1st Punic War. Punic Wars

D. Shkrabo

All dates are BC unless otherwise noted.

INTRODUCTION

The First Punic War was the first overseas venture of the Roman Republic, culminating in the conquest of Sicily. By the beginning of the war, the Romans came with experienced and disciplined infantry, trained during the wars of 285-265. against the Epirus king Pyrrhus, the peoples of southern Italy, the Etruscans and Gauls. The cavalry and fleet were relatively weak. Around 275, the Romans borrowed from the Epirotes the practice of regularly building fortified camps during campaigns. There were relatively few major field battles during the course of the war. The most characteristic feature of the conflict was the protracted sieges of cities and fortresses, the struggle for communications, as well as the unprecedented scale of the naval war. During the 1st Punic War, the Romans mastered the construction of new types of warships for them, penter (quinquerem), hexer and hepter (septirem), and also began to use bridges with hooks (crows), which allowed them to effectively use boarding tactics. In the same war, the Romans borrowed siege engines from the Greeks. A characteristic feature of Roman politics was expansionism and incredible stubbornness in the struggle to achieve their goals. Huge losses could moderate appetite somewhat, and yet they were unable to force Rome to make peace without completely establishing control over Sicily. Despite occasional friction with the Italic allies, the Roman-Italian confederation supplied the manpower and material resources that ultimately ensured victory. According to Polybius, during the war, the Romans lost 700 warships in battles and from shipwrecks, the Carthaginians - 500. Nevertheless, Rome won the struggle for dominance at sea.

The reserves of Carthage, which relied on mercenary armies, were exhausted faster. Citizens were less inclined to make material sacrifices than the Romans. Conflicts with mercenaries due to non-payment of salaries run like a red thread through the entire war. The inability to support large armies led to the impossibility of widespread use of boarding combat at sea. This would lead to the exposure of the land front. The fleet used ramming tactics that required great skill of the crews. The transformation of the Carthaginian army, begun even before the war, continues. Techniques for using elephants are being mastered, the method of using cavalry and light infantry is beginning to change through the use of flank attacks. By the end of the war, the quality of the Carthaginian infantry and command staff of the ground forces noticeably increases. The professionalism of the latter began to favorably distinguish the Punians from the Romans, who constantly change their generals for domestic political reasons. The first signs of the use of two-line formations of infantry and reserves by the Carthaginians appear. By the end of the war, the Carthaginian (and Roman) army, using fortified camps and reserves, was able to fight protracted battles.

SOURCES

The initial stories about the First Punic War in verse and prose were written down by the participants in this conflict. In prose, Greek was written by the Sicilian Greek Filin from Acragas, who fought on the side of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War. He retained his pro-Carthaginian sympathies in the pages of his history. The Campanian Gnaeus Nennius dedicated the first epic poem in Latin to this war. From the beginning of the II century. the first Roman historians wrote about the war. Among them should be mentioned Fabius Pictor (c.260/254-190), a younger contemporary of the conflict. His work was distinguished by a frankly pro-Roman spirit. Of all these works, minor fragments and references have been preserved by later historians.

All extant descriptions of the First Punic War were compiled by later authors. The earliest of these is Polybius, the Greek historian Ser. 2nd century An overview of the First Punic War is contained in book 1 of his "General History" (Polybius, 1.7.1-1.66.1). In his own words, he used the work of Fabius Pictor and Filin. Polybius made more use of Fabius, eliminating the excesses of Roman patriotism, but sometimes drew information from Philinos as well. Polybius sought to present only the main events of the war, some of which he described in some detail. At the same time, he omitted operations and some campaigns, which he considered secondary. There are a number of inaccuracies in the characterization of events and in the chronology.

The Greek Diodorus Siculus (1st century) described the First Punic War in 23-24 books of his History. They have been preserved only in the retellings and excerpts of late antique and, especially, Byzantine authors. Diodorus relied mainly on Filin, although he knew other sources. Events are described in a pro-Carthaginian style, some successes of the Carthaginians are mentioned, omitted by pro-Roman historians.

Appian from Alexandria of Egypt lived in the 1st half. 2nd century AD From book 5 of his "Roman History", which described the conquest of Sicily and other islands by the Romans, minor fragments have survived. The fully preserved 8th book (Libyan) contains a brief description of the African expedition of Atilius Regula 256-255. Appian's sources are not exactly known.

Polien's "strategems" (3rd quarter of the 2nd century AD) describe two episodes of the First Punic War (Polyen, 6.16.5; 8.12).

Let us now turn to Latin authors. The works of early Roman historians were used in the fundamental "History of Rome from the founding of the city" by Titus Livius, who worked under Emperor Augustus, which described the First Punic War in books 16-19. This part of his work has not survived. The content of the lost books is summarized in the "Periochs" compiled during the Empire. Partially, Livy is replenished by late Roman authors of various short histories and collections.

The "strategems" of Frontinus (end of the 1st century AD) describe a number of military tricks used in the war (Frontinus, 1.4.11, 2.1.4, 3.16.3, 3.2.2, 1.5.6, 3.10.2, 4.5.10, 2.2.11, 2.5.4, 3.17.1, 2.13.9, 3.10.9, 2.13.10). Frontinus used Livy and other sources. Florus, who lived under the emperor Hadrian, in "Two Books of Roman Wars" left a very short review of the war, praising the achievements of Roman weapons. Florus used Livy and other sources. Eutropius (2nd half of the 4th century AD) in the "Breviary from the founding of the city" left a brief description of the First Punic War. He relied on various retellings of earlier works. Aurelius Victor (2nd half of the 4th century AD) briefly described the activities of some Roman military leaders. Orosius, Christian priest of the 5th c. AD, in the "History against the pagans" in the description of the Roman events of the III-II centuries. relied on Livy, Eutropius, Flora. Details missing from Eutropius and Florus were gleaned by him directly from the books of Livy that have now been lost.

Roman historiography of the era of the late Republic was also reflected in the Greek language. It was used by Dio Cassius, a Greek-speaking historian of the 3rd century BC. AD According to the era of interest to us, only fragments of his work have survived. Partly Dion replaces Zonar, a Byzantine monk of the 12th century. AD, secretary of Emperor Alexei I. He wrote the Epitome of History, brought to 1118. Books 7-9 contain an outline of the history of ancient Rome. When compiling it, Zonara used Dio Cassius. The presentation of the events of the First Punic War (Zonara, 8.8-17) is carried out according to the weather with dates according to the consuls. For ser. 240s only a brief description is given. There is a tendency to replace the names of Sicilian cities, which are foreign to the audience, with vague expressions like "many cities" and the like. Where Dion and Zonara's account of pre-imperial Rome can be compared with Livy's, it is clear that their information is similar but not identical. The similarity is explained by the fact that all these authors ultimately relied on the historians of republican Rome.

Separate popular episodes of the First Punic War (for example, the fate of M. Atilius Regulus, the leader of the African expedition) were processed in many works of Roman literature, but these stories do not provide anything significant for reconstructing the course of the war itself.

The epigraphy mentioning the war is relatively late. It includes:

1. The inscription on the rostral column in honor of the naval victory of the consul Duilius at Mila in 260. It was carved during the restoration of the column during the reign of Emperor Augustus or Claudius. According to one assumption, the text reproduces an ancient inscription, according to another, it was composed anew, and the language was deliberately archaic.

2. Fragments of the list of victors on the marble plaques of the Roman Forum, on the walls of the Regia, the dwelling of the great pontiff. They were knocked out after the construction of the building in 36 on the site of a burnt old building. They report on the naval victory of the same Duilius, as well as on the campaign against Corsica and Sardinia by L. Cornelius Scipio, consul of 259. The dates are given in terms of the era from the founding of Rome, which began in 752, which indicates a relatively late compilation list.

3. Tombstone in honor of L. Scipio, son of Barbatus, consul in 259, on the tomb of the Scipio family, built in the beginning. 2nd century BC, mentions the capture of Corsica and Sardinia by him.

Almost all serious military operations are mentioned by Polybius, Diodorus and Zonara. Other authors usually provide additional details. Only from Orosius is it known about the punitive actions of the Carthaginians in Africa in 255, from Florus and Frontinus - about a naval battle near Fr. Aegimur in 245. Due to the fragmentary nature of sources, some events relate to certain campaigns only presumably, and the sequence of operations within a series of campaigns is debatable.

ON THE EVE OF THE WAR

The Carthaginians owned western Sicily, Sardinia, the Aegatian and Aeolian Islands. Rome by 264 completed the conquest of Italy. After the pacification of the rebellious garrison Regius (271/270), the Romans firmly entrenched themselves on the eastern shore of the Strait of Messina, which separates Italy from Sicily. The impetus for the war for Sicily was the appeal of the Mamertines for help simultaneously to Rome and Carthage. The Mamertines were the Campanian mercenaries of the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles, expelled from Syracuse after his death in 289. They were immediately called up by the Messets, who fought with their neighbors. The Campanians captured the city, killed or expelled part of the citizens, appropriated their women and children, divided property and lands. They conquered the entire northeastern part of the island up to Kenturipa, including Mila, Aleza, Tyndarida, Abaken, Amezel.

