hero in the eyes of their compatriots. Self-respect, honor, an impeccable reputation were put above all else, and they could only be built on a solid foundation of selfless loyalty to family and comrades. All aspects of life were determined by customs; hospitality and offerings, oaths and vengeance, good deeds for the benefit of society, such as the construction of bridges or temples.

Leaders were required to show courage. fortitude, loyalty to friends, truthfulness, eloquence, and a zest for life, along with a readiness to face death fearlessly and without hesitation. All these qualities, and countless others, are reflected in the ancient Scandinavian poem "Havamal", which literally means "The Word of the Highest". The poem contains the entire code of conduct of the Viking Age, from simple moralizing to reasoning about the true meaning of eternal glory.

The least essential, though necessary, seemed to be the rules for the guests. "Who stays at a party, abuses the hospitality of good hosts," Havamal teaches, "begins to stink." If the mentioned guest, in addition, has enough surplus, tempted by ale, the poem recalls that drinking and riding are incompatible: "There is no heavier knife for a rider than immoderate libations." The final stanzas of the poem are devoted to the highest concept of the code of honor, linking together an impeccable reputation during life with the honorable fate of dying the death of the brave, proving himself a hero:

The shield was almost required attribute warrior at all times. From century to century, from people to people, shields changed their shape, structure, appearance, but their purpose did not change - to provide the warrior with a convenient and reliable means of personal protection. Naturally, the Scandinavians, in whose life the war was far from the last place, did not leave the shields unattended.

From the first to the tenth centuries, round shields were firmly established in Scandinavia. There were two types of such shields - flat and convex. All the shields that have survived to this day were typesetting (however, there is evidence of bent shields - in this case it is easier to make them convex), that is, assembled from separate boards. For reinforcement, such a set could be two-layered, and the layers were superimposed across, which again gave strength. In the center of the shield there was always an umbon - a metal hemisphere designed to protect against direct blows - the enemy's weapon slipped along it, losing strength.

In addition to this, the umbon protected the hand, since the most common fastening of the shield on the hand of the Scandinavians was the fist fastening. A hilt passed under the umbon, for which the warrior held the shield. This mount is convenient because the shield is easy to reset, which is important. On the other hand, you need to have a well-trained hand in order to successfully defend. However, there were shields with a "traditional" mount on the arm.

Often, the edge of the shield was upholstered with a strip of thick rawhide, and sometimes it could even be covered with leather on the front side. Although such shields have never been found, the mention of shields covered with leather is very common in the literary sources of that period. As for all the shields found, they were painted directly on the wooden surface.

Traditionally, shields were made of linden wood, although other woods such as alder or poplar could also be used. These types of wood were chosen due to their lightness and low density. In addition, this wood does not peel as easily as, for example, oak.

In size, round shields ranged from 45 to 120 centimeters in diameter, but the most common were shields with a diameter of 75-90 centimeters.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, the lower edge of the shield began to stretch down to protect the legs. This change gave rise to the development of the "drop" shield. Moreover, like their predecessors, round shields, "drops" existed both flat and convex, the latter clearly predominating. Until now, there are disputes about mounting such a shield on the hand, whether it was fisted or not. The fact is that if the shield is held under the umbon, then the lower, elongated part of the shield acts like a pendulum, making it difficult to work with the shield.
These shields were about 1 - 1.5 meters in size.

Both round shields and "drops" could be worn in the marching version, behind the back. For this, there was a special belt, or just a wide strip of leather. It was much more convenient even for a foot soldier to carry a shield this way, not to mention a rider.

The shields were painted in different ways, depending on the taste of the owner. The shield could be painted completely in one color, or in segments. The common designs were the cross and the solstice - the sun wheel. In addition, umbon and reinforcing stripes were often decorated with silver and gold.

This game was known in the north of Europe long before chess appeared there. In Scandinavia, this game was already known in the 3rd century AD. Subsequently, the Vikings brought it to Greenland, Iceland, Wales, Britain, and the Far East, up to Ukraine.

Playboard options.
The "king" is marked with a straight cross, the corner squares are marked with an oblique cross.

This game was played on a board with an odd number of cells, from 7x7 to 19x19, depending on the variant of the game. The central cell was called the "throne", and no pieces could stand on it, as well as on the corner cells of the board, except for the king. At the beginning of the game, the king piece was placed on the throne. The rest of the whites were placed around him. The first move is always for black. Players take turns taking turns. All pieces move in any direction, just like rooks in modern chess. The player can move any one piece of his color to any distance. Pieces cannot "jump" over others. On small boards, pieces can pass through the throne, on large boards only the king can do this. White is trying to get the king to one of the corner squares. If they manage to place the king on an open straight line to one of these squares, they announce "Raichi" (Check), if on two straight lines at once - "Tuichi" (checkmate). If on the next move they stand on the corner square, White wins. If the black player accidentally opens a passage for the white king, white can take advantage of this immediately.

If a piece, on its own, pinches an opponent's piece between itself and another piece, or between itself and a corner square, the opponent's piece is considered eaten. More than one chip can be eaten at a time.

Black loses both chips
However, you can put your chip between two enemy ones. In this case, she remains in the game.

Nothing threatens the white chip. At least. Bye.

The king is considered captured when he is surrounded on four sides. In this case, the corner cells, the throne and the sides of the board can be considered as sides. When the king is in danger of being captured on the next move, Black warns White (check the king). Black wins if the king is captured. The king can be captured along with one white piece, being surrounded by black on all sides.

In all these cases black wins.

White wins by pushing his king into one of the corner squares. Black - if they managed to capture the king. Since the forces are unequal, it is considered good practice to play two games in a row, exchanging sides. In this case, the number of chips eaten is counted. The winner, with a score of 1:1, is the one who ate more opponent's chips.

viking cuisine
"Porridge"

Recipe base: a glass of grains and two glasses of liquid (water and/or milk) per person. You can add more liquid in order to compensate for the evaporation that occurs when cooking porridge on an "open" fire. You can use chopped and crushed grains, the largest kernels must be soaked overnight, otherwise they will take too long to cook.
Recipe: porridge for the Viking family.
For 4-6 servings take:
- 10-15 glasses of water
- Two glasses of "chopped" wheat grains. Soak them overnight to make them less difficult to chew.
- Two glasses of barley
- A handful of wheat flour
- A handful of crushed nut kernels
- 3-4 tablespoons of honey
- A good portion of slices of apples, pears or ...

1. Put the wheat, flour and barley into the cauldron. Pour 10 glasses of water there and put the cauldron on fire.
2. Stir the porridge evenly and remove the pot to dispel the heat. If the porridge starts to thicken too much, add more water to it.
3. After about half an hour, add honey, nuts and fruits. Now the porridge should be cooked until the fruit is still juicy, and the porridge has already reached the desired consistency. This will take 15-30 minutes.
4. Serve porridge warm, adding cold cream if desired.

"Meat and fish soup"

Of course, you should not cram all the known vegetables, herbs and seasonings into one pot. Inspired by the many widely available books that deal with edible plants, don't use everything you find while wandering around. Always make sure you put edible plants in your basket!
Recipe: Meat stew.
For 4-6 servings take:
- 8-12 glasses of water
- Half a kilo of meat (pork, beef, lamb, chicken, game)
- Salt
- 3-5 cups of plants: nettle top leaves, young dandelion leaves, wild chervil, watercress, wild marjoram, dill, plantain, angelica, wild onion, cumin, thyme, or anything else nature has to offer given time of the year

1. Put the meat in the pot. Pour water into it to such a level as to cover the meat, and put the cauldron on fire. To dispel the heat, it is necessary to remove it from the heat for short periods of time every 5-10 minutes.
2. After the water boils, it is necessary to cook the meat for another hour. It is necessary to ensure that the meat is always covered with a layer of water.
3. While the meat is cooking, wash and chop the plants (greens). They will need to be added to the stew when it is ready.
4. When the meat is cooked (becomes soft), remove it from the boiler and cut into pieces the size of a spoon, which you plan to eat the stew. Then return the meat to the pot.
5. Add salt as desired and serve.
6. Chowder can be served with bread. If you want to make a more satisfying stew, you can add pre-soaked wheat grains, wholemeal flour, or the stew can be flavored with pea flour

"Wholemeal Bread"

This bread is called "pottery" because it was baked on pieces of pottery or, if the estate was richer, on 10-15 cm frying pans over coals. Recipe: Bread.
All measurements are given in glasses. glass in this case equates to about 90 grams of flour:
- 7 cups whole wheat flour or premium
- 3 cups of liquid - this can be whey or milk
- 1 egg
- a pinch of salt (optional)

1. Flour, liquid, egg and salt must be mixed for a long time and thoroughly. If necessary, add flour or liquid. The result should be a homogeneous thick dough.
2. Divide the dough into small balls, and then turn them into cakes. 3. The bread is baked over high heat on pieces of pottery or a frying pan for 2-3 minutes on each side.
The resulting loaves should be slightly brown and, if lightly tapped with a fingernail, should give the impression of being hollow.
To obtain "fragments" you can use well-fired red clay pots (apparently, of the type used for kilns) or, for example, a ceramic vase from the Japanese school of Sogetsu...
- Sweetened bread can be obtained by adding honey to the dough.
- Adding roasted stinging nettles will add a spicy flavor.
- You can also add chopped walnut kernels and boiled acorns to the dough.

