Scientific geography. The concept of geography as a science

Geography is a whole system of sciences, which includes both natural sciences and social sciences.

The concept of geography as a science

The set of sciences about the planet Earth is called geography. The question of delimiting geography from geology is difficult, since the latter science is in the field of physical geography and sometimes takes its place.

But historical data show that it was geography that began to investigate physical and geographical issues earlier. The complexity of defining geography as a specific science is confirmed by the geographical congresses that geographers hold together with ethnographers, geologists, physicists and astronomers. More and more projects are emerging that reveal geography as a science in a more complete way.

Geography: system of sciences

It is customary to talk about geography as a whole system of sciences, each of which studies natural, territorial and industrial complexes and the components that they include. Geography implies a comprehensive and detailed study of nature, population and economy, and the unification of various disciplines into one system is dictated by their close relationship.

The study of such objects is carried out with the aim of the most efficient use of all natural resources, creating a favorable environment for the population to live and placing production in rational parameters. The system of geographical sciences was formed in the process of differentiation and development of geography itself, as a science of knowledge about the economy, nature and population of different territories of the Earth.

The very process of development of science has led to the study of individual components of the natural environment - such as soil, climate and topography, or components of the economy, for example, industry and agriculture. Over time, there was a need for a synthetic study of territorial combinations of components.

In the system of science, geography is distinguished:

Natural sciences - physical geography, geomorphology, oceanology, soil geography, climatology, geocrylogy, biogeography, land hydrology and others;

Social sciences of geography, which include general economic and regional geography, geography of various branches of the economy (for example, industry or transport), geography of agriculture, geography of population or political geography;

Country studies;

Cartography, a special technical science, which is included in the system of modern geography sciences due to the commonality of the main tasks with other geographical sciences.

Geography is a science (more precisely, a system of natural and social sciences) that studies the functioning and evolution of the geographical shell, the interaction and distribution in space of its individual parts and components - in order to scientifically substantiate the territorial organization of society, the distribution of population and production, the efficient use of natural resources, and the conservation human environment, creating the foundations of a strategy for environmentally safe sustainable development of society. The word "geography" comes from the Greek. ge - m - "earth" and "grapho" - I write. The most important subject of geographical study is the processes of interaction between man and nature, the patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations in the local, regional, national. (state), continental, oceanic, global levels. The complexity of the object of study led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized scientific disciplines, which gives reason to consider modern geography as a complex system of sciences, in which natural (physico-geographical), social (socio-geographical and economic-geographical) sciences, applied geographical sciences and geographic sciences that have an integral (boundary) character. Physical geography includes the complex sciences of the geographical shell as a whole: geography (general physical geography), landscape science (regional physical geography), paleogeography (evolutionary geography). In the process of the long development of geography, private sciences have been formed about the components of the geographical envelope - geomorphology, geocryology, climatology and meteorology, hydrology (subdivided into land hydrology, oceanology, limnology), glaciology, soil geography, biogeography. Socio-economic geography includes general sciences: social geography and economic geography, as well as the geography of the world economy, regional socio-economic geography, and political geography. Private socio-geographical sciences: geography of industry, geography of agriculture, geography of transport, geography of the population, geography of the service sector. The integral geographic sciences include cartography, regional studies, and historical geography. The development of the system of geographical sciences led to the formation of applied geographical sciences and areas - medical geography, recreational geography, military geography, etc. They also perform a connecting function between geography and other scientific disciplines. The desire to identify general geographical patterns in the development of all or many components of the geographic envelope, to model them led to the formation of a theoretical trend in geography. Geography as a system of sciences was formed not by the convergence of isolated geographical sciences, but by the autonomous development of the once unified geography and its division into specialized scientific disciplines - by components, their combinations, levels of research and degree of generalization, goals and practical needs. Therefore, all private geographic sciences, no matter how far they have diverged from each other, have retained the common features of the geographical approach (territoriality, complexity, concreteness, globality) and the common specific language of science - the map. In the course of its development, geography was not isolated from other scientific disciplines. As an ideological science, it is closely connected with philosophy and history; in the study of the natural components of the geographic envelope, the ties between geography and physics, chemistry, geology, and biology were strengthened, and in the study of the sociosphere, with economics, sociology, demography, etc. In turn, geography enriches related sciences with its theory and methodology; there is a process of geographicization of scientific knowledge, which is expressed, in particular, in the emergence at the junctions of geography with other sciences of such dynamically developing scientific areas as ecology, demogeography, ethnic geography, regional planning, and regional economics. The methodology of geographical research is a complex system, including: general scientific approaches and methods (mathematical, historical, ecological, modeling, systemic, etc.); specific scientific approaches and methods (geochemical, geophysical, paleogeographic, technical and economic, economic and statistical, sociological, etc.); working methods and operations for obtaining information (balance method; remote methods, including aerospace; laboratory methods, for example, spore-pollen analysis, radiocarbon method; questioning; sampling method, etc.); methods of empirical and theoretical generalization of information (indicative, evaluative, analogues, classifications, etc.); methods and techniques for storing and processing information (on electronic media, punched cards, etc.). A special function of geography is the acquisition, generalization and dissemination of knowledge about our planet and the laws of its natural-historical development, about countries, regions, cities, localities and the peoples inhabiting them, about the history of the discovery and development of the world, about knowing it with the help of space means. An important aspect of human culture over the centuries has been geographical discoveries, which have not stopped until now. Geographical and cartographic knowledge is an indispensable element of general education; geography is taught in elementary and cf. schools all over the world. geographic science natural