In Syracuse, which dominated the southeast of the island, after the war with Pyrrhus, the tyranny of Hieron II, who was later proclaimed king, was established. After a difficult war, he pushed the Mamertines back to Messana. The decisive battle took place on the plain near Mila, on the river, which Polybius calls Longan, and Diodorus Loitan. The Syracusan army, numbering 10,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, defeated the Mamertines, who had 8,000 infantry and an unknown number of cavalry. The commander of the Mamertines, Kion, was taken prisoner and died of his wounds. Some of the Mamertines decided to call on the help of the Carthaginians, others sent a similar embassy to the Romans. The Romans hesitated at first, but the thirst for the key to the rich island turned out to be stronger. The Carthaginians (according to Filin) ​​considered the Romans to be aggressors who violated the treaty of 306, which forbade their troops to appear in Sicily, and the Carthaginian army in Italy. The Romans later justified their actions in two ways. The most primitive justification consisted in a simple denial of the existence of the treaty of 306 (Polybius). Previous agreements con. 6th century and the middle of the 4th c. contained a ban only on operations in the Carthaginian part of Sicily for the Romans and in Latium for the Carthaginians. A more subtle justification was the assertion that the Carthaginians, by occupying the harbor of Tarentum during the war against the Epirotes in 272, were the first to violate the treaty of 278, which confirmed all previous agreements (Livy, 21.10.8; Periochi, 14).

A detachment headed by tribune G. Claudius headed to Messana. The Carthaginians moved faster. Their squadron arrived at Messana from the Aeolian Islands. The pro-Carthaginian party let the Carthaginian troops into the city and handed over the acropolis to them. The Carthaginians achieved an end to the war between the Mamertines and Hieron. The appearance of the Romans disrupted the emerging peace on the island.

WAR

264- The detachment of G. Claudius arrived in Rhegium. Claudius visited Messana twice. There he was informed that they did not need Roman services, but the tribune still caused controversy among the Mamertines. The first attempt of the Romans to cross was repelled by Hanno. In a skirmish, the Carthaginians captured several Roman ships, the rest returned to Italy. Hanno let the Romans go, as he was afraid of provoking a war. On the second attempt, the detachment of G. Claudius slipped into the city. A meeting of citizens was called. Hanno was invited to it. The Romans captured the Carthaginian commander and forced him to give the order to withdraw the Carthaginian troops from the city. The garrison obeyed this order.

The Carthaginians executed Hanno and sent Hanno, the son of Hannibal, to the island. He gathered an army in Lilibei, arrived in Solunt, left troops there, and went to Akragas. The inhabitants of the city, previously subordinate to Carthage, were friendly. Hanno persuaded them to a closer alliance and fortified the citadel. After that, Gannon returned to Solunt. An embassy arrived from Hieron. The Carthaginians made an alliance with him. The allies laid siege to Messana. The Carthaginian troops settled to the north of the city (along Polybius, near Sina; along Diodorus, near Euna), and the fleet - at Cape Pelor, the northeastern tip of Sicily. Hieron stood on the south side of Messana, near the Chalcis mountain.

The Roman tributary comitia adopted a decree on war. The army of the consul Appius Claudius Caudicas headed for the Strait of Messana. A fleet was formed from triremes and penteconters supplied by Tarentum, Locri, Elea and Naples. According to Aurelius Victor, Appius Claudius visited Messana on a fishing boat for the purpose of reconnaissance, although it is possible that here the consul is confused with G. Claudius. The Romans captured a Carthaginian pentera that had washed ashore. The Roman crossing is described by Frontinus (1.4.11): “The consul Appius Claudius in the first Punic war could not transport the army from Rhegium to Messana, since the Punians guarded the strait. Then he started a rumor that he could not wage a war begun without the permission of the people, and pretended to lead the fleet towards Italy: when, as a result, the Punians, believing in the direction he had taken, withdrew, he turned the ships and drove them to Sicily. According to Zonara and Polybius, this happened at night.

The unfolding hostilities in the area of ​​Messana ended.

Further actions of the Romans were less successful. The Romans left a garrison in Messana, devastated the lands of Syracuse and their allies. The siege of Ekhetla on the border of the possessions of Hieron and Carthage did not bring them good luck. They laid siege to Syracuse. The battles went on with varying success. The Romans suffered from food shortages and disease. Appius Claudius was almost taken prisoner, but managed to avoid him by the hasty start of peace negotiations. Hiero eventually disagreed with the terms, but the Romans managed to retreat from Syracuse. Appius, pursued by the Greeks, retreated with heavy losses to Messana, and then crossed over to Rhegium. The sequence of events is not entirely clear, since Zonara does not mention the siege of Ekhetla, and Diodorus' retellings of the siege of Syracuse. Polybius, when describing the campaign to the south, was only interested in exposing the "stupidity" of Filin.

Eutropius writes about the triumph of Appius Claudius, but other sources are silent about this.

263 The Romans doubled their forces in Sicily. Now, the armies of two consuls, Manius Valery Maximus and Manius Otacilius Crassus, who had 4 legions, were operating on the island. The Romans bypassed the city of Etna from the west, stormed Gadran, besieged Kentoripa. Aleza submitted to them on the northern coast, and then many others, a total of 67 cities (Diodorus). According to Eutropius, Tauromenium, Katana, and also more than 50 cities came under their patronage. Replenishing the army with the Sicilians, the Romans moved to Syracuse. Hieron made peace and an alliance with them for 15 years, subject to the release of Roman prisoners, payment of indemnity and food supply to the Roman troops. The size of the indemnity is estimated by Polybius at 100 talents of silver, Orosius at 200 talents, and Diodorus at 150,000 drachmas (25 talents). Acres, Leontines, Megara, Gelor, Neet, Tauromenius (Diodorus) remained in the possessions of Syracuse. Hannibal moved to the aid of the Syracusans, arrived in Xiphonium (on the cape near Megara), but retreated, having learned about the Roman-Syracusan world.

The Romans invaded the Carthaginian possessions in the west of the island. Zonara writes that the Carthaginian garrisons of a number of cities repulsed the Roman attacks. According to Diodorus, the Romans besieged Makella and the village of Adranona for a long and unsuccessful time. The inhabitants of Egesta killed the Carthaginian detachment standing near them and surrendered the city to the Romans (Diodorus, Zonara). The inhabitants of Aliki also surrendered, the Romans took the towns of Ilar, Tirrit and Askel (Diodorus) by force.

The Roman National Assembly approved the peace with Syracuse and decided to send only 2 legions to Sicily (Polybius). The consuls went to Rhegium (Zonara) for the winter. This year the dictator Mr. Domitius Maximus Centumal, probably to organize the elections due to the absence of both consuls.

262- Carthage produced a recruitment of mercenaries among the Ligures, the Celts and especially the Spaniards. In Sicily, Acragas became their base, where troops and food supplies were concentrated (Polybius). The Carthaginians were concentrating on Sardinia to raid Italy (Zonara). Contrary to the decision of the previous year, the Romans sent to Sicily the troops of both consuls, L. Postumius Megella and Kv. Mamilia Vitula, that is, 4 legions. They halted operations throughout Sicily and laid siege to the army of Hannibal son of Gisgon at Acragas. lasted six (Diodorus) or seven (Polybius) months and ended with the fall of the city.

The Roman army for the first time stayed for the winter in Sicily, in Messana (Zonara). In Rome, a triumph was celebrated in honor of the victory at Akragant (Eutropius).

261- Military operations were conducted by both consuls, L. Valery Flakk and M. Otacilius Crassus. The Carthaginians fined Hanno and replaced him with Hamilcar. There were frequent sea raids of the Carthaginians on Italy (Polybius). During one of the raids, Hannibal was repulsed by the coastal guard (Zonara).

The unrest of the Gallic mercenaries of the Carthaginians began due to non-payment of salaries. Four thousand people gathered to defect to the Romans. Tradition claims that Hamilcar sent them to attack a certain city and warned about this through the defector Otacilius. The Romans killed the Gauls, but suffered heavy losses (Frontinus, 3.16.3; Zonara). This may have happened at Entella in southwestern Sicily. Most likely, we are dealing with a legend, but in real life, the Gallic detachment simply fell into a Roman ambush.

After the fall of Acragas, many cities in the interior of the island went over to the side of the Romans, but an even greater number of coastal cities were deposited from them out of fear of the Carthaginian fleet (Polybius). According to Zonara, this happened after the departure of the consuls. Hamilcar first made a successful raid into Italy and then captured several cities in Sicily. Among these cities, Camarina probably turned out to be, since Diodorus calls her capture by the Carthaginians in 259 the second.

It is not entirely clear whether the siege of Mittistratus by the Romans should be attributed to this or the next, 260. Diodorus places it between the appointment of Hamilcar and the Battle of Therme in 260. The Romans built siege engines, but they could not take the city and retreated after 7 months of siege.

260- On land, the consul Mr. Cornelius Scipio Asina. The second consul, G. Duiliy, took up the strengthening of the fleet and equipping them with penters (quinqueremes). The model for the penter was a Carthaginian ship captured in 264 in the Strait of Messina. Harvesting wood and building a fleet took 60 days (Orozius, Flor). According to Polybius, 100 penteres and 20 triremes were built. Zonara writes about 120 triremes, Orosius about 130, and Florus about 160 ships. Flohr may have counted new and old ships. Eutropius claims that then the Romans first fought at sea on liburnians equipped with rams.

Cornelius with 16 ships (a number from Orosius) headed for Lipari, hoping to capture the city with the help of treason. This squadron was locked up in the harbor by Boodes, sent from Panormus with 20 ships. The Romans, including Cornelius, surrendered. According to Polienus (6.16.5), the Carthaginians captured Cornelius in negotiations, and then easily defeated his squadron.

Probably, there was a cooling of relations between the Romans and Hieron. According to Frontinus, Duilius was chained up in the harbor of Syracuse, but managed to escape safely.

Soon Hannibal with 50 ships made another raid on Italy, stumbled upon the main forces of the Roman fleet, lost most of the ships and fled.

Meanwhile, most of the Roman infantry concentrated in Egesta (Segesta). Hamilcar laid siege to the city. The Roman tribune G. Calcolius went to help, but was defeated and died (Zonara).