Hot nutritious drinks.

"Delightful Apple Drink"

For cooking we need:
- Water
- Apple slices
- Apple tree leaves
- Honey

1. Fill the container with water, throw in slices of unpeeled apples, add apple leaves.
2. The drink should be boiled over a fire. When it starts to boil, add honey to taste.
3. Serve hot. Apples can be replaced with pears. The berries add flavor. If you want, try different mixtures of berries and fruits.

"Plant drink"

Plant based drinks can be obtained from many plants. The drink is prepared by adding leaves or flowers of plants to boiling water and boiling for several minutes.
The best drinks can be obtained from the leaves:
- stinging nettle;
- mint;
- hawthorn;
- wild raspberries;
- strawberries; and colors:
- elderberry;
- lindens;
- yarrow;
- chamomile.

Housekeeping in the Viking Age

"The daily life of the Viking family, day after day, year after year, was a continuous struggle to maintain life: that everyone had a roof over their heads; everyone was warm and there was something to eat. For a long time it was easy to get food, but a lot of time was spent on preparing it, and still it was necessary to take care of the long winter in advance: to collect, dry and store food.

We don't know exactly what dishes were prepared during the Vikings, but we can say a lot about what ingredients and utensils they used to cook. A lot of utensils, boilers, knives and other kitchen utensils. By carefully examining clay pots, ceramic lids, ashes from hearths and layers of earth in houses, it becomes possible to find food remains and determine the source of their origin. In addition, it should be said that some human remains found in the swamps are so well preserved that one can examine their stomachs and intestines for what their last meal consisted of. We can also say with certainty what plants and wild animals existed in Scandinavia during the Viking times, and at the same time we can imagine that most of these representatives of flora and fauna were part of the Viking diet, provided that the latter could get the former.

food components

The most important of the cultivated crops was grain. Barley, wheat, rye and buckwheat were also among the plants grown. The grains of the Viking era looked a little different than they do now - they had more stems and fewer grains themselves. Grain in those days grew as well as now, and, accordingly, became the kind of food that is easy to stock up for the winter. It's not hard to see - it's easy to show that the Vikings crammed grain/flour into most of their meals: porridge, soup, and meat, and, strangest to you, bread.
Vegetables were also grown locally. Individual comrades grew green peas, horse beans (horse beans), garlic, angelica, hops, parsnips and carrots. Eggs, milk, meat and fat for everyday cooking were obtained from birds and cattle, the same ones that are bred now. Only they were smaller - well, the movement of young Michurinians did not flourish among the Vikings, they had no time for that !!! The meat of domestic animals was not included in the daily diet, so fish, eggs of poultry and game were welcomed as an addition to porridge.

In the Viking Age most of The country was covered with oak forests, spruce forests and beech thickets. Therefore, Viking women collected seeds, berries from bushes, hazelnuts, mushrooms and even acorns for their "boar" husbands. After a long winter, an attribute of which was the eating of grain crops, the soldiers wanted vitamins, fresh vegetables, but where could they get them in the spring? Do not be surprised, the Vikings leaned on the grass! No, not hemp - in the fields and meadows you could get fresh roots and various ferns. True, it is not known for certain how widespread this practice of filling the body with vitamins was.

Using clay pots for cooking over an open fire

And now the fire is kindled, and the pot is placed on it so that the flame does not touch the handle. Clay does not conduct heat well, and therefore you need to constantly move it so that the pot warms up evenly. I note that the heating does not go from the bottom to the edges, as in iron dishes: only those parts that are directly affected by the fire are heated, so the food being cooked can burn in these places!

A wooden spoon can be safely left in the pot (only so that the fire does not reach it) while the food is slowly boiling, and it must be stirred regularly. But don't leave the spoon hanging over the rim of the pot - it doesn't belong there! The pot must be at least half full of food, otherwise it may crack due to the difference in temperature between the bottom and the edges of the pot. If food needs to be salted, do it just before serving. If salt is added during the cooking process, it will corrode the pot and make it porous and brittle. Hot stones for cooking (for boiling water, some kind of tea or soup) should be carefully put into the water using wet wooden tongs or ceramic shards.

Cooking equipment and kitchen utensils

The fireplace, the hearth, combined with the iron pot or earthenware pot, were the most important fixtures in the Viking Age. It was in them that dinners were prepared from what the family had at their disposal at that time. In addition to the hearth, a pit was sometimes made in front of it, in which meat and fish were cooked over the coals taken from the hearth. Iron skewers were also in use, however, much proves that most of the food of that era was cooked.

Water or soup could be heated using small stones heated over a fire - "cooking stones". If they are placed in a liquid, they quickly give off heat and cool down, after which the stones are removed and placed back into the fire. After several uses, the stones began to crumble and were thrown away. These fire-heated stones have been found in abundance around Viking Age houses, in hearths, and near them in frying pits. By the way, you should not make cooking stones from flint - it will explode right in the fire.

Clay pots were used for many purposes, and were mainly used for storage and cooking. It is worth noting that at that time in the kitchen they used spoons and scoops made of wood and bones and knives made of iron. Forks were used only in the case of cooking in large cauldrons - to fish out pieces of meat. Large ceramic shards were used to shovel ashes, get stones for cooking or for baking bread.

Cumbersome and difficult work was grinding grain in millstones, which in the Iron Age replaced primitive presses. Strength and patience were needed to grind grain into flour.

viking women

Just like everyone else, the men and women of the Viking Age needed the basic things to live: food, clothing and a home. Pets played an important role in their daily lives. Perhaps the most important animal for them was the horse. The Vikings' view of the world ran like a red thread through their daily lives, and the Law told what to do and what not to do. It was a dull life for the sake of the very process of life. Although, the Vikings played games, enjoyed music, poetry, sports and crafts: woodcarving and metalworking.

The Vikings lived in large family groups. Children, fathers and grandfathers lived together. When the eldest son took over the farm, he simultaneously became the head of the family and responsible for its well-being. He needed to get as much food as the family needed. His wife - the mistress of the estate - had to carefully monitor that there was plenty of food stored for the long and dark winters. She made butter and cheese, dried and smoked meat and fish for later storage, and also had to understand herbs to make medicines for the sick and wounded. Livestock was the responsibility of the mistress, and when her husband sailed away to raid or trade, went hunting, the woman remained the head of the estate. In a wealthy family, she had servants and slaves to do housework. A visible sign of the hostess's authority was the keys to the storerooms on her waist. When men went on long hikes, fished or hunted, women remained in charge of the estate. This led to them playing an important role in society.

Marriage

The girl was given in marriage at the age of 12-15 years. At this age, she could already be engaged in farming on the estate. But, nevertheless, she hoped for the help of older women in the family. The wedding was arranged between families and was seen as an alliance between two families with mutual help and protection. The girl herself did not have the opportunity to say anything.

Dowry

The bride brought linen and wool clothes, a spinning wheel, weaving tools and a bed to her husband's family as part of the dowry. A girl from a richer family could have silver and gold jewelry, livestock, a farm or even an entire estate as part of her dowry. Everything that she brought with her was then her property, and did not become part of her husband's estate. Her children could receive this property in the order of age inheritance.