Geography is one of the oldest sciences. In the process of development, its content, as well as the very concept of geographical discovery, changed several times. Over the centuries ch. the content of geography was the discovery and description of new lands and ocean expanses. The tendency to record individual phenomena on the Earth's surface has led to the formation of regional studies and regional approaches. At the same time, the desire to identify and explain the features of their similarities and differences, to combine them into similar categories, to classify, laid the foundations for a common, or systemic, geography. Already ancient Mediterranean civilization is characterized by fundamental achievements in geography. The initial attempts at a natural-scientific explanation of geographical phenomena belong to ancient Greek. the philosophers of the Milesian school Thales and Anaximander (6th century BC); Aristotle (fourth century BC) introduced the concept of the earth's sphericity; Eratosthenes (3-2 centuries BC) quite accurately determined the circumference of the globe, formulated the concepts of "parallels" and "meridians", introduced the term "geography"; Strabo (1st century BC - 1st century AD) summarized regional knowledge in geography in 17 volumes; Ptolemy (2nd century AD) in his "Guide to Geography" laid the foundation for building a map of the Earth. In the Middle Ages, a significant role in the development of geography was played by the Arab scientists and encyclopedists Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, and the traveler Ibn Battuta. The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries expanded the horizons of scientific thinking and approved the idea of the integrity of the world. In the 17-18 centuries. along with the continuation of geographical discoveries and the description of the Earth, theoretical activity is progressively developing. B. Varenius in "General Geography" (1650) and I. Newton in "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687) laid the foundations of physical thinking in geography. M.V. Lomonosov in ser. 18th century was the first to express the idea of the role of the time factor in the development of nature and introduced the term "economic geography" into science. The generalization of the data of field expeditions led the German naturalist A. Humboldt (1845-62) to the classification of the Earth's climates, substantiation of latitudinal zonality and vertical zonality; he became the forerunner of an integrated approach in geography. In the 2nd floor. 19th century the ideas of geographical determinism, which asserted that geographical factors play a decisive role in the socio-economic development of peoples and countries, became widespread. With increasing human impact on the environment, these ideas lose their appeal; now their echoes are preserved in environmentalism. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. the concept of geographic possibilism arose, based on the recognition of the diversity of forms of human interaction with a homogeneous passive environment, and the teachings of A. Getner about geography as a "horological science" that studies in the main. only the spatial relations of objects and phenomena on the earth's surface, without delving into the study of the inner essence of these phenomena and their development. At the same time, in the work of V.I. Vernadsky, the planetary role of the anthropogenic factor was substantiated; he argued that the transformation of the biosphere under the influence of conscious human activity would lead to the formation of the noosphere. The development of geography in con. 19th-20th centuries associated with the names of K. Ritter, P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky, A.I. Voeikov, F. Richthofen, D.N. Anuchina, V.V. Dokuchaeva, A.A. Grigorieva, L.S. Berg, S.V. Kalesnik, K.K. Markova, V.B. Sochava, V.N. Sukacheva, N.N. Baransky, I.P. Gerasimov. The specifics of the development of geographical science in the 20th century. determined to a large extent by the traditions of nat. schools - such as the French school of human geography with its stable social orientation; a German school with a tradition of deep theoretical analysis, regional planning and geopolitics; Anglo-American and Swedish schools of theoretical geography and the widespread use of quantitative methods. The Russian geographical school was formed under the influence of the teachings of Dokuchaev on natural zones, Vernadsky on the role of living matter in the formation of the modern nature of the Earth and its evolutionary-stage development, Grigoriev on the geographical shell and its dynamic processes, Berg on the landscape structure of terrestrial nature, Baransky on the geographical division of labor as a spatial form of social division of labor and the objective nature of the formation of economic districts. In con. 20th century symptoms of an ecological crisis appeared on Earth: drying up and erosional destruction of the territory, deforestation and desertification, depletion of mineral resources, environmental pollution. The anthropogenic contribution to the turnover of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur has become equal to the natural one, and in some places began to prevail over it. A significant part of the land surface is irreversibly transformed by man. The growing globalization in the world, along with positive trends, increases the gap between poor and rich countries, exacerbates old and generates new global problems for humanity. All this poses corresponding tasks for geography: studying the dynamics of natural, socio-economic and geopolitical processes, forecasting global and regional socio-economic and political situations, developing recommendations for environmental protection, optimal design and functioning of natural and technical systems in order to improve human security. existence and quality of life of people. A special role in this approach is played by ecology and the science of nature management, which is being formed at the intersection of physical and socio-economic geography with economics and technology. Possessing a huge integration potential, geography brings together a variety of branches of knowledge and research methods in order to help solve the most important problem of our time - to ensure sustainable socio-economic development of both all of humanity and individuals, no matter where they live in the world.