Duilius equipped the ships with crows (boarding bridges with hooks, corvus). The Carthaginians devastated the region of Mil. Their fleet was commanded by Hannibal, who in 262 was defended by Acragas. With 130 ships, he headed for the northeast of Sicily. The naval battle took place at Mila. The Romans were led by the consul G. Duilius, whom Polybius calls G. Bilius, the head of the ground forces. First, they captured the Carthaginian vanguard of 30 ships. Hannibal abandoned his ship and fled in a boat. He sailed on a penter that once belonged to Pyrrhus (Polybius), or on a hepter (Zonara). The main forces of the Carthaginians maneuvered, tried to break off the oars of enemy ships and then make a ramming attack. The Romans grappled with enemy ships with the help of ravens and boarded them (Zonara, Polybius). According to Polybius, 50 ships were lost in total. According to Eutropius, the Romans captured 31 ships, sank 14, captured 7,000 and killed 3,000 people. The inscription of Duilia and Orosius (4.10) speaks of the capture of 1 septireme (hepterae), 30 quinqueremes (penteres) and triremes, and the sinking of 13 ships.

Probably, the story of Frontinus (3.2.2) about the capture of a city by Duilius by an unexpected attack from the sea dates back to the time after the Battle of Mila. Duilius lifted the siege from Egesta (Polybius, Zonara). According to the laudatory inscription of Duilius, 9 days after his appearance, the Carthaginian army fled the camp along with the commander. Then the consul turned south and took possession of Makella (Polybius) with a fight. Such a sequence of events is given by Polybius and Zonara. Duilia's inscription turns it upside down. First, the consul lifts the siege of Egesta and takes Macella, and then fights the Carthaginians at sea.

There were feuds between the Romans and the allies. Polybius explains them as a dispute over who owns the honor of victory at Mila. The allies stood in a separate camp between Parops and Thermae Himera. Hamilcar arrived from Panormus, attacked them while setting up camp and defeated them. 4 thousand (Polybius) or 6 thousand (Diodorus) people died.

Hannibal, after the battle of Thermae, with the remnants of the fleet, sailed from Sicily to Carthage (Polybius). A number of authors (Diodorus, Zonara, Aurelius Victor) give different versions of the anecdote about saving Hannibal from imminent execution. A friend of the admiral or Hannibal himself appeared in the Carthaginian senate. The senators were asked whether the fleet should fight an enemy squadron inferior to it in numbers (Diodorus has 200 ships against 120). The senators answered in the affirmative. After that, they were informed about the result of the battle. The embarrassed fathers of the state did not dare to pronounce the death sentence. Nevertheless, Hannibal was removed from his post.

Duilius received a triumph for a naval victory. He was granted a lifetime honor: when returning from a feast, he must be accompanied by a torch-bearer and a flutist with a flute (Flor, Periohi).

259- The consuls L. Cornelius Scipio and G. Aquilius Florus are fighting against the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians took Mazar in the west of Sicily, invaded the eastern part of the island, and with the help of treason captured Camarina and Enna. Zonara just talks about capturing a few cities. Further progress of Hamilcar was stopped by Flor (Diodorus, Zonara, about Camarina also Polybius). Florus besieged Mittistratus (Diodorus). Polybius describes the successes of the Carthaginians as follows: the Roman troops did nothing worthy.

This year, Hamilcar walled Drepan, resettled the inhabitants of Eryx in it, the city itself was torn down with the exception of the temple (Diodorus, Zonara). According to another version, the Eriks were evicted by Hamilcar Barca c. 244-243 AD (Diodor).

The second consul, L. Scipio, landed in Corsica, took Alelia (Aleria) by force, and then easily captured several more settlements (Zonara). According to Flor, Aleria was destroyed by the Romans. Gannon, who succeeded Admiral Hannibal, was defeated, lost his army and died in the ensuing stampede (Periochi Livia, Florus, Orosius). Then the Romans crossed to Sardinia, drove off the Carthaginian fleet, moved to Olbia (the northwest of the island). According to Flor, Scipio took and destroyed the city, but, according to Zonara, the Romans curtailed operations and did not dare to give battle to the Carthaginian fleet due to a lack of infantry. An episode from Frontinus (3.10. 2) belongs to this campaign: “L. Scipio in Sardinia, in order to lure the defenders of a certain city, stopped the attack he had begun and retreated with part of the soldiers for the sake of appearance. Then the townspeople thoughtlessly began to pursue them. Scipio attacked the city with those forces that he sheltered nearby." Scipio returned from Sardinia with a large number of prisoners and earned a triumph (Eutropius).

A conspiracy has been uncovered in Rome. According to Orosius, 3,000 slaves and 4,000 ship allies (socii navales) participated in it, and according to Zonara, hostages and Samnites were called upon to replenish the fleet. They were issued by Gerius Potilius, the commander of the auxiliary troops.

258- Consuls A. Atilius Kalatin and G. Sulpicius Paterculus moved to Panorm, where the Carthaginians wintered. The latter did not accept the battle. The Romans immediately stormed Hippan, laid siege to Mittistrat for the 3rd time, captured and destroyed it, sold the inhabitants into slavery (Polybius, Zonara, Diodorus).

Consul A. Atilius Kalatin moved to Kamarina and fell into a Carthaginian ambush. 300 warriors distracted the enemy and allowed the army to leave. The detachment was killed, its commander was wounded, but survived. Some writers call him Laberius, others - Kv. Caecidius, the majority - tribune M. Calpurnius Flamm (Periohi Livy, Zonara, Fabius Pictor, Frontinus, Eutropius, Orosius).

Atilius unsuccessfully besieged Camarina, but after receiving siege weapons from Syracuse, he managed to take the city. The prisoners were sold (Zonara).

By treason, the Romans took Enna. The Carthaginian garrison was partly killed, partly fled. The Romans took Sittan by force and left a garrison (Diodorus) there. Sittan is sometimes identified with Polybius' Hippana. Thanks to treason, Kamik (near Acragas) fell into the hands of the Romans. The population left Erbess north of Acragas. It was then occupied by the Romans.

Atilius crossed to the Aeolian Islands, hoping to capture the city of Lipari. Hamilcar overtook him and occupied the city. The Romans besieged him, the Carthaginians made a successful sortie (Zonara, Polybius).

The second consul meanwhile ravaged Sardinia. He wanted to raid Africa, but was driven back by the wind. Hannibal was again appointed admiral, replenished the squadron in Carthage, arrived in Sardinia. Specially sent deserters told the Carthaginians that Sulpicius was going to Africa again. Hannibal sailed away. He was locked up in some harbor of Sardinia by the Roman fleet and lost a large number of ships (Polybius). According to the Zonara, having lost a naval battle, the Carthaginians landed on the shore, abandoned their ships and took refuge in the city of Sulci in southwestern Sardinia. Carthaginian warriors crucified Hannibal (Polybius, Zonara) or stoned him to death (Orosius).

Later, the Romans launched a new attack on Sardinia, devastated the country, but were defeated by the new Carthaginian commander Hanno (Zonara, 8.12). It may have happened as early as next year. After this defeat, the Romans gave up trying to drive the Carthaginians off the island.

257- On land in Sicily, small skirmishes (Polybius). The Romans raided the Aeolian Islands (Zonara). Consul G.Atilius at the hill of Tyndaris from an ambush attacked the Carthaginian fleet of Hamilcar. Both sides credited the victory. According to the Roman version (Polybius, Zonara), the Carthaginians destroyed the Roman avant-garde, capturing 9 ships out of 10. In the battle with the main forces of the Roman squadron, the Carthaginians lost 8 ships sunk and 10 captured. The remnants of the Carthaginian fleet retreated to Lipary (Zonara, Polybius). Orosius mentions the devastation of the Aeolian Islands by Atilius and Fr. Melita (Malta), but it is not entirely clear which Atilius he had in mind: Aulus, the consul of the previous year, or Gaius.

This year the dictator Qua. Indiscriminate Gallus, probably to organize elections due to the absence of both consuls.

256 The Romans begin their campaign in Africa. Consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius Vulson are victorious at sea on the southern coast of Sicily.

After repairing damaged ships and loading supplies, the Romans safely crossed the sea, landed in Africa near Clupey (Aspides Polybius), fortified the camp, besieged and took Clupey. Then they devastated the country. According to Orosius, 300 settlements were devastated. L. Manlius, at the request of the Senate, returned to Sicily with part of the troops and 27 thousand (Eutropius) or more than 20 thousand (Polybius) prisoners. Regulus had 40 ships left, 15 thousand infantry and 500 horsemen. These figures are given by Polybius. Eutropius, Appian and other authors believe that the Romans had more than 30 thousand soldiers. The Carthaginians transferred Hamilcar from Heraclea Minoan (Sicily) with 5000 infantry and 500 horsemen. In Africa, he joined the troops of Hasdrubal, the son of Hanno, and Bostar. The Romans ravaged African lands.

Regulus laid siege to the city of Adis. The Carthaginians tried to unblock it and settled on a nearby hill. At dawn, the camp was suddenly attacked from two sides by the Roman army. Due to the nature of the terrain, the Carthaginians were unable to use elephants and cavalry. The mercenaries on foot put the 1st Legion to flight, but were put to flight by the second Roman corps, which struck in the rear. The Romans, after a short pursuit, returned and plundered the camp (Polybius, Zonara). According to Eutropius, Carthaginian losses amounted to 18 thousand killed, 5 thousand prisoners. 18 elephants fell into the hands of the Romans. Orosius gives the figure of 17,000 dead. After that, for some time the Carthaginians did not dare to obstruct Regulus. 74 (Eutropius), 82 (Orosius) or 200 (Appian) cities fell into the hands of the Romans, including Tunet near Carthage and Aspid. The Numidians opposed Carthage.