Divorce

After marriage, a woman did not fully become part of her husband's family. She remained part of her own family, and if her husband mistreated her or the children, if the father of the family was too lazy to feed the family, or if he offended the wife's family in some way, then a divorce followed. To do this, the woman had to invite several "witnesses" and, in their presence, first go to the main entrance and from it to the bed of the married couple and proclaim herself divorced from her husband.

Children

Toddlers and infants after a divorce automatically remained with their mother. The older children were divided between the families of the spouses depending on their well-being. With property, inheritance and divorce rights, Viking women were more free than most of their European comrades of the day.

Women from poor families

On small farms there was no clear division of labor between men and women. Without servants and slaves, everyone had to sacrifice what they could for the family's survival in the harsh Scandinavian climate.

Slaves

Slaves had no rights other than the right to be the property of their master. They could be bought and sold, the owner or mistress could do with the slaves whatever they could think of. The master could kill one of his slaves and it was not considered murder by the public. If any other free man killed someone's slave, it was enough for him to reimburse the owner of the cost of the deceased as compensation. The price was approximately equal to the cost of a head of cattle. When a slave gave birth to a child, he automatically became the property of the owner. If a slave was sold pregnant, then the newborn became the property of the new owner.

Tings and their common features in various countries Scandinavia

In the 11th century, Bishop Rimbert, in his biographical work "The Life of St. Ansgar", speaking of the Scandinavians, notes that "... it is their custom that any public matter depends more on the unanimous will of the people than on royal power." And although this source is mainly devoted to Sweden, the above quote can be applied to all the Scandinavian peoples of that time.

The development of the Scandinavian countries went in different ways. If in Norway in the X century. due to the efforts of King Harald the Fair-Haired, a rather vast state with strong centralized power had already appeared, then on the island of Gotland, for example, there was complete internal self-government, although the Gotlanders were subordinate to the Swedish king; as for Iceland, then until the middle of the XIII century - i.e. to the subjugation of Norway - it is the clearest example of self-government based on Things. However, despite this difference in state structure, in all these regions, the Things continued to play an important role for a long time.

The reason for such a prevalence of the practice of tings seems to be quite simple. Only in the 9th century do the first Scandinavian states appear; before that, Scandinavia was quite homogeneous even in language, not to mention organization, and was ruled mainly by Things - an ancient form of self-government.

The ting organizations of the Scandinavian countries were similar to each other and often served as a reflection of the administrative division. So, on Gotland there were the following types tinga: ting hunderi (ting of a hundred), ting of settunga (ting of one sixth), ting of tridyunga (ting of a third); The supreme body of Gotland self-government was the Althing (thing of the entire island), which concentrated all power on the island with all its aspects: court, taxes, military affairs, foreign and domestic politics, legislation. It is characteristic that the higher the ting was, the greater the fines he could charge for violations (settung - no more than 3 marks, tridung - 6, althing - 12 marks). In Iceland, there was a division into quarters: each quarter combined three ting districts with local tings, and all quarters made up the Althing, where laws were passed and a court was held in all cases that could not be resolved by local tings. Sources point to the existence of a similar system in Norway, where the general ting was called Gulating. On Gulating, the court was judged by 36 judges: "twelve from the county (district) of Firdir, twelve from the county of Sogn and twelve from the county of Hardaland".

Both local and general tings had a number of common features in organization and conduct. "Egil's Saga" gives us a brief description of Gulating: "The place of judgment was a level place, surrounded by milestones of hazel. A rope was stretched between the milestones. It was called the boundary of the court. And in the circle sat the judges ... these judges sorted out litigations." As a rule, the place of the ting was a fairly large space, often with a hill, from which it was convenient to speak in front of big amount of people. The Icelandic sagas mention the Rock of the Law, from which lawsuits were announced and speeches were made by the plaintiff and the defendant at the Althing; in addition, there are references to various other toponyms (for example, Gathering Gorge), which gives reason to believe that the Althing occupied a fairly large space. Each group of participants in the Thing or even a separate family had its own dugout (tents in the "Saga of Egil"), which indicates both the duration of the Thing and the invariability of its venue. Local Things, most likely, were not so long.

The course of the trial at the Thing and its features

As the chapter "On the Thing" of the "Gutalaga" says, practically any tings should begin no later than noon - "... courts are sued and oaths are taken no later than sunset." Apparently, these were the customs not only in Gotland, since the night was usually associated among the Scandinavians with dark, unkind deeds. As for the form of the trial, the sources, including the laws, tell mainly about the murder trials, limiting themselves in other cases to indicating the amount of the fine. However, it is not surprising that such attention is paid to the murders. For a very long time in the Scandinavian countries there was a custom of revenge, when the injured party preferred to take the life of the offender instead of his money, and often without paying attention to the decisions of the Thing. The Nyala Saga, for example, tells of the enmity of two clans that stretched out a bloody string of murders after several years, despite the fact that both clans paid viru for each killed, hoping that the neighbors would be satisfied with this. In an effort to prevent such incidents, laws establish strict order calling the defendant to the Thing, appointing witnesses, etc. Non-observance of these rules (and even more so independent reprisal) could lead to the fact that the plaintiff himself risked being in the position of a defendant. "Gutalag" gives us a striking example of such a law: it is the chapter "On killing a person." It speaks of the so-called "circle of peace", which can be carried out by a person who has committed a murder, and which grants him immunity until trial; the church and the vicarage give the same inviolability.

Following the Westgötalag, immediate revenge for the murder was allowed. The heirs of the murdered had the right to immediately, "in his footsteps", hack the killer. Then one person was put against another, and no fines were to be paid by either side. If there was no immediate vengeance, then the murderer should have immediately announced the murder at the next Thing; if he did not do this, then the heir could achieve the immediate deprivation of the world (outlawing). If the murder was announced, the case was initiated only at the third Thing after the murder, because. before that, the killer could negotiate with the injured party by paying the virus. At the third Thing, the heir was to bring charges; if there were several killers, he had the right to accuse up to six people, designating them as accomplices, advisers and those present. After that, the Thing appointed an endag - as they suggest, a fixed day for hearing the case (endag is also mentioned in the same meaning in Norwegian sources). At the endag, the heir with an oath had to introduce six witnesses to the Thing to confirm his accusation and accuse the killer already, so to speak, in the face: "You directed the point at him, and you are his true killer." At the next Thing, called Segnarting, the heir had to confirm that at the endag he had fulfilled everything that was prescribed by law, and then they had to pass a sentence and sentence the murderer to deprivation of peace. Even at this stage, the killer had a chance to negotiate with the heir to pay the vira. All participants in the crime, except for the one who was designated as the killer, had the right to defend themselves against the prosecution.

The Nyala Saga contains a detailed description of such a lawsuit, so it makes sense to follow the course of the trial from this source in order to notice the characteristic features of the Thing trials - especially since the Things were perhaps most developed in Iceland.

First, the plaintiff had to announce the murder charge to the nine closest neighbors of the murder scene - they became witnesses for the prosecution. At the Thing, the plaintiff (or the person to whom the plaintiff, for one reason or another, in the presence of witnesses, transferred the conduct of the case) took an oath that he would honestly conduct the case, and announced the charge. By the way, charges in all cases were brought on the same day, so at the Althingi it often took the whole first day. Only after the accusation of all cases did the courts begin.

I call you as witnesses that I accuse (defendant's name) of inflicting (name of the killed) a wound of the intestines or bones, which turned out to be fatal and from which (the killed) died at the place where (the accused) illegally attacked ( killed). I say that for this he should be outlawed* and exiled, and no one should give him food or give him any help. I say that he must be deprived of all good and half of it must go to me, and the other half to those people from the quarter who are entitled to the good of the outlawed. I announce this to the court of the quarter, in which, by law, this charge should be considered. I declare it by law. I announce this from the Rock of the Law for all to hear. I announce that (the accused) is to be tried this summer and outlawed.