To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune - you should learn geography well. You will find the definition of the word and its meaning in this article. In addition, you will learn what one of the oldest sciences studies, and what are its main features.

What is geography: definition and meaning of the term

Geography is the oldest of the existing scientific disciplines. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. In the sphere of her interests - the seas and oceans, mountains and plains, as well as society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the environment.

The definition of the concept of "geography" is impossible without the interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as "description of the earth". The term consists of two Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (I write, describe).

In the third century BC (when geography was born as a science), this term was quite consistent with the essence. Ancient Greek thinkers were really engaged in "description of the earth", without going too far into the intricacies of natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.

What is science doing at the present stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. You will find the definition of this scientific discipline later in our article.

Early history of geographical science

So, as we have already figured out, the term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps of the area. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development gradually moved to the Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a lot of new lands, but also made many important innovative discoveries.

The Chinese civilization also greatly contributed to the development of geographical science. Particularly instrumental. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.

The most famous representatives of the early period in the history of geographical science:

Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
Claudius Ptolemy.
Strabo.
Muhammad al-Idrisi.
Ibn Battuta.

The development of geography in the XVI-XX centuries

In the era of the European Renaissance, the vast empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the "science of land description", and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of a geographer arose in society.

In the 18th century, this science began to be studied at universities as a separate discipline. In the first half of the 19th century, Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Nowadays, thanks to satellite technologies and the latest geographic information systems, geography is entering a completely new stage in its development.

Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of European geographical science:

Gerhard Mercator.
Alexander von Humboldt.
Carl Ritter.
Walter Crystaller.
Vasily Dokuchaev.