Peace negotiations began. According to Polybius, the initiative came from Regulus. According to Diodorus and other authors - from the Carthaginians. From the side of the Carthaginians, negotiations were conducted by Hanno, the son of Hamilcar. The conditions proposed by Regulus were conveyed by Cassius Dio. The Romans demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, the release without ransom of Roman prisoners, reimbursement of military expenses, payment of indemnity. In addition, Regulus demanded to wage war and make peace only with the permission of Rome, to have only one warship, to put up 50 triremes at the request of the Romans, and some others. The Carthaginians found the terms too harsh and the negotiations broke off.

255- Carthage produced a recruitment of mercenaries, among whom was the Laconian Xanthippus. The Carthaginians defeated the army of Regulus.

The Carthaginians laid siege to Klupei, but the Romans stubbornly defended themselves. Meanwhile, the consuls M. Aemilius Paul and Servius Fulvius Caepio with a fleet of 350 (Polybius) or 300 (Eutropius, Orosius) ships hurried to Africa. For some time they were delayed by a storm (Zonara). They captured about. Corsura and left a garrison there. In the Battle of Cape Hermes, they easily defeated the Carthaginian squadron, numbering 200 (Polybius) or 300 (Orosius) ships. According to Polybius, the Romans easily won and captured 114 Carthaginian ships. According to Eutropius, the Romans sank 104 and captured 30 enemy ships, destroyed and captured 15 thousand people. Orosius gives the same number of lost Carthaginian ships, but brings the loss of life to 35,000. Diodorus writes that the Romans captured only 24 ships. Note that Orosius' loss of life is in better agreement with the number of lost ships at Polybius and Eutropius, and the loss of life of Eutropius with the number of ships captured at Diodorus. The Romans, according to Orosius, killed 1100 people and sunk 9 ships.

After the battle, the Roman fleet landed at Clupey. After that, the Roman army, according to Orosius and Zonara, defeated two Hannons and destroyed 9 thousand Carthaginians (Orosius). Other sources of this battle do not know. Perhaps this refers to some unsuccessful assault on the city by the Carthaginians or a minor skirmish, turned by Roman historians into a big victory. According to Eutropius, famine forced the Romans to leave Africa. The fleet took the remnants of Regulus' army and, after several raids, headed for Sicily. Near Camarina, most of it perished in a storm. All sources state that only 80 ships survived. The number of the dead squadron itself is estimated in different ways: 300 (Orosius), 364 (Polybius), 464 (Eutropius) ships. According to Diodorus, the storm destroyed 340 warships and 300 cargo ships. In total, during the defeat of Regulus and the death of the fleet, 100 thousand people died. The wreckage of ships and the corpses of the drowned were scattered from Kamarina to Cape Pakhin. Hieron took care of the survivors. The Syracusans accompanied the Romans to Messana.

Thus ended the African expedition of the Romans. and has been the subject of many popular stories.

The Carthaginian army of Hamilcar undertook a punitive expedition through Numidia and Mauretania against those who supported or sympathized with Regulus. The best people from all the tribes were executed, the rest were imposed an indemnity of 1 thousand talents of silver and 200 thousand bulls (Orosius).

Somewhere between 255 and 251 B.C. the Carthaginians conducted fruitless negotiations for peace and the exchange of prisoners (Periohs).

254- The Carthaginian army of Cartalon in Sicily besieged and took Acragas. The city was burned, the walls were destroyed, the surviving residents took refuge in the temple of Olympian Zeus (Diodorus). The Carthaginians recaptured Fr. Corsura and transferred troops under the leadership of Hasdrubal to Lilibey. They were joined by troops from Heraclea, as well as 140 elephants. The Carthaginians also equipped 200 ships.

The Romans built 250 (Diodorus), 220 (Polybius) or 200 (Eutropius, 2.22.4) ships in 3 months. With them are the consuls Aul Atilius Kalatin and Gn. Cornelius arrived in Sicily and attached the 80 ships that were here to the squadron. Over the next three years, the Romans focused their efforts on capturing cities and fortresses in northwestern Sicily. There were also attacks on the western and southwestern coasts, but less actively. They regained control over Akragant, took Kefalidia by treason and laid siege to Drepan. The approach of Cartalon's troops forced them to retreat to the east. At the same time, the Romans sought to avoid major field battles with the Carthaginians. This tactic paid off. The fact that the Romans were able to carry it out indicates their superiority in numbers.

After retreating from Drepan, the consuls landed near Panormus and began a siege (Polybius, Diodorus, Zonara). They surrounded the city with a moat and a palisade from sea to sea. Siege work was facilitated by the presence of a forest reaching the city. In two places, siege structures were built and cars were brought up. By the sea, they destroyed the tower, after continuous assaults broke in, took possession of the new city and staged a massacre there. Residents took refuge in the old city. Famine forced them to capitulate. Under the agreement, 14,000 people retained their freedom, paying 2 mines per soul. The remaining 13,000 were sold along with other booty. The Ietians (Western Sicily) expelled the Carthaginian garrison and surrendered to the Romans. Their example was followed by Solunt, Petra, Tyndaris, Ennattor (Diodorus). Now the Carthaginians were finally pushed back to the west of Sicily.

The consuls left a garrison in Panorma and retired to Messana (Diodorus) or, less likely, to Rome (Polybius) for the winter.

253- Consuls Mr. Servilius Cepton and G. Sempronius Blaise unsuccessfully attacked Lilybaeum (Zonara). Probably, at this time the Romans and Carthaginians lined up in 5-6 stages from each other, but did not enter into battle (Polybius).

Then the consuls went to Africa, having 260 ships (Eutropius, Orosius). The Romans made several attacks on the coast (Polybius). According to Orosius, their raids covered the coast of the Great and Lesser Sirte bays in the east of the Carthaginian possessions. At the same time, the Romans captured either a few (Eutropius), or many cities (Orosius). At o. Mening in the hall. The small Sirte fleet ran aground and got out of it, only throwing all the cargo into the water (Polybius). After that, the Romans returned to Sicily, and the retreat resembled a flight. Polybius is silent on the reasons for this behaviour. According to Diodorus, the Carthaginian fleet drove the Romans away from Africa. The Romans circled Sicily from the west, stood at Panorm and lost 150 warships in a storm, as well as all transports (Polybius, Diodorus, Orosius, Zonara). Polybius places the crash site in the open sea, and Orosius at Cape Palinur in western Lucania. The Senate decided to curtail naval operations, leaving only 60 ships to defend Italy from Carthaginian raids (Eutropius, Zonara) or to deliver food to troops in Sicily (Polybius).

252- Consuls P. Servilius Geminus and G. Aurelius Cotta resumed their offensive on land. Their target was still the northwest coast. They captured several cities. Among others, they occupied Himera, from which the Carthaginians withdrew the population (Zonara) at night.

They also laid siege to Thermae (probably Himera). The gate guard at Thermae inadvertently went out of need outside the walls, was captured and led 1,000 prominent Roman soldiers into the city. They locked the gates in order to rob the city themselves. The Carthaginians killed them. Later, the Romans nevertheless took Thermae (Diodorus).

Aurelius Cotta received ships from Hieron, attached Roman ships to them, and laid siege to Lipara. The siege dragged on. Aurelius went to Rome for a while, leaving in his place the tribune Q. Cassia. Against the orders of the tribune, he launched an assault, which was repulsed. Returning Aurelius removed Casius, took the city, killed the population (Zonara).

40 thousand Roman infantry and 1000 horsemen unsuccessfully besieged the fortress of Erktu on the mountain of the same name northwest of Panormus (Diodorus). The number of troops indicates a double consular army.

Possibly, the episode with the confrontation between the two armies at Selinunte, standing 5-6 stages from each other, belongs to this campaign. The general battle never took place (Polybius).

251– At the beginning of the campaign, the consuls L. Caecilius Metellus and G. Furius Pacil act in Sicily. A new Carthaginian commander, Hasdrubal, arrived in Lilybaeum. At his disposal were 30 thousand soldiers and 130 elephants (Orosius). Caecilius settled in Panorma. Furius returned to Rome with his army. Hasdrubal, who was accused of passivity, took advantage of this and stepped up action. He crossed the rough terrain at Selinunte and turned north towards Panormus. It was harvest time. According to Polybius, the passivity of the consul encouraged the Carthaginians. They devastated the lands as far as Panormus and crossed the river that flows under the city. Metellus learned from the Zonara that many Punic spies had infiltrated Panormus. With the help of cunning, he managed to expose them all. This story may indicate that Hasdrubal hoped to take Panormus with the help of a fifth column.

After a naval battle, Lutatius gave battle to the Carthaginians at Eryx. According to Orosius, the Romans were victorious and destroyed 2,000 enemy soldiers. Most likely, this was one of the many battles with an uncertain outcome between the Romans and the Carthaginians. The report of the Roman victory should be treated in the same way as the later stories of the continuous victories of the Roman generals over Hannibal in the Second Punic War. After these "victories" Hannibal usually did what he wanted.

The Carthaginian government granted Himilcar Barca emergency powers to negotiate peace. He concluded peace with the proconsul Lutatius: "On the following terms, if they are pleasing to the Roman people, there should be friendship between the Carthaginians and the Romans: the Carthaginians are obliged to clear all of Sicily, not to fight with Hieron, not to go to war either against the Syracusans or against their allies ; the Carthaginians are obliged to give the Romans all prisoners without ransom; the Carthaginians are obliged to pay the Romans for twenty years two thousand two hundred Euboean talents of silver "(Polybius).