* in this case, the plaintiff demands the most severe punishment - expulsion and outlawing, after which, in fact, anyone on the territory of the country could kill the accused without the threat of trial. As sources show, such sentences were quite rare, because. The court took into account the arguments of the defendant

Other formulations were no less complicated, from the announcement of witnesses to the verdict. And the abundance of such difficulties could not but affect the course of the process. The party against which the accusations were made tried in every possible way to find fault with the slightest inaccuracy in the plaintiff's speech and, on this basis, declare the lawsuit insolvent - this was considered legal. Therefore, for example, in the same Nyala Saga, the plaintiff additionally specifies:
- I call you to witness that I protect myself from having my case declared illegal if I express myself incorrectly or make a reservation. I reserve the right to correct all my words until I state my case correctly. I call you to witness for yourself or for others who need or benefit from this testimony.

Witnesses for the prosecution and the judges took an oath, after which the witnesses confirmed that the accusation was read out correctly. These same witnesses then had to decide the case. However, unlike Gutalag, in the Icelandic Althing the killer had the right to protection in any case. Thus, he had the right to remove "unqualified" neighbors, that is, people who were related to the plaintiff and were thus interested in the verdict. Neighbors who “did not sit on their own land” were also considered ineligible, i.e. who did not own land. In this case, it was possible to initiate a counter-charge of mishandling the case, since. the law required nine people to make the decision. However, as Nyala's Saga shows, if most of the neighbors remained, they could still decide, and the plaintiff paid a fine for all those absent; the accusation of improper conduct of the case was already considered at the next Thing.

One should not, of course, think that the final verdict was passed by the plaintiff's neighbors. The neighbors only announced their decision to the judges, who had the last word. In this regard, perhaps, attention should be paid to the judges of the Things themselves.

Until the 12th-13th centuries, there were practically no written laws in Scandinavia, and all provisions had to be memorized. This was the duty of the lagmans, "keepers of the laws", in Sweden and Norway, and of the law-speakers in Iceland. Most often they were judges or could give advice in case of a complicated case, even if they did not participate in the trial. As the Westgötalag says, "... the lagman must be the son of a bond," i.e. a free-born man who owns the land. It also says that the landsting, the ting of the entire district, acquired its powers only if the lagman was present at it - this was a guarantee that the laws would be observed. Apparently, sub-war establishments operated on the territory of the entire region under consideration. The Icelandic sagas speak of law-speakers with great respect. Having such a person on your side during litigation often meant the success or failure of the whole case. Therefore, the law-speakers had to be absolutely neutral, it was illegal to persuade them to their side with the help of money or gifts during the Thing.

However, there were not so many lagmans to deal with all matters, especially at the Althingi, so the bulk of the judges were bonds, who also performed a kind administrative function. In Iceland they were called godis. This name, which also denoted a pagan priest who extended spiritual power to his area - godord - was preserved in Iceland after the adoption of Christianity. The godords formed the courts of the quarters, with three dozen judges in each quarter. These judges not only made a decision, but also ensured that the order of the case was observed. Sometimes during the trial, to make a final decision, each of the parties appointed six judges, who together decided the case. The same order is described in the Norwegian "Nyala's Saga".

In Nyala's Saga, the defense managed to cheat. Immediately after the announcement of the accusation, the accused (who, by the way, committed a serious crime) urgently moved to the goord of another Thing, after which the litigation was declared insolvent, because. it should have begun in the court of the other quarter. This gave rise to a charge of mishandling, which was referred to the Fifth Court.
The Fifth Court is a body that took place, apparently, only in Iceland, and shows that the Thing as a legal instance continued to develop. In the same "Njal's Saga" it is said that Njal, who was one of the best experts in the laws, proposed to Skafti, the chief law-speaker of Iceland in 1004, to arrange another court, in addition to the four courts of quarters, which would deal with cases "... o all sorts of disorder at the Thing, about perjury and false testimony, ... about those who gave bribes ..", as well as ".. unresolved cases in which the judges in the courts of quarters could not agree." Such cases, judging by the complexity of the court process, were enough. For the new court, new goords were established, and the best experts in the laws in quarters, twelve out of a quarter, were to be included in the composition of the court. In order for the legal number of judges - thirty-six - not to be violated, each side had to remove six judges from the court before discussing the decision. At the same time, the defender could not withdraw his judges, then the plaintiff had to withdraw all twelve. It is characteristic that even this detail could greatly influence the outcome of the case. The "Nyala Saga" describes a case when the accusing party, having all the evidence and evidence in hand, did not deduce right amount judges (who even pronounced a verdict) and because of this lost the case.

Thus, as can be seen from the above examples, the Thing judiciary was quite developed. However, it is impossible not to notice that the intention to limit the ancient custom of blood feud in every possible way by various legal measures provided the participants in the process with a lot of reasons for "chicanery" (an interesting example is given in the "Saga of Hrafnkel Godi" - the accused could not evade the accusation from himself only because - for the crowd did not hear the speech of the accuser). It was also not possible to solve the problem of forceful settlement of disputes.

The balance of power and right at the Thing

Despite the desire to resolve disputes by legal means, the old customs, especially in Iceland, were still too strong. However, even in the united Norway of King Harald there were cases when the lawsuit was decided, for example, by a duel. In particular, "Egil's Saga" tells about a property dispute between two bonds, and while the court went on as usual - witnesses were brought, oaths were taken - one of them, Egil himself, said:
- I do not need oaths instead of property. I propose another law, namely, to fight here at the Thing, and let whoever wins win the good.
Egil's offer was legal, and common in the old days. Everyone then had the right to challenge the other to a duel, whether the defendant or the plaintiff.

The same custom can be traced from other sources. So, in the "Gutalag" in the chapter "On the world of the Thing" it is said that any violation of the world of the Thing was strictly prosecuted, whether it was a punch and, of course, murder, but "... except for the case when a person was killed out of revenge." The Vestgetalag, in turn, generally equates murder at the Thing with a "crime", that is, with a crime that cannot be expiated by a fine. In such cases, the person was expelled from the country.

Speaking of Norway, it is necessary to touch upon such an important problem as the relationship between the Things and centralized power, which was initiated in the IX century through the efforts of King Harald the Fair-Haired. The "Egil Saga" shows that the king observed customs, tried not to interfere in the course of the court, and did not even have weapons (although, of course, a fully prepared squad was in his parking lot). However, now both sides turned not to the judges, but to the king. It is even more significant that the judges, before hearing evidence in a case, ask the king if he would not forbid listening to them. Finally, when it came to one of the king's relatives (and everything was not in favor of the relative), his warriors "... ran to the place of court, broke the hazel milestones, cut the ropes stretched between them and dispersed the judges. There was a great noise at the Thing, but All the people there were unarmed." Thus, the king felt his strength and, if necessary, made it clear that power did not belong to the Thing. At the same time, he preserved the institution of Things, because, firstly, they took on an important judicial function, and secondly, they were an old and familiar tradition, the breaking of which could restore too many against the king.

A somewhat different situation developed in Sweden, as can be seen from the Vestgötalag, a law written in the 13th century. Although by this time Sweden was already formally a single kingdom, in fact it was two federations: Svealand and Götaland, which, in turn, were divided into many lands - lands. Therefore, the Things here had greater independence from the kings. Thus, in the Westgötalag it is said that if the king wants to carry out the court, he must appoint a commission. At the Thing, the elected lagman always judges.

Speaking of Iceland, one should first outline some of the features characteristic of this island at that time. The active settlement of Iceland is associated primarily with the activities of the same Harald the Fair-Haired, although it began, as they assume, before him. Egil's saga says:
King Harald appropriated hereditary possessions in each county and all the land, inhabited and uninhabited, as well as the sea and waters. All bonds were supposed to become land holders dependent on him ... He forced everyone to choose one of two things - either go to his service, or leave the country ... Lumberjacks and salt workers, fishermen and hunters - they all also had to obey him. From this oppression, many fled the country, and then many vast, still empty lands were settled ... At the same time, Iceland was discovered ...

There was no centralized power in Iceland, because. first of all, people who did not like such a power settled there. Therefore, this country remained the territories of free community-bonds, who were full masters in their estates, and did not know other laws, except for the decisions of the Things. However, even here there were nuances. The richest households, as a rule, had more support in their disputes at the Thing; the same can be said about the people invested with the power of the godi. The already mentioned "Saga of Hrafnkel Godi" tells about a bond who entered into a lawsuit with a very influential person - Hrafnkel Godi himself - and tried to find support from other influential people:

But everyone says the same thing: no one considers himself so indebted to Himself * as to enter into a lawsuit with Hrafnkel Godi and thereby endanger his good name. They also add that almost everyone who competed with Hrafnkel at the Thing met the same fate: Hrafnkel forced them all to abandon the case that they started against him ...