Definition of geography as a science

“A linear representation of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, large cities, peoples, significant rivers.” This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get a unique opportunity to "view the entire Earth in one picture."

At the beginning of the 19th century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed replacing "geography" with the term "geography". By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). “The territory influences the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory” - Ritter expressed this fair thought back in 1804.

Another German scientist Hermann Wagner gave the following definition of geography: it is the science of the power of space, which is manifested in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.

An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseniy Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the limits of the dwelling allotted to him by nature.

There are many other interesting interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographical shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will go into more detail about what this is in the next section.

The geographic area is...

Under the geographical shell is meant the shell of the planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:

Troposphere.
Earth's crust.
Hydrospheres.
Biosphere.

At the same time, all these "spheres" are in close interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographic shell of the Earth was first described in 1910 by the Russian scientist P. I. Brounov.

Within the geographic envelope, there is a constant and continuous process of movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly enters the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth's crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter the water bodies.

The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the sole of the earth's crust, the upper one - at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the geographic envelope of the Earth is approximately 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin "film" that is precisely the main object of study for geographical science.

Structure of geographical science

Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science, which includes dozens of particular disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first studies the general patterns of development and existence of the geographic shell and its individual parts, and the second deals with the study of the processes of interaction between society and the natural environment.

Among the physical and geographical disciplines, the following stand out:

Geodesy.
Geomorphology.
Hydrology.
Oceanology.
Landscape science.
Soil science.
Paleogeography.
Climatology.
Glaciology, etc.

Among the socio-geographical sciences, it is customary to single out the following disciplines:

Demography.
Economical geography.
Geopolitics.
Geography of culture.
medical geography.
Geourbanistics.
Political geography.
Country studies, etc.

The main problems and discussions of modern geography

Oddly enough, the question “what is geography?” remains one of the most complex and controversial among representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it should set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the present generation of geographers.

In addition, theoretical geography is trying today to solve a number of other pressing problems. The most important ones include the following:

The problem of the loss of interest in geography in society.
The problem of "withering away" of such purely practical disciplines as land reclamation, land management, soil science.
The problem of the general classification of geographical science.
Definition of a number of key concepts: "geographical envelope", "landscape", "geosystem", etc.

Recently, such a fresh direction as "constructive geography" is gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into a practical and useful one.

Finally

Geography is one of the oldest sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today, geography is an independent scientific branch that is engaged in a deep and comprehensive study of the geographic envelope of the Earth, from processes in the thickness of the earth's crust to human production activities.

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The relief of the Earth changes under the simultaneous action of internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) forces. The energy source of endogenous forces is the internal energy of the Earth, exogenous - the energy of solar radiation, gravity and vital activity of organisms. Endogenous forces - tectonic movements of the earth's crust (vertical and horizontal), volcanism and earthquakes. Mountain building results in folds in the earth's crust, deep tectonic fissures and […]

Our planet, the Earth, is a huge ellipsoid made up of rocks, metals, and covered with water and soil. The Earth is one of the nine planets that revolve around the Sun; ranks fifth in terms of the size of the planets. The sun, together with the planets revolving around it, forms the solar system. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is about 100,000 light-years across […]

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The shape and dimensions of the Earth The Earth has a shape close to spherical (geoid). Geodetic measurements have shown that the shape of the Earth is complex and not a typical sphere. This can be proven by comparing the equatorial and polar radii. The distance from the center of the planet to its equator is called the semi-major axis (or equatorial radius) and is 6,378,245 m. The distance from the center of the planet to […]

The Earth is one of the countless bodies that make up the Universe, which is infinite in time and space. Space bodies moving in the Universe are different: these are stars, planets, meteorites, asteroids, etc. Stars are giant hot gas balls that emit a huge amount of energy. Stars often form clusters: they unite in pairs, triplets, sometimes in such a cluster there are more stars. Giant […]

Planet of the solar system Earth Earth is one of the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun. The sun is a star, a flaming ball around which the planets revolve. Together with the Sun, their satellites, many small planets (asteroids), comets and meteoric dust, they make up the solar system. Earth is the third of eight planets, it has a diameter of about 13 thousand km. One […]

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Geography (Greek - "earth description") is a science that studies the surface of the Earth, the surrounding and underlying layers of matter, which together form a geographical shell. Word " geography " came from the Greek. ge - "earth" and "grapho" - I write.