The Roman popular assembly did not approve these conditions and sent a commission of 10 people to consider the situation (Polybius). Roman ambassadors arrived at Hamilcar along with Gescon, the commandant of Lilybaeum. They read out the new terms of peace. Barca listened to them in silence until they reached the point about the surrender of weapons by the Carthaginian army in Sicily. Then Hamilcar interrupted the ambassadors and ordered them to immediately leave the camp (Diodorus). The Romans abolished the requirement to surrender weapons, but tightened other conditions. In its final form, the agreement contained the following conditions: “The Carthaginians undertake to clear Sicily and all the islands lying between Italy and Sicily. The allies on both sides must be mutually inviolable. "or a public building, recruit mercenaries, enter into friendship with the allies of the other side. Within ten days, the Carthaginians undertake to pay two thousand two hundred talents and now bring in a thousand. The Carthaginians undertake to return all captives to the Romans without ransom" (Polybius). According to Zonara and Appian, the peace treaty required not only the return of prisoners, but also the extradition of Roman deserters.

After the conclusion of peace, Hamilcar withdrew his troops to Lilibey and removed the title of commander in chief. The evacuation of the army to Africa was carried out by Geskon. The consul of 241 Q. arrived on the island. Lutatius Cercon, brother of the victor at the Battle of the Aegates. Together with his brother, he set about establishing order in conquered Sicily. As a first measure, the Romans disarmed the population. Lutatius Catulus celebrated a triumph for his naval victory (Zonara).

INDIVIDUAL BATTLE

Lifting of the siege of Messana (264)

The stories about the battles near Messana are so contradictory that many historians give up trying to reconstruct their course. Florus and Orosius: Claudius so quickly surpassed the Syracusans and Punians that the king, terrified by the power of the enemy, recognized himself defeated before entering the battle. This version makes one wonder if there was a serious battle with the Syracusans or not.

Fabius Pictor (via Polybius): Claudius landed in front of Messana and proposed to the Syracusans and Carthaginians to lift the siege to no avail. In a long and stubborn battle, he defeated the Syracusan army, which took refuge in the camp, and left at night. The next day, the Carthaginians were defeated. The survivors fled to the nearest towns.

The version of Filinus is restored from the polemical remarks of Polybius and from Diodorus: after the crossing, the Romans entered Messana and opposed the Syracusans. After the first successful skirmishes, the Romans lost the battle and returned to the city. After that, Hieron, according to Polybius, lost his mind, and, according to Diodorus, decided that he had been betrayed by the Carthaginians. He burned the camp and fled at night to Syracuse, leaving also all the fortifications that threatened the Messe region. Then the Romans lost the battle with the Carthaginians and lost many prisoners (Polybius). The Carthaginians left the camp immediately after the battle, took refuge in the cities and no longer dared to fight in the field.

Zonara and Dion: The Romans landed near the Syracusan camp and attacked Hiero immediately after they landed, hoping to surprise the Greeks. It failed. The Syracusans withstood the first onslaught. In the ensuing battle, the Roman cavalry was defeated, but the infantry won. Hiero retreated to the nearest mountains, and then withdrew to Syracuse. After that, the Romans headed against the Carthaginians. The Carthaginian camp defended the seashore on one side, and the swamp on the other. Between the sea and the swamp, the Carthaginians built a wall. The Roman attack on the camp failed. The attackers retreated under a shower of darts. The Carthaginians tried to pursue. The Romans turned around, defeated the enemy and inflicted huge damage on him. After that, the Carthaginians no longer dared to leave the camp until the departure of Claudius from Messana.

The last phrase gave rise to a hypothesis among some modern historians, according to which the siege of Messana continued until 263 and was lifted only by the consul of 263, Manius Valerius Maximus. The nickname of the last Messala was allegedly received precisely for this success. This hypothesis considers the campaign against Syracuse in 264 a fiction, although ancient historians of the opposite political orientation tell about it. Most likely, due to the brevity of the presentation, Zonara and Dion's retellings simply turned out to be omitted details. The Carthaginians left the camp soon after the battle and took refuge in the cities or set up another camp outside the Messenian region. It was from these fortifications that they did not dare to leave.

Siege of Acragas (262)

The Romans were located 8 stages from the city. It was harvest time (June). Roman soldiers in disorder went to collect bread. The Carthaginians defeated the foragers with a sudden attack, then some attacked the outposts, others attacked the camp, but were repulsed with heavy losses. The Romans became two camps. One was located to the west of the city near the sanctuary of Asclepius, the other - on the east or south side. The camps were connected by two ditches, between which guard fortifications were built at regular intervals. For five months, the Romans blockaded the city, repelling minor Carthaginian attacks (Polybius). At least 50,000 soldiers and civilians were locked up in Akragant. Food shortages began to be felt. Acragas was located away from the sea, like most Greek cities. This ruled out the possibility of supplying the fleet.

Hanno's army landed in Lilybae. Diodorus, citing Owl, writes that Hanno had 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants. Orosius gives the Punians 30,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, while Polybius gives 50 elephants. The sequence of further events differs between Polybius and Zonara. According to Polybius, Hanno's troops moved to Heraclea and, with the help of treason, captured Erbess, in which the Roman food depots were located. Then Hanno approached Akragant, defeated the Roman cavalry and encamped on the hill of Thor, 10 stadia from the enemy. Two months passed in small skirmishes. The position of the Romans was difficult due to hunger and disease. According to the Zonara, Hanno immediately arrived from Heraclea to Akragant. There are minor skirmishes. The Carthaginians tried in vain to challenge the enemy to battle. Then the Romans had problems with food, that is, the fall of Erbess should be attributed to this time. The Romans were eager to fight, but now the Carthaginians were playing for time. Both authors agree that supplies from Syracuse allowed the Romans to continue the siege, and the famine in Akragant forced Hanno to take active steps to deblock the city.

According to Polybius, the Romans and Hanno's troops converged between the camps. The Carthaginian infantry formed two lines, between which the elephants were located. After a long battle, the first line of the Carthaginians fled and dragged the rest with them. Hanno's army was mostly destroyed and lost almost all the elephants. According to Orosius, only 11 elephants died. Diodorus claims that Hanno gave two battles, and his army lost 3,000 infantry and 200 horsemen killed, 4,000 captured, 8 killed and 33 wounded elephants. Thus, in this version, Hanno's army suffered heavy losses but was not destroyed. The first battle could mean the equestrian battle of Polybius.

Other sources deny the fact of a proper field battle. According to Zonara, at first the Carthaginians tried to impose a field battle on the enemy, while the Romans avoided it. Then the Romans had problems with food and the roles changed. The Romans challenged the enemy to battle, and Hanno avoided him, hoping that he would be able to lift the siege without this. Prayers from the starving city forced him into action. Hanno and Hannibal agreed to strike at the same time, but the consul found out about this and placed part of the soldiers in an ambush. Hanno attacked the Roman fortifications, but was defeated by an ambush and a palisade. Hannibal's attack was also unsuccessful. Frontinus adds some details (2.1.4): "Consul Postumius, when his camp in Sicily was three miles from the Punic one and the Carthaginian commanders daily lined up for battle under the very fence of the camp, constantly defended himself with small forces, engaging in light skirmishes in front of the rampart. When the Punians, accustomed to his method of action, had already ceased to reckon with him, he, having prepared all the others for rest inside the camp, as before, with a small detachment, held back the enemy’s pressure and delayed him longer than usual; when, by six o’clock, tired and from hunger they began to return to themselves, he, with his fresh forces, put to flight the enemy, exhausted by the above difficulties.

The remnants of Hanno's army took refuge in Heraclea. Hannibal's troops filled up the ditch at night and were able to leave Akragant. The Romans limited themselves to a skirmish with his rearguard, broke into the city without a fight and plundered it (Polybius). Zonara inflates the extent of the defeat of the Carthaginians and writes that only Hannibal himself was saved, and the rest died at the hands of the Romans or the Acragantes, which did not prevent the Romans from selling the inhabitants of the city into slavery. More than 25 thousand people ended up in slavery (Diodorus). Diodorus (perhaps exaggerating) writes that 100 thousand people participated in the siege, digging ditches and building palisades on the part of the Romans. Of these, 30 thousand infantry and 540 horsemen died (Diodorus).

Battle of Cape Eknom (256)

The consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius Vulson with a fleet of 330 (Polybius, Orosius) or 350 (Appian) warships and a large number of cargo ships circled Sicily from the east and landed at Cape Ecnom on the south coast. Here the squadron was waiting for the land army, 4 legions and the Italian contingents. 350 Carthaginian warships gathered in Lilibei, crossed to Heraclea Minoa and headed for Cape Eknom. They were led by Admiral Hanno and Hamilcar, commander of the land forces of the Carthaginians in Sicily. Gannon at one time fought at Akragant. A fairly detailed description of the battle is found in Polybius, although there are some unclear points in it. The Roman fleet was divided into 4 squadrons according to the number of legions. He moved in three lines. In front were the first and second fleets, led by two consular hexers, in the second line was the third fleet, towing sailing cargo ships. The fourth fleet formed the third line. Before the battle, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd squadrons deployed in one line, and the 4th stood near the coast, covering the cargo ships. Hamilcar with the ships of the center initially retreated, dragging the two consular fleets with him, then turned around and entered the battle. The left flank of the Carthaginians pinned down the forces of the 3rd Roman squadron, and the right flank, led by Hanno, bypassed the consular ships and attacked the 4th squadron. The Carthaginians pressed half of the navy and cargo ships to the shore, but the stubborn resistance of the Romans continued. The consuls overcame the opposing forces and hurried back one by one. They managed to surround part of the Carthaginian squadron off the coast and capture many ships. The rest fled. The Romans captured 64 and sank more than 30 Carthaginian ships, while they themselves lost 24. According to Orosius, the Carthaginians lost 64 ships, and the Romans, according to Eutropius, 22. The figures of Eutropius and Orosius were obtained as a result of careless extracts from Livy, who simply copied Polybius' information.