* bond name
And even after Sam was still able to find support and even achieve an outlaw for Hrafnkel, the godi comes to his home and "... lives as if nothing had happened."
Often revenge was nevertheless carried out (there are many similar examples in the Icelandic sagas), despite the decision of the Thing - or, conversely, because of its decisions. A very interesting example is the litigation described in the Nyala Saga. When, due to formal errors, the accusing side lost the case, all its supporters took up arms and, right at the Thing, began to kill opponents who answered them the same. Only the next day, thanks to the appeal of all the judges and the efforts of all the neutral participants in the Thing, the warring parties reconciled.
It was decided to refer the case to twelve judges, and as a sign of this, everyone shook hands with each other ... Murders on both sides were equated to each other, and for those that turned out to be in excess of this, a vira was laid ...

Skalds

Poets were called skalds in Scandinavia. Good skalds, who easily folded visas and nids, were highly valued and respected by the Normans. and not just like that. Another One in the "Speech of the High" said that the runes were given to people by the Gods and filled with magic. A person who simply KNOWED all twenty-five runes already possessed considerable magical power. What then to say about the skalds, for whom the runes served as a tool for work?

Rarely did any of the kings (not to mention simple bonds) allow himself to offend the skald, because he could take revenge. And not with a sword or an ax, but with a nida, a blasphemous verse. After such a revenge, luck could turn away from the offender (and what could be worse?), he could get sick and even die, especially if the skald was really "tasting the Blood of Kvasir", Ases often listened to such people. The sagas describe a case when the king severely insulted the skald. He immediately responded by folding the needle. As a result, the king fell ill, and nothing cured the disease. He had to send for the same skald and numerous gifts to ask his forgiveness.

The second "type of activity" of the skalds was the visas - glorifications, generously rewarded by the listeners. For a good visa, a skald could get anything: from a ring, a rich cloak or an ax lined with silver, to a ship loaded with gold.

But, no matter how tempting it may sound, not everyone could become a skald. This required a special gift, and anyone familiar with Scandinavian poetry will understand me. Skald was obliged to compose kennings, thanks to which Scandinavian poetry has that unique (albeit somewhat peculiar) beauty and "flavor".

The Saga of Harald and the Troll

Harald Jarl
Collected on a trip
Your most loyal people.

armed them,
And seated
Fourteen strong boats.

Harald Jarl
Druzhine said:
"With you, I'm invincible!

We are with you, as before,
Let's go along the coast
Leaving only fire and smoke!"

The squad was screaming
banged with swords,
Attracting the attention of the gods.

And everyone was tall
Blue-eyed, fair-haired,
And everyone has helmets - WITHOUT horns!

The skalds sang
About the crucible of a blizzard,
Good luck jarl sul,

The oars fluttered
The splashes sparkled
The ship's sides creaked...

And was this year
Have a good trip
They found a lot of prey.

contentedly fighting,
Washed with blood,
They touched their native land.

Parting with weapons
Helmets in a semicircle,
They hugged their loved ones.

All growing up the same
Blue-eyed, fair-haired,
But there was no jarl among them.

"As soon as we left the fjord,
Troll nasty snout
She climbed out of the water on us.

We put axes and bows into action,
And Mjolnir was called from Thor's hands,
And the troll is neither here nor there!

To meet a troll is a bad omen,
Since childhood, we all know perfectly well about this,
But the jarl did not dare to turn back.

He only shouted: “One! Look at this!
Now I will chop the enemy into meatballs!"
Swinging an ax, he fell overboard.

Boiled water, and the foam boiled -
That our Harald fought skillfully with the troll,
The skald took a sip of beer, and everyone fell silent.

"And that battle lasted. Probably an hour,
When the water finally subsided,
Only the shield of the painted wave was rocked ...

No troll, no jarl - that was the finale!"
Skald summing up, shook his head.

People, envying glory to the one who got it,
Remember the troll who killed the jarl!
Trolls, and you, going to the seas,
Remember the Jarl, the killer of the troll!

The Saga of the Unfortunate Viking

I lie staring at the stars
Indulging in longing and sadness.
I'd like to eat sooner or later
If only the waves weren't so strong.

The sail is torn to shreds by the wind,
Mice ate all the provisions,
And the day turns to night
And the waves are getting higher.

My Drakkar named "Raven"
He moans loudly, but does not give up.
But I know for sure that soon
He will drink plenty of sea water.

I'll go down to the bottom with him
Waving at first weak arms,
I will sing sagas to dumb fish,
Yes, I will play tavlei with crabs.

Skalds will compose beautiful songs
About the brave Helgs and Eiriks,
About the ship that they decided to call "Titan",
Unable to swim to shore.

Well, maybe I'll swim
I will breathe the smell of cheese with my free chest,
And I'll tell you: "What a troll!
(Here I hit the mast painfully!).

I will say: "I managed, I swam!
You weep with joy!"
I hear a splash - breaking out of strength,
A shark is circling overboard.

I'll probably let go of my beard,
I will braid it in two braids,
Get stuck in it, in case of hunger,
There will be bread and pieces of sausage.

I will kill the jarl who
We were told that there would be land.
And then I'll go to the mountains -
I will not survive near the sea.

No, not in the mountains, there may be trolls,
I've been afraid of trolls since childhood.
If there is one will,
I will put up with the proximity of the sea

The Saga of Leif Bardsson and the Trollin

The western fjord was enveloped in darkness,
Between him and the long range of mountains,
Keeping silence and sleepy peace,
Leif Bardsson's court stood in the valley.

The troll descended from the mountains to the valley
And on the grass, washed by the rain,
She rushed to Leif's house,
Sheltered at night, like a cloak.

Silently creeping up to the dwelling of people,
The troll sat down near the door.
"Come out, Leif, my dear, hurry!"
Hiding her eyes from timidity, she sang.

"I've been watching you for a long time,
You struck me to the very heart.
I'm melting without you like an iceberg
And not a single world without you is sweet to me!

Twelve windmills will be yours
I made their wings golden
And millstones of fiery copper!

This magical blade will be yours,
Seeing him, the enemies run as fast as they can,
He will lead you to victory!

Accept twelve horses as a gift from me,
To surpass them, there is no horse in the world,
Raised their elves wondrous country!

I'll also give you a shirt
The king is not ashamed to wear such
It is sewn from the finest silk!

I beg you, Leif, dear, give me an answer,
Or what else do you need from me?
Just answer me "yes" or "no"
Tell me, do you agree to become my husband?

"I would accept your gifts,
If you were human.
But you are the mistress of the mountain,
Your year for people will be a century!

Leif answered, looking to the east,
Where, young and pure,
Warming the Norwegian land with breath,
The sun rose radiant.

"Oh, no, I'm dead! Why did I come!
And the blood runs cold in my veins...
Then the sun touched her; just a rock
Reminds me of the poor troll.

That rock is still standing
In the valley that the Troll proudly named,
Lying behind a long chain of mountains
Close to West Fjord.

The saga of king and beer

There was a great feast
At the king's house
Everyone had fun
except for the king.

Eyebrows furrowed,
Looked from under the braids.
About excess beer
The red nose spoke.

Kuhn Bergthor,
sitting nearby,
Twitched - as if
Burn her with a look

King. Slowly
Rising from the throne
Hall looked around
He laughed hard.

"What, have fun
Woe not knowing?
Think I... that...
I don't understand?

After all, each of you
Whether he is my friend or brother,
My place
I would be glad to take!

On my kyunu
Cast your eyes;
No, they wished
And seas of support!

"The king is drunk!"
A whisper was heard.
"The troll did it
Swamp of thoughts!"

What did you say?
Well, repeat!"
The king roared to the wall,
Where is the lari

trotted,
A little drunk
But suddenly stumbled
About the jarl's leg.

After the flight
It did not last long -
King in the cauldron
Landed in a pub.

All idle people
He froze in amazement.
The king gurgled...
And didn't surface again.