Geography (Greek - "land description")- a science that studies the surface of the Earth, surrounding and underlying layers of matter, which together form a geographical shell.

The name of this science was given by Eratosthenes more than 2200 years ago.

Rice. 1. Studying the surface of the earth

Geography is one of the most ancient and basic sciences.

Already in 3 thousand BC. e. in ancient Egypt, expeditions were equipped to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The resettlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded people's knowledge of the surrounding spaces, developed the skills of orienting in the Sun, Moon and stars. The dependence of agriculture and cattle breeding on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar.

In the 3-2 millennium BC. e. representatives of the Harappan civilization (on the territory of modern Pakistan) discovered the monsoons. The elements of geography contain the sacred ancient Indian books: in the "Vedas" a whole chapter is devoted to cosmology, in the "Mahabharata" you can find a list of oceans, mountains, rivers.

Now there is not a single place on Earth that a person would not know about.

Branches of geography

The object of study of geography is the laws and patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations at different levels. The complexity of the object of study and the breadth of the subject area led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized (industry) scientific disciplines that form the system of geographical sciences. Geography is divided into two (physical and economic) or three (physical, economic and social) branches. Sometimes geographic cartography is singled out separately as a separate geographical discipline.

Rice. 2. The main branches of geography

Economic (or socio-economic) geography studies the population and its economic activity.

Physical geography and its significance

There are three main sciences in the composition of physical geography. This is geography, which studies the general patterns of the structure and development of the geographical shell, landscape science, which studies territorial natural complexes, and paleogeography. In turn, these sections have their own hierarchical structure according to the types of components, processes and phenomena being studied. Thus, geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology (the study of water bodies), glaciology (the study of natural ice), soil geography, and biogeography (the geography of living organisms) study individual components of the geographic envelope. And at the junction with other sciences, such new areas of physical geography as medical geography and engineering geography were formed. Physical geography studies natural phenomena, objects of nature.

Physical geography is closely related to other geographical sciences - cartography, regional studies, historical geography, socio-economic geography.

Significance of physical geography

1. Description of nature.

2. Explanation of the features of nature.

3. Anticipation of possible changes due to intervention in human nature.

What is studied in the initial course of physical geography

In the process of studying the course of elementary physical geography, ideas are formed about the Earth as a natural complex, about the features of the earth's shells and their relationships. When studying this course, the formation of a geographical culture and the teaching of a geographical language begin; students master the initial ideas and concepts, and also acquire the ability to use sources of geographical information.

In structural relation The 6th grade geography course consists of four sections:

1. "Types of images of the Earth's surface - plan and map."

2. "Earth shells: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere".

3. "The population of the Earth."

4. "The influence of nature on human life."

Rice. 3. Shells of the Earth

In the process of studying the course of elementary physical geography, you will learn how to work with a plan and a map, summarize the collected material, and determine the location of geographical objects on Earth.

Bibliography

Main

1. Initial course of geography: Proc. for 6 cells. general education institutions / T.P. Gerasimova, N.P. Neklyukov. – 10th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, 2010. – 176 p.

2. Geography. Grade 6: atlas. – 3rd ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, DIK, 2011. – 32 p.

3. Geography. Grade 6: atlas. - 4th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, DIK, 2013. – 32 p.

4. Geography. 6 cells: cont. cards. – M.: DIK, Bustard, 2012. – 16 p.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. – M.: Rosmen-Press, 2006. – 624 p.

Materials on the Internet

1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().

4. Electronic version of the journal Geography ().