Battle of Tunet (255)

According to Polybius, the Carthaginian army consisted of 12 thousand infantry, 4 thousand cavalry and almost 100 elephants. On the advice of Xanthippus, the Carthaginians changed tactics and began to look for battles on the plain in order to effectively use the cavalry and elephants. Regulus moved towards the Carthaginians around the lake, which was the Roman camp. This lake is usually identified with Lake Tunis, near which the city of Tunet (Tunisia) was located. The Roman army approached the enemy position after a grueling march during which it was bombarded with stones and arrows from the surrounding hills. The tired warriors immediately crossed the river separating them from the Carthaginians, hoping to confuse the enemy with a quick attack (Appian). The Carthaginians immediately lined up. In front they placed elephants, behind them - infantry. Part of the mercenaries was located on the right flank, on the flanks there were cavalry and lightly armed mercenaries. The Roman formation was traditional: light infantry in front, heavy behind, cavalry occupied the flanks. The formation of the infantry was deepened for a more effective fight against elephants. The Roman cavalry was defeated. The left flank of the Roman infantry defeated the mercenaries, not covered by elephants, and drove them to the camp. The elephants knocked over the front of the infantry (lightly armed?), but were stopped by the rear ranks. Part of the Romans broke through the line of elephants, but was stopped by the Carthaginian heavy infantry. The Carthaginian cavalry hit the flanks and rear of the Romans. The Romans suffered a crushing defeat. 2000 people escaped and fled to Klupey, Regulus and 500 soldiers were captured, the rest died (Polybius). From the total number of troops near Polybius, it follows that no more than 13 thousand Romans died, but according to Eutropius and Orosius - 30 thousand. Appian writes about the death of most of the Roman army, numbering 30 thousand people. The losses of the Carthaginians, according to Polybius, were reduced to the death of 800 mercenaries on the right flank.

Battle of Panorma (251)

According to the Roman version (Polybius, Frontinus, 2.5.4, 3.17.1), Caecilius provoked the enemy into battle. Initially, the consul pretended to be unsure of himself. He held the troops in Panorma and made a huge ditch in front of his camp. According to Polybius, the lightly armed Romans disturbed the enemy until Hasdrubal lined up the entire army. According to Frontinus, the hastati did it. After that, the Romans retreated to the wall and the moat. In addition, Caecilius purposely placed few defenders on the walls in order to inspire confidence in the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians approached the city. Along the Zonara, at the same time, the Carthaginian fleet approached the shore. The Romans fired at the elephants, and when they attacked, they took cover behind the moat. Here the elephants came under heavy fire from the wall and from behind the ditch. Caecilius stood outside the gate against the left flank of the Carthaginians and constantly sent reinforcements to his troops outside the city. Blacksmiths regularly brought out new throwing weapons and placed them outside at the base of the wall. The elephants took to flight and upset the ranks of the Carthaginian army. Fresh forces of the Romans came out of the city, hit the flank and achieved a complete victory. According to Zonara, the attack was made from all the gates of the city, the Carthaginians were surrounded, many tried to swim to the ships and drowned. According to Diodorus, only part of the Carthaginian army participated in the battle. The Gallic mercenaries drank wine and remained in the camp. During the sortie, the Romans took them by surprise and killed them.

The Romans offered freedom to those captives who would catch the fleeing elephants. Numidian prisoners (Zonara, Orosius, Eutropius) agreed to do this. According to Polybius, the Roman cavalry chased the elephants. The Carthaginians lost 20 thousand people (Eutropius, Orosius). According to Polybius, out of 130 elephants, the Romans captured 10 on the battlefield, the rest fled, but were captured after the battle. According to Eutropius and Orosius, 26 elephants died in the battle, 104 fled and were captured. According to Periochi and Zonara, a total of 120 elephants fell into the hands of the Romans, according to Diodorus - 60, according to Florus - about 100.

Battles near Lilibei (250)

A Roman fleet of 200 ships (Orosius) or 240 large ships and 60 light ships-kerkur (Diodorus) arrived in Panormus. From there, the consuls G. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius Vulson moved west and laid siege to Lilibey (Polybius, Zonara, Diodorus). Their army consisted of 4 legions (Orosius). According to Diodorus, the Romans had 110,000 men. Probably, most of this number were rowers, sailors and convoy servants, and the soldiers accounted for 30-40 thousand. Lilibey was fortified with strong walls and a moat 40 cubits deep and 60 cubits wide. The way to the harbors through the lagoons required experienced pilots and sailors. The city was defended by Himilcon with militias and 10 thousand mercenaries (Polybius) or with 7 thousand infantry and 700 horsemen (Diodorus).

The Romans camped in two camps on both sides of the city. The camps were connected by a shaft with a wall and a moat (Polybius, Zonara). The entrance to the harbor was blocked by 15 light ships with stones (Diodorus). The Romans filled in part of the moat on the south side by the sea in order to move the cars. They used catapults, battering rams, sheds. With their help, the seaside tower was destroyed, followed by 6 more towers. The Carthaginians built a second rampart in the shape of a crescent. The Romans made a dig, neutralized by the Carthaginian counter-dig. Roman miners died, littered with burning wood. The constant sorties of the Carthaginians, day and night, led to bloody battles. There was a conspiracy among the mercenaries who were going to surrender the city. They were betrayed by the Achaean Alexon, who once saved Acragas from the betrayal of the Syracusan mercenaries. The command, distributing money to the officers and promising them to the soldiers, convinced the mercenaries to remain loyal. The leaders of the conspiracy fled to the Romans and received land in Sicily (Polybius, Zonara).

In Drepan were the main forces of the Carthaginian squadron of Atarbal (Ardepan Zonari). The trierarch Hannibal, a subordinate of Atarbal, with a fair wind, broke into the besieged Lilibei with 50 warships, reinforcements, money and grain. He delivered 10 thousand soldiers (Polybius) or 4 thousand (Diodorus). According to Zonara, the breakthrough occurred under the cover of bad weather.

The Romans again blocked the harbor with stones, dikes and trees with anchors, but the storm swept them away (Diodorus). Polybius also recounts Roman measures to re-establish a naval blockade, but makes no mention of their eventual failure and dates them to a later stage of the siege. He reports that Hannibal with his squadron managed to slip out of Lilibey at night and returned to Drepan. Many Carthaginians tried to penetrate the besieged city. Some were successful, others were not (Zonara). Particularly distinguished was Hannibal of Rhodes, a noble Carthaginian, who many times broke into Lilybae past the Roman patrol ships. The Romans built a dam and seized one after the other two ships, one of which belonged to Rhodes (Polybius).

According to Diodorus, after the Carthaginians built the second wall, the Romans filled in the city moat. The battle on the seaside side of the wall diverted the forces of the city's defenders. The Romans, who were in ambush, took advantage of this and captured the first wall with the help of ladders. Arriving in time with 10 thousand soldiers, the Carthaginian general knocked them out. Apparently, this battle corresponds to the story of Polybius about the attempt of the Carthaginians to destroy the Roman buildings. It was attended by 20 thousand people and even more allegedly were in the city. The Carthaginians attacked in many places. The Romans expected an attack and prepared for it, so the Carthaginians could not take possession of the siege works and after a hard battle they returned to the city. Polybius does not mention the failed capture of the city wall.

The fight continued. The Romans destroyed the wall, and the Carthaginians rebuilt it. A storm broke out, overturning part of the Roman sheds and siege towers. The Carthaginians took advantage of the wind and began to throw incendiary projectiles. The wind quickly spread the fire. All structures perished (Polybius, Diodorus). According to Polybius, after that the Romans surrounded the whole city with a moat and a rampart. Apparently, this refers to that part of the city that was not covered by fortifications at the beginning of the siege. The Romans erected a wall in front of their camp. The Carthaginians rebuilt the destroyed walls.

Atarbal's fleet launched raids into Roman-controlled Sicily and the coast of Italy (Zonara). The Carthaginians transferred the cavalry to Drepan, its raids were blocked by the Roman foragers. According to Diodorus, 10 thousand people allegedly died from disease and hunger among the Romans. The lifting of the siege was prevented by Hieron, who sent bread. The beginning of food shortages Zonara refers to the time before the destruction of the siege works. According to his version, the Carthaginians were able to burn these structures due to the fact that one of the consuls left with his army due to lack of supplies.

Battle of Drepan (249)

Claudius sailed north at midnight and reached Drepan at dawn. He had 120 ships (Orosius), 123 (Polybius) or 210 (Diodorus). The Romans entered the harbor, hoping to take the enemy by surprise, but this failed. The Carthaginian admiral Atarbal managed to put mercenaries on the ships and slipped out of the harbor, following along the southern side of the city located on the cape. He passed through the strait between Cape Drepan and rocky islets and rounded the islands from the west. Part of the Roman fleet was in the bay, others were on the way. When trying to get out of the harbor into the sea, confusion arose. Only a part of the Roman ships managed to line up facing the west and with their backs to the shore. There was a popular story about a sacrifice before the battle (Periohi, Flor). The sacrificial chickens did not want to peck at the grain. Claudius did not show piety and threw the birds overboard with the words: "Let them drink if they do not want to eat." After that, he entered the battle, thus neglecting the will of the gods (Suetonius, Periochi).