Have less beer
Drunk to them
Maybe the end of the saga
Would be different.

Benefits of beer
Not much at all.
To someone it
Directly to the house to Hel road.

It's Terrible
He spoke many times.
Skald's words
Just repeated.

The Saga of Harald Hardraad

The youth, who lived according to the code of honor, having known navigation since childhood, turned their eyes to foreign shores, where they were ready to commit bloody, but heroic deeds, not disdaining either robbery or profit, gaining their reputation, but leaving behind a nightmarish memory. Even in their early youth, Viking boys were expected (and encouraged) to display a fighting spirit according to the precepts of "Havamal".
The sagas tell how Olaf, the Norwegian warrior king, once sat three of his half-brothers on his knees and began to frighten them with terrible grimaces. The older ones, Guttorm and Halfdan, trembled with fear, and the three-year-old Harald boldly looked into the eyes of the formidable monarch and pulled his mustache with all his might. Olaf was delighted: "One day you will become an avenger, kinsman."

The next day, Harald proved once again that Viking blood flows in his veins. Olaf asked the brothers what they wanted more than anything in the world. Guttorm, stretching out his little hands, wished to have more land than the ten largest neighboring landowners in order to grow a lot of wheat. "There will be plenty of grain," the king agreed. "And what about you, Halfdan?" Halfdan dreamed of boundless herds of cows: "And when they descend to the lake to drink, there will be so many of them that they will surround the whole lake with a dense ring." "Well, you will live in a big way," said the king. And what did little Harald want? "I want an army!" he declared. "so big that my warriors will eat all the cows of Brother Halfdan in one sitting!" Olaf laughed and said to the baby's mother, "You are raising a king." As it turned out, Olaf was right. When the boy grew up, he became King Harald Hardraade and died during the invasion of England in 1066, shortly before the successful campaign of William the Conqueror.

Song of the "brave" skald

Again the squad goes into battle,
Again screams, the sound of axes.
I put on an embroidered cloak,
I do not climb into battle, I am for peace!

I don't feel like fighting
I don't like to kill...
Oh, the arrow found Gerrod -
We have to crawl further.

So what am I on about? Oh, about the battle
Where the swearing judgment is being held.
If the judge is sharper than a razor,
Judgment is always cool.

Who? I am not worthy of honor
Die with a sword in hand?
Seeing how a true warrior,
Glitter of Valhalla in the distance?

It hurts! I'm not in a hurry!
I am not a warrior, I am a poet.
I want - I ask without laughter! -
Many more years to live.

People fall like pines
Under the blow of an axe.
There is a berserker with an evil look
Rushing here ... And I have to go!

***
He who tasted honey did not leave,
The head flew off his shoulders.
Didn't add a year
This fiery speech!

Song of the Vikings

Again the forehead cools the steel helmet,
Salt spray in the face fly.
They call us Vikings, so it's hardly
We have a way back...

They fear us and hate us
We are never expected anywhere.
And so it will be as long as our eyes see
The trail of alien ships on the water...

Odin and Thor were forgotten on the shore,
If you don't want to believe in Valhalla, don't!
The one who takes life will not be called a thief,
The wind is fair to us, and death!

And not everyone will see old age -
We have been given a different fate:
The sail will be the funeral pyre,
And the wave will be our mound ...

Odin and Thor were forgotten on the shore,
If you don't want to believe in Valhalla, don't!
The one who takes life will not be called a thief,
The wind is fair to us, and death!

What do we know about Vikings? In the minds of most people, these are mighty warriors who lived somewhere in the north. They made brutal raids, traveled the seas, wore horned helmets and heavy weapons. But what does official history say about the Vikings?

Many historical documents, chronicles and archaeological finds have been preserved that can tell about the Vikings in sufficient detail.

First of all, you need to understand that Viking is a self-name, that is, the word that the ancient Scandinavians themselves called themselves. More precisely, those people who abandoned their habitable places and went on long voyages in search of new lands of habitation.

The Vikings were sailors, people from the tribes that inhabited modern Scandinavia. The Vikings made their travels and conquests in the 8th-11th centuries. This was a period when the decomposition of the tribal way of life took place in Northern Europe and early feudal relations were formed.

Other peoples called the Vikings in different ways. In Europe they were called Normans (literally - "northern people" ), and the Russians called them Varangians. Thus, in the Russian tradition, the Viking and the Varangian are about the same thing.

How and why did the Vikings appear?

The Vikings left their native lands and embarked on risky campaigns not from a good life. The tribal system was shattered, the power of the emerging nobility increased, and many free people simply did not have enough resources to exist.

Since ancient times, the Scandinavians lived by the sea, had excellent sailing skills, knew how. It is not surprising that the most active and courageous people began to unite and embark on travels. It is known that the Vikings sailed not only in the North and Baltic Seas: they went to the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea.

Viking character

According to contemporaries, the Vikings were distinguished by militancy, cruelty, and determination. They hunted by raids on the coastal lands of other peoples, piracy, and the capture of entire regions. At the same time, the Normans very quickly mixed with the enslaved peoples, mastered their language and way of life.


Initially, the Vikings were pagans, worshiped the ancient pan-Germanic deities. But gradually many of them adopted Christianity and assimilated in the conquered territories. Christian religion, setting hard feudal relations, as well as a favorable economic situation, contributed to the fact that the violent temper of the Vikings was gradually pacified, and in the 11th century the Norman conquests ceased.

viking conquests

The Vikings made their raids throughout Northern Europe, but also visited other, more remote regions. Two major Norman conquests are known: England and France.

In the 10th century, the Normans conquered northern France, which is still called Normandy to this day. As for the British Isles, Viking attacks here occurred in waves over several centuries. At the beginning of the 11th century, the King of Normandy, William the Conqueror, reigned on the English throne.

In their campaigns of conquest, the Vikings reached Ireland and Sicily. Completely colonized Iceland, left their traces on the American continent.

Varangian trace in Russian history

Relations between the Slavs and the Vikings developed more peacefully. There were periods when the ancient Russians fought with the Scandinavians, at other times alliances were concluded. The ancient Novgorodians invited the Vikings as military mercenaries, providing them with land to live in and a special status. Numerous Scandinavian burials are found on the territory of our country, indicating that the Vikings lived among the Slavs, but until some time they did not assimilate with them.

Many historians are adherents of the "Norman theory", according to which the Vikings were the founders of princely power and the state itself in Ancient Rus'.

viking culture

An amazing fact: severe in temper, unpretentious in everyday life, accustomed to difficult conditions, the Vikings created a unique cultural tradition.


We are talking about skaldic poetry and ancient sagas, which in many ways became a source of information about the Normans.

“The Viking sword, which looked like a heavy iron stick, reminded me of a whole era when tall, fair-haired warriors with bulging eyes traveled on their boats, as if on sea horses, half the world - from the Caspian Sea to America - leaving here, in Scotland, not only the memory of yourself, but also a part of yourself.
Vladimir Shcherbakov. "Scottish tale."

In France they were called Normans, in Rus' - Vikings. Vikings - this is how the people who lived on the territory of present-day Norway, Denmark and Sweden called themselves from about 800 to 1100 AD.
The Viking Age lasted for a rather short period of time, something like 2 and a half centuries. 800-1050 AD, to be more precise, since 793, when the monastery on Lindisfarne, located near the northeast coast of England, became the object of a Viking attack.

Wars and feasts are two favorite pastimes of the Vikings. Swift sea robbers on ships bearing sonorous names, for example, the "Ocean Bull", "Wind Raven", raided the coast of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and took tribute from the conquered. Their desperate berserk warriors fought like mad, even without armor. Before the battle, the berserkers gnashed their teeth, biting the edges of their shields. The cruel gods of the Vikings - aces were pleased with the warriors who died in battle.

The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "Vikingr". Regarding its origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which raises it to "vik" - a fiord, a bay. The word "Viking" (lit. "man from the fiord") was used to refer to robbers who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. They were known in Scandinavia long before they became notorious in Europe.
Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, to France, Spain, Italy or North Africa - they ruthlessly plundered and seized foreign lands.

In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. The Danish Vikings conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland. Together they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants created colonies on the islands of the North Atlantic - Iceland (in the ancient language - "ice land") and Greenland ("green land": then the climate there was warmer than now!) and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America , however, did not last long. The Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east of the Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, descending along the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer navigators.