Roman authors explained the subsequent defeat of the Romans by the wrath of higher powers. In real life, the consul simply had no choice. The Carthaginians, pressing the enemy to the shore, launched an attack. Atarbalus led the right flank, against which was Claudius. The maneuverability of the ships and the skill of the Carthaginian rowers allowed Atarbal to impose his tactics on the Romans. The Carthaginians bypassed and rammed enemy ships, drove them aground, and in the event of an attempt by the Romans to board them, they quickly retreated to the sea. Claudius, with 30 ships of the left flank, managed to break through along the coast to the south, 93 ships were captured, although the crews of the ships thrown ashore fled (Polybius). According to Eutropius and Orosius, 30 ships were saved, 90 were sunk and captured, 8 thousand people died, 20 thousand were captured. Diodorus estimates Roman losses at 117 ships and 20,000 men. According to Frontinus (2.13.9), not 30, but 20 Roman ships were saved. P. Claudius ordered to decorate these ships as victorious. Having thus instilled fear in the Punians, who decided that the Romans had won, he managed to get away.

Battle of the Aegates (241)

The squadron sailed to Sicily and approached Fr. Giera, the westernmost of the Aegates Islands. Hanno was going to slip to Eryx, unload supplies, take on board the experienced warriors of Hamilcar and try to break the Roman blockade. Lutatius foresaw the actions of the enemy, put selected soldiers on the ships and near Fr. Egusa blocked the path of the enemy, sailing to the east with a fair wind. The rowers of the Carthaginians were poorly trained, the warriors consisted of recruits, and the ships were overloaded. The battle took place 6 days before the Ides of March, i.e. March 10 according to the Roman (but not modern) calendar. It ended with a Roman victory. The changed wind allowed the remnants of the Carthaginian fleet to retreat to about. Hiera (Polybius). The fleet then returned to Carthage. Hanno was crucified (Zonara).

According to Polybius, 50 ships were sunk from the Carthaginians and 70 were captured. Nearly 10,000 people were taken prisoner. According to Eutropius and Orosius, 300 Roman ships fought against 400 Carthaginian. The Carthaginians lost 125 ships sunk and 63 captured. 32 thousand people were captured, and 13 thousand (Orosius had 14 thousand) died. The Romans lost 12 ships sunk. According to Diodorus, the Carthaginians had 250 military and many cargo ships. They lost 117 ships, including 20 captured. He mentions that, according to Philinus, 6 thousand people were captured, and according to other news - 4040. Some modern commentators propose a correction of the text that allows Diodorus and Polybius to agree: 6 thousand Carthaginians and 4040 others. The loss of the Romans amounted to 30 sunk and 50 damaged ships. When evaluating the numerical data, it should be noted that the total number of lost Carthaginian ships practically coincides with Diodorus-Filinus and Polybius-Fabius. At the same time, the Carthaginian sources could not know exactly how many of the lost ships were actually sunk, and how many were captured. Because of this, Polybius, who used Roman data, seems to be preferable, although he rounds the numbers. The number of ships captured from Polybius and Eutropius-Orosius are close. The greater number of ships sunk at Eutropius-Orosius can be explained in two ways. They could take into account not only military, but also cargo ships. On the other hand, their sources could make a mistake and distort the original information, which stated that the Carthaginians lost 125 ships, including 63 captured.

POPULAR STORIES AND JOKES

1. Battle with a giant snake

Livy, Zonara, Florus and Orosius tell a fairy tale about the battle of the Romans with a giant serpent 120 feet long (about 35 m), crawling out of the river, which Florus calls Cacidiset, and Orosius Bagrad. He devoured people walking for water. According to one version, the serpent also attacked the Roman camp. Darts and arrows bounced off the monster's hide. The Italian warriors delivered a fatal blow to the monster with the help of ballistas.

2. History of M. Atilius Regula

The fate of Regulus, who died in Carthaginian captivity, has been the subject of various popular legends. They told how he asked the Senate not to extend his command, as workers fled from his small estate. The Senate refused the request, but decided to maintain the estate at public expense. They also wrote that the Carthaginians sent the captive Regulus with their embassy to Rome as an intermediary in peace negotiations. At the same time, the Punians took a word from him that he would return to Carthage. Regulus convinced the Senate to continue the war, but he kept his word and returned to Africa, where he was subtly tortured to death. Later, his wife retaliated by bringing one Carthaginian captive to death and nearly killing another. According to one version, this was done with the consent of the Senate. According to another story, the senate, having learned about what was happening from the informing slaves, obliged the Atilii family, under threat of punishment, to treat the surviving captive well.

3. The fate of Xanthippus

After the departure of the Roman troops and fleet from Africa, part of the Carthaginian mercenaries was disbanded. Among them was Xanthippus. According to Polybius, he returned safely to Hellas and, according to some information, after 10 years appeared in the service of the Egyptians. According to Zonara, the Carthaginians did not pay the mercenaries and abandoned them on a deserted island. The Byzantine historian knows two versions about the fate of Xanthippus. According to one, the Carthaginians, out of envy, sank his ship. According to another, the envious Carthaginians tried to shipwreck Xanthippus. They gave him an old ship, but the Laconian boarded a more reliable ship in time and escaped. According to Diodorus, he sailed on a dilapidated ship and drowned in the Adriatic.

LITERATURE

1. Dio Cassius. Dio "s roman history in 9 volumes. - Cambridge (Massachusetts), 1984. V.1, 2 (Zonara and fragments of Dion).

2. Pavel Orosius. History against the pagans. Books IV-V. - St. Petersburg, 2001.

3. Annei Flor. Two books of Roman wars. In book. Small Roman Historians. Velley Paterkul. Roman history. Anna Flor. Two books of Roman wars. Lucius Ampelius. Memorial book. - M., 1995.

4. Polybius. General history. T.1. - St. Petersburg, 1994.

5. Polibius. The histories. Vol.1-2. – Cambridge (Mass.), London, 1971.

6. Livy. History of Rome from the founding of the city. T.3. - M., 1994.

7. Live. Roman history. Vol.14. – Cambridge (Massachusetts). – London, 1987.

8. Eutropius. In the book of Roman historians of the IV century. - M. 1997.

9. Diodorus Siculus. Library of history. – Cambridge (Mass.), London, 1989.

10. Appian. Roman Wars. - St. Petersburg, 1994.

11. Revyako K.A. Punic Wars. – Minsk, 1988.

12. Caven B. The punic wars. – New York, 1980.

13. Cambridge ancient history, v.7, part 2. – Cambridge etc., 1989.

14. Cambridge ancient history, v.7. – Cambridge etc., 1926.

CARDS

Rice. 3. I Punic War. The general course of the war and the scheme of the battle near Cape Eknom

Publication:
Copyright © 2002

The Romans took Agrigentum. During the first years of the war, the Romans managed to create a fleet, which in 260 BC. under the leadership of the consul G. Duilia, he received a naval victory at Mila. After a new naval victory at Cape Eknom in 256 BC. a Roman army under the leadership of Mark Regulus landed near the city of Klupei in Africa. However, the landing was defeated, and from 254 BC. hostilities were concentrated in the western part of Sicily. In 251 BC the Romans captured Panormus, but attempts to take Lilybaeum (siege from 250 BC) and Drepanum were unsuccessful. These cities were captured by the Romans only in 242 BC. the commander of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca, managed to inflict a series of blows on the Romans in 247-241, but the defeat of the Carthaginian fleet at the Egadi Islands in 241 BC. outcome of the war. The peace was concluded on the terms of Carthage's renunciation of part of Sicily and the islands lying between Italy and Sicily, which belonged to him for the benefit of Rome, as well as the issuance of prisoners to the winners and the payment of a monetary contribution in the amount of 3,200 talents over a ten-year period.

1. Background

The landing of the Romans and the neutralization of Syracuse.

The advance of Hamilcar.

Continuation of the Roman offensive.

Invasion of Africa.

Respite for Carthage.

Restoration of the Roman offensive.

Carthage goes to the world.

Relations between Rome and Carthage were friendly for a long time. Already around 400 BC. both states drew up a politically trade agreement, by which the Carthaginians gave Rome the occupation of Latium and allowed Roman merchants into Carthage and Sicily. A hundred years later, in 306 BC. , both sides explained their sphere of influence, and Carthage promised not to interfere in the affairs of Italy, and Rome undertook to adhere to the same in Sicily. During the raid of Pyrrhus, both states again became allies and mutually helped themselves.

But when all of Italy was in the hands of Rome, the policy on Carthage must change. The popular assembly came forward with a claim to extend the influence of the Roman state to the sea and to secure them to receive neighboring Sicily. Rome could not agree to the fact that under its side, on the Middle Island, the trading base of the Phoenicians remained. The Roman historian Florus wrote:

“When the Romans took possession of all of Italy and reached the Sicilian Strait, they found themselves there, like a flame, fury, destroying all the forests until the oncoming river delayed it. The Romans saw in the immediate neighborhood rich, but separated and cut off from Italy prey. thirst to get this country, that they decided to annex the lands that could not be annexed to Italy by armed force.

The conflict that started First Punic War(the Romans called the Carthaginians Punians, hence the name), occurred in 264 BC. e. through the Sicilian city of Messana, captured by the mamertines ("sons of Mars") - former mercenaries of the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles. In 264, the new ruler of Syracuse - Hieron II, wanting to return the city, began military operations against the Mamertines, who turned to Rome and Carthage for help at the same time. The Carthaginians arrived sooner and occupied Mesana. There was a clash between the Roman and Carthaginian troops that arrived in Sicily. This event excited the Romans and, although the cautious senate dissuaded them from having an alliance with the robber warriors, the centurial assembly of the virshila supported the mamertines and declared war on Carthage.