There are different interpretations of the reasons for the violent outburst of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of the southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was unlikely that there could be a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms in the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, swallowed up by dynastic strife. During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The defeated leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victorious leaders, shamelessly accepted unhindered robbery as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained authority through participation in one or more campaigns. Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were attracted not only by the lure of prey. The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

The northern lands are quite poor and simply physically unable to feed the population. Therefore, in order to feed their families, the men boarded ships and went to fight, and then to trade in the loot. And for war, you also need an appropriate tool - weapons and equipment. The equipment of a sailor warrior was very simple. The Vikings rarely even wore chain mail and other armor; their usual clothes are a quilted jacket and warm pants. The Vikings were sailors, and heavy armor is both additional weight on the ship and something that can quickly sink to the bottom, being overboard. Yes, and fighting in a boarding battle, dressed in heavy armor, is simply inconvenient. Of the metal ammunition, the warrior had only a simple helmet that protected his head.

During the battle, one of the warriors always carried the banner of the clan. This was an extremely honorable duty, and only the chosen one could become a standard-bearer - it was believed that the banner had miraculous power, helping not only to win in battle, but also to leave the bearer unharmed. But when the advantage of the enemy became obvious, the main task for the warriors was to save the life of their king. To do this, the Vikings surrounded him with a ring and shielded him with shields. If the king still died, they fought to the last drop of blood next to his body.

The Scandinavians have used the spear since ancient times. This is evidenced by numerous finds dating from the beginning of our era and earlier. The northern spear had a shaft about five feet long with a long, up to 18 inches, wide leaf-shaped tip. Such a spear could both stab and chop (which the Vikings, in fact, did with success). Of course, such a spear weighed a lot, and therefore it was not easy to throw it, although this also happened (if we turn to myths, Odin fought with the Gungnir spear, which always returned to the owner after the throw). One can imagine the physical form of a person capable of throwing such a spear. However, there were special throwing spears similar to European darts. Such spears were shorter, with a narrower tip.

The next step is the axe. a relatively small hatchet on a long (about 90 cm) handle. A second successful blow with the ax was usually not required, and therefore the ax also had a moral impact on the enemy. It didn't take much imagination to figure out what to expect from the axe. On the other hand, the ax is good in attack, it has many disadvantages in defense. Even a spearman is able to disarm a warrior with an ax by catching it at the junction of the blade and handle and pulling it out of the hands of the owner.

There is no doubt about the popularity of axes, and not only among ordinary hirdmanns, but also leaders. It is unlikely that the nickname of Eirik Haraldsson, the son of the famous Harald Harfagr (Fair-haired) - Eirik Blodeks (Bloody Ax) arose from scratch.

One of the factors behind the Norman victory at Hastings is thought to have been more advanced weapons. Wilhelm's army was armed with iron axes, while the Anglo-Saxons entered the battlefield with stone axes. But, it should be noted, stone axes were also valued by the Vikings. The reason for this was the age of the weapon, which gave reason to consider it endowed with magical properties. Such weapons, carefully preserved, were passed down from generation to generation.

Perhaps the most common weapon in Europe was the sword. He did not bypass Scandinavia.

The first northern swords are single-edged blades, rather long knives than short swords. However, they soon “grew up” noticeably, and then completely turned into a weapon, which is now known as the “Viking sword”.

The Viking sword is another historical type of sword, the result of the work of blacksmiths, combining increased strength, protective qualities and sharpness, "beauty" and "mysticism" of this type of sword.

During the Viking Age, swords increased somewhat in length (up to 930 mm) and acquired a slightly sharper end of the blade and the tip itself. These blades had deep grooves along their entire length, while they still had one-handed handles with lobed or triangular pommel. The grooves on the blade were used to increase the strength and resilience of the sword while reducing the weight of the sword. This reduction in the weight of the sword and the increase in its resilience could allow the swordsman to swing faster and perform more difficult cuts, while at the same time allowing the sword to bend without breaking when striking bone.

A strip of metal was twisted and forged for a long time, repeating this process many times. The result was high quality damask steel, with the right combination of strength, flexibility and edge retention. Blacksmiths conjured over each sword for a very long time. They say that in those days it was the Vikings who had much more knowledge of the process of melting, forging and tempering iron than the inhabitants of the rest of Europe.

The fighting technique of the Scandinavians did not differ much from the fighting techniques of other peoples of Europe at that time. It should be remembered that in the early Middle Ages, and especially in the Viking Age, there was no special art of swordsmanship. A wide swing, a blow in which all the strength of a warrior was invested - that's the whole technique. The Vikings did not have stabbing blows, which, accordingly, left their mark on the weapon. Specifically, this was expressed in the rounding, which often ended with a Scandinavian sword.

The Vikings have always been famous for the art of decorating their weapons. Which, however, was not surprising. The Scandinavians endowed the weapon with a personality, and therefore it is quite logical to try to distinguish it from the rest of the weapon. Often, a weapon that faithfully served its owner was given a name known to people no less than the name of its owner. So sonorous names arose, like "RaunijaR" - testing, "Gunnlogs" - the flame of battle, Gramr (Violent), Grásíða (Grey sides), Gunnlogi (Flame of battle), Fotbitr (Foot eater), Leggbir (Foot eater), Kuernbut (Destroyer of stones), Skrofnung (Bite), Nadr (Viper) and Naegling (Piercing) .... Axes were laid out in gold and silver patterns, the scabbards and hilts of swords were also decorated with gold and silver, the blades were covered with runes.

Runes were also widely used for magical purposes, both in Scandinavia itself and beyond. Each rune had its own meaning, its own hidden meaning, known only to the initiates. The Vikings believed that with the help of runes it was possible to heal and destroy enemies, give weapons strength and blunt enemy swords. They believed that such a sword could Hard time even show the way to sailors lost in the fjords.

Such an expensive weapon as a sword among the Vikings was not only a weapon or a badge of distinction. Swords were valued as family treasures. So, one bas-relief depicted a scene from the Scandinavian heroic epic, when the father refused to give his son a sword on his first campaign, but the compassionate mother secretly took out the sword and handed it to her son.

At first, among the Vikings, there was a custom - once a year to come to their native places, unload booty, slaves, products. But, the farther from their homeland their drakkar ships crawled, the more difficult it became to return home. Drakkars often stopped for the winter in unknown lands, and some warriors, having married, remained there forever. Especially the youth. Yes, and it became more difficult to fight, over time. Gradually, the descendants of cruel warriors began to trade more than fight, and this requires other skills and a mindset. And the sword began to gradually lose its halo of a mystical deity...
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From the Internet

In France they were called Normans, in Rus' - Vikings. The Vikings were the names given to themselves by people who lived in what is now Norway, Denmark and Sweden from around 800 to 1100 AD.

Wars and feasts are two favorite pastimes of the Vikings. Swift sea robbers on ships bearing sonorous names, for example, the “Ocean Bull”, “Wind Raven”, raided the coasts of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and took tribute from the conquered. Their desperate berserk warriors fought like mad, even without armor. Before the battle, the berserkers gnashed their teeth, biting the edges of their shields. The cruel gods of the Vikings - aces were pleased with the warriors who died in battle.

Discoverers of Iceland

But it was these ruthless warriors who discovered the islands of Iceland (in the ancient language - “ice land”) and Greenland (“green land”: then the climate there was warmer than now!). And the Viking leader Leif the Happy in 1000, sailing from Greenland, landed in North America, on the island of Newfoundland. The Vikings called the open land Vinland - "rich". Due to skirmishes with the Indians and among themselves, the Vikings soon left and forgot America, lost contact with Greenland.

Viking Age

And their songs about heroes and travelers have survived to our time - sagas and the Icelandic parliament Althing - the first popular assembly in Europe.

The beginning of the Viking Age is considered to be the year 793. This year there was a famous Norman attack on the monastery, located on the island of Lindisfarne (north-east of Great Britain). It was then that England, and soon the whole of Europe, learned about the terrible "northern people" and their dragon-headed ships. In 794 they “visited” the nearby island of Wearmus (there was also a monastery there), and in 802-806 they reached the Isle of Man and Iona (the west coast of Scotland)

First sack of London

Twenty years later, the Normans gathered a large army to march on England and France. In 825 the Vikings landed in England, and in 836 London was sacked for the first time. In 845, the Danes captured Hamburg, and the city was so ruined that the episcopate, located in Hamburg, had to be moved to Bremen. In 851, 350 ships again appeared off the coast of England, this time London and Canterbury were captured (and of course plundered).

Creation of the state Normans Danlo

In 866, several ships were carried by a storm to the coast of Scotland, where the Normans had to spend the winter. In the following year, 867, the new state of Danlo (Danelaw) was formed. It included Northumbria, East Anglia, part of Essex and Mercia. Danlo existed until 878. At the same time, a large fleet attacked England again, London was again captured, and then the Normans moved to France. In 885, Rouen was captured, and Paris was under siege (in 845, in 857 and 861, Paris had already been sacked). Having received a ransom, the Vikings lifted the siege and withdrew to the northwestern part of France, which in 911 was transferred to the Norwegian Rollo. The region was named Normandy.

Conquest of England in the 10th century

At the beginning of the tenth century, the Danes again tried to capture England, which they succeeded only in 1016. The Anglo-Saxons managed to throw off their power only after forty years, in 1050. But they did not have time to enjoy freedom. In 1066, a huge fleet under the command of William the Conqueror, a native of Normandy, attacked England. After the Battle of Hastings, the Normans took over England.

Separation into Norwegians and Icelanders

In 861, the Scandinavians learned about Iceland from the Swede Gardar Svafarsson. Shortly thereafter, in 872, the unification of Norway by Harald Fairhair began, and many Norwegians fled to Iceland. According to some sources, between 20,000 and 30,000 Norwegians moved to Iceland before 930. Later they began to call themselves Icelanders, thus separating themselves from the Norwegians and other Scandinavian peoples.

Eirik Raud (Redhead) founder of the Brattalid settlement

In 983, a man named Eirik Raud (Redhead) was expelled from Iceland for murder for three years. He went in search of a country that was rumored to be seen to the west of Iceland. He managed to find this country, which he called Greenland ("Green Country"), which sounds rather strange in relation to this snowy and cold island. In Greenland, Eirik founded the settlement of Brattalid.

Vinland Leif Eiriksson son of Red discovered Boston

In 986, a certain Bjarni Bardsson sailed from Iceland, intending to get to Greenland. He stumbled across unknown land three times until he reached the southern coast of Greenland. Upon learning of this, Leif Eiriksson, the son of Eirik Raud, repeated Bjarni's journey, reaching the Labrador Peninsula. Then he turned south and, walking along the coast, found a place he called "Vinland" ("Grape Country"). Presumably this happened in the year 1000. According to the results of the work carried out by scientists, Leif Eiriksson's Vinland was located in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern Boston.

The Leif Brothers: Thorvald and Thorstein

After the return of Leif, Thorvald Eiriksson, his brother, went to Vinland. He lived there for two years, but in one of the skirmishes with the local Indians he was mortally wounded, and his comrades had to return to their homeland.

Leif's second brother, Thorstein Eiriksson, also tried to reach Vinland, but he failed to find this land.

There were only about 300 homesteads in Greenland. The lack of forest created great difficulties for life. The forest grew on Labrador, which was closer than in Iceland, but everything needed had to be brought from Europe, due to the very difficult sailing conditions to Labrador. Settlements in Greenland existed until the 14th century.

History of the Vikings

VIKINGS - (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia, who committed in the 9th-11th centuries. hikes up to 8000 km long, maybe even long distances. These bold and fearless people reached the borders of Persia in the east, and the New World in the west.

Origin of the word viking

The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "Vikingr". Regarding its origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which raises it to "vik" - a fiord, a bay. The word "Viking" (lit. "man from the fiord") was used to refer to robbers who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays.

They were known in Scandinavia long before they became notorious in Europe. The French called the Vikings Normans or various variants of this word (Norsmans, Nortmanns - lit. “people from the north”); the British called all Scandinavians indiscriminately Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Vikings.

Danish Vikings

Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, to France, Spain, Italy or North Africa - they ruthlessly plundered and seized foreign lands. In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. The Danish Vikings conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland.

Norwegian and Swedish Vikings

Together they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants established colonies on the North Atlantic islands of Iceland and Greenland and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, however, which did not last long. The Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east of the Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, descending along the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer navigators.

Activity in the 9th century

There are different interpretations of the reasons for the violent outburst of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of the southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was hardly possible to get a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms in the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, absorbed by dynastic strife.

In winter, robbery in summer, landowners

During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The defeated leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victorious leaders, shamelessly accepted unhindered robbery as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained authority through participation in one or more campaigns.

Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were attracted not only by the lure of prey.

The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

Viking translation - man from the bay

The English term "Viking" comes from the Old Norse word vkingr, which could have several meanings. The most acceptable, apparently, is the origin from the word vk - bay, or bay. Therefore, the word vkingr is translated as "man from the bay."

The term was used to refer to robbers hiding in coastal waters long before the Vikings gained notoriety in the outside world. However, not all Scandinavians were sea robbers, and the terms “Viking” and “Scandinavian” cannot be considered as synonyms. The French usually called the Vikings Normans, and the British indiscriminately referred to all Scandinavians as Danes. Slavs, Khazars, Arabs and Greeks, who communicated with the Swedish Vikings, called them Russ or Varangians.

Definitions from encyclopedias

VIKINGS (ancient Scandinavian), Scandinavians - participants in maritime trade, predatory and conquest campaigns in the late 8th-mid 11th centuries. to European countries. In Rus' they were called Varangians, and in Western Europe they were called Normans (Scand. Northman - “northern man”). In the 9th century captured Northeast England, in the 10th century. - Northern France (Normandy). Reached North America.

Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius

About three centuries from 800 to 1050 AD. e. Viking warriors sailed on their ships, terrorizing Europe. They sailed from Scandinavia in search of silver, slaves and land. The Vikings mainly attacked Britain and France while they invaded Russia. The Vikings explored many unknown lands by sailing the vast Atlantic Ocean.

Vikings briefly

The ideas of modern man about the Vikings are largely erroneous. We are sure that the Vikings, in short, are huge bearded warriors with horned helmets on their heads. It's not like that at all. This image is inspired by films and books that have nothing to do with historical reality. Who are they, Vikings?
This was the name of the Scandinavian sailors inhabiting the territory of such modern countries as Denmark, Sweden and Norway. IN different countries they were called differently: Vikings, Normans, Varangians.
From the 8th to the 11th centuries, for 300 years, the Vikings, in short, terrified the peoples of England, France and other countries. What reasons made previously peaceful merchants and farmers become sea robbers?

There were several good reasons for this:
1. Overpopulation. Many free Vikings set sail for a new life.
2. The collapsed empire of Charlemagne, the main enemy of the northern peoples, was a tasty prey.
3. At this time, the Vikings began the process of strengthening the nobility, and the war leaders needed rich booty to maintain their power.
The raids were also facilitated by the fact that the Vikings, living in the territory bordering the sea, were excellent sailors and were able to create the best ships at that time. Low set, small in size, they possessed amazing maneuverability and speed. They were lightweight and could be pulled onto dry land anywhere. On such ships, the Vikings made long voyages and even reached North America. By the way, they easily passed along the rivers.

The Vikings had two types of ships. The fighting ones were called drakars, and the trading ones were called knorrs. Up to 100 people were placed on the drakars. IN written sources descriptions of the huge ships of these sea robbers have been preserved, but there was no evidence of this until a 37-meter ship with a capacity of 200 people was found in Denmark in 1997.
Starting with raids on monasteries in England and France, the Vikings reached Spain, Kyiv and Constantinople. In the 9th century in Kyiv, two of them - Askold and Dir, were called to princely rule.
The Vikings were not only excellent warriors, but also pioneers of new lands. They discovered Iceland and settled it. Their ships traveled near Greenland and reached North America. The Vikings called it Vinland (country of grapes) and tried to colonize it. Although this issue has long been considered controversial among scientists, in the end, it was decided to consider that it was the Vikings who first discovered North America in 1000.
By the 11th century, with the establishment of the feudal system and the transition to a settled way of life, Viking raids on other territories gradually ceased.