2. The beginning of the war

Military operations in Sicily in the initial period of the war developed quite successfully for the Romans. The Roman army in 264 without difficulty received Mesana and moved into the depths of Sicily. The Greek cities, frightened by the recent victory of Rome over Tarentum, were subjected to one after another, and powerful Syracuse severed ties with Carthage and recognized the protectorate of the Roman state over themselves. And the Syracusan tyrant Hieron went over to their side. In 262, with his support, the Romans, after a six-month siege, captured one of the largest cities in Sicily, which was in the hands of the Carthaginians, Akraganta. It was a serious success, but even then it became clear to the Romans that the further struggle against Carthage would not be limited to the actions of troops on land and that it was necessary to create their own fleet. In the western part of the island, the Carthaginians fortified strongly, and their commander Hamilcar Barca, there is Thunder, successfully repulsed the Roman attacks. The coast of the city of Carthage was defended with the help of its fleet, which also blocked the coast of Sicily and Southern Italy.

Remains of the naval base of the city of Carthage. Before the war, Carthage needed a powerful fleet in the western Mediterranean.

3. Creation of the Roman fleet

It was a turning point in the course of the war and, to some extent, in the history of the Roman Republic. An agrarian country, strong with its peasant army, had to become a maritime state or give up its claims to a dominant position in the Western Mediterranean. With great effort, with the help of Greek instructors, the Romans managed in an extremely short time to create a fleet of 120 large warships. The historian Polybius puts it this way:

"The Romans saw that the war was dragging on, and for the first time decided to build warships: 100 with five rows of oars and 20 with three rows. But this gave them many difficulties, because no one in Italy built such ships, and the artisans were not at all familiar with ways, how to build five rows. And here you can best recognize the energetic and courageous character of the Romans. Although until now they had never paid attention to the sea, suddenly, when they thought about it, they set to work so famously that, having tested their strength still well, have already decided to issue a sea battle to the Carthaginians, from their ancestors they held power at sea."

Poorly owning the technique of naval combat, the Romans introduced an ingenious technical device that provided them with an advantage in naval battles in the future. These were the so-called "crows" - boarding bridges equipped with a sharp hook. When approaching an enemy ship, the bridge was thrown onto its deck, the ship was deprived of the ability to maneuver, and the Roman legionnaires, having crossed the bridge, could engage in battle on the deck of an enemy ship in their usual environment, i.e. like on dry land.

Schematic representation of the "crow" (corvus). Although Rome used the crow with great success in the Punic War, the weapon later fell into disuse due to problems with the maneuverability of ships equipped with it.

Already in 260 BC. e. the young Roman fleet won its first victory at the Aeolian Islands. In honor of this victory, a marble column was erected in Rome, decorated with the prows of the captured ships of Carthage (rostral column). A fragment of an inscription from this column has been preserved, which lists the number of enemy ships taken and destroyed.

The wire over the Roman fleet was Gaius Duilius. The Carthaginians at first thoughtlessly heavy and clumsy Roman ships, but the Romans attacked boldly and, upon meeting with the enemy, threw their scaffolds onto the Carthaginian ships, and on them the legionnaires broke into the Carthaginian ships and fought with the enemy, as if on land. So unexpectedly the Romans won at sea. The Carthaginians lost 50 ships: in part they were flooded, in part they were taken prisoner. Respect for the first winner at sea - Duilia - the Romans put up a column on the market, which they decorated with the beaks of the received ships.

4. African adventure Regulus

Rome, encouraged by the first success, decided to build a naval force and attack Carthage itself. In 256, the Roman fleet surfaced at sea, with up to 350 ships. The Carthaginians blocked his path in the eknom in southern Sicily. A big battle took place here, in which the forces of both sides counted 300,000 soldiers and rowers (obviously, the figure is greatly exaggerated). The Romans defeated the enemy here and sailed to the African coast to take possession of Carthage itself.

At first, they were doing great. Consul Regulus, who commanded the Roman army, inflicted a series of defeats on the troops of Carthage and occupied the Naval cities, and before Tunisia, near Carthage itself. It seemed that the Phoenician states had already come to an end. Things got to the point that the Carthaginians were forced to ask for peace. Regulus, firmly convinced of his victory, not only put forward unacceptable peace conditions, but also sent part of his army home to Italy, leaving only 15,000. His forces were small, in 255 Carthage took advantage of this and with the help of Greek mercenaries under the command Spartan Xanthippus managed to inflict a crushing defeat on the Roman army. Consul Regulus was taken prisoner, and the Roman fleet with the remnants of the defeated army fell on the way into a strong storm and almost completely died. Later, the Romans compiled a legend, the Carthaginians tortured him in a cruel way, locked him in a barrel full of nails, closed his eyelids and exposed him to the sun - but that was fiction, because Regulus later returned healthy to Rome.

5. End of the war

The failure of the African expedition dragged on the war and convinced the Romans it was not so easy to get Carthage. Military operations again focused on the territory of Sicily and went with varying degrees of success. This struggle cost the Romans a lot of labor and money. It was necessary to rebuild the fleet, because due to the inexperience of the Roman admirals, either in battle or during sea storms, many ships sank. In the end, the Roman state ran out of funds for this, and patriotic citizens built new ships at their own expense. Although the situation was hopeless, yet Rome stubbornly walked towards its goal. In 251, the Romans received a great victory at Panorm, after which the Carthaginians had to clear almost all of Sicily. But soon the command of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily passed into the hands of the talented commander Hamilcar Barca, who, relying on the coastal cities that remained under the rule of the Carthaginians, and on the advantage of the Carthaginian fleet, managed to create a long-term active opposition to the Romans. The last battles were fought along the western coast of Sicily, where the Carthaginians stubbornly defended their ports of Drepanum and Lilybaeum. The Romans lost eight whole years to use these cities.

Again, the fate of the war was decided at sea: the Romans again had to create a strong fleet, and in 241 this newly created fleet defeated the Carthaginians at Eguza, which belonged to the Egat Islands (off the western coast of Sicily). The consul Lutacius Catulus defeated here the Carthaginian admiral Hanno, and the Carthaginians were to leave Sicily.

6. World

Carthage, exhausted by 23 years of war, was forced to ask for peace. Since the forces of the Romans were also almost exhausted, the Roman Senate willingly agreed to conclude peace. Under an agreement in 241, Carthage made peace with Rome on very unfavorable terms for itself: it renounced power over Sicily, released all the captives without compensation, and undertook to pay Rome 2,000 talents. Sicily became, with the exception of the territory left behind Hieron, the first non-Italic possession of Rome - the first Roman province.

7. By war

In 238, the Romans, taking advantage of the uprising of mercenary troops, Libyans and slaves against Carthage, captured Sardinia and Corsica, contrary to the terms of the peace treaty. The Carthaginians in the period between 237-219 not only restored their economic and military potential, but also significantly expanded their possessions in Spain under the leadership of Hamilcar Barca (up to 229), Hasdrubal (up to 221) and Hannibal.

The First Punic War ended with the victory of Rome, but the main issue - the question of political and economic dominance in the Western Mediterranean remained unresolved. The military-political significance, and even more so the economic power of Carthage, was by no means broken, the rivalry between the two largest states of the Western Mediterranean did not stop. Under such circumstances, a new military clash was inevitable.

See also

Notes

Sources

• Ivan Kripyakevich World History ANCIENT WORLD. War with Carthage - readbookz.com/book/168/5205.html
• Polybius on the First Punic War - www.livius.org/ps-pz/punic_war/1pw00.html
• Razin E. A., History of military art, vol. 1, M., 1955.

10. Additional sources

• The Punic Wars, by Adrian Goldsworthy, Cassel
• The First Punic War, A military history by JF Lazenby, 1996, UCLPress
• world history by Polybius, 1.7 - 1.60
• Evolution of Weapons and Warfare by Trevor N. Dupuy.

? about ? Wars of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome Wars of Ancient Greece Trojan War | Messenian War | Lelantskaya war | Sicilian Wars | Greco-Persian Wars | Aegina war | Wars of the Delian League | Samian war | Peloponnesian War | Corinthian War | Boeotian war | Holy Wars (First, Second,

Punic Wars- these are wars between Rome and Carthage (264 - 146 BC). The name comes from the word "poeni" (Latin poeni or puni - distorted "Phoenicians") as the Romans called the Carthaginians. There were three wars in total:

• First Punic War (264 - 241 BC)
• Second Punic War (218 - 201 BC)
• Third Punic War (149 - 146 BC)

First Punic War (264 - 241 BC)

This war lasted 23 years and ended with the victory of Rome. Before the conquest of Italy (509 - 265 BC), Rome and Carthage had allied relations, but both sides were attracted by the island of Sicily. Just at that time, there were unrest on the island, and therefore the Senate decided to intervene in the affairs of Sicily, to establish itself there, which caused discontent among Carthage. This was a violation of the treaty of 306 BC, according to which Rome pledged not to have possession in the territory of Sicily, and Carthage, in turn, in Italy. But at the final stage of the war with Pyrrhus, the Punic fleet entered the harbor of Tarentum, which gave the Romans reason to declare a violation of the treaty by Carthage before Rome.

By the beginning of the war, Rome had a strong, experienced army, but the fleet was very weak, and Carthage, on the contrary, had a strong fleet with heavy five-deck ships, but the army was smaller than the Roman one.

A squadron headed by the consul Appius Claudius headed to the Sicilian city of Messina. However, by the time they arrived, the city had already been taken by Carthage. Claudius decided to enter the city, a fight broke out, during which several Roman ships were captured. When Claudius managed to enter the city, he captured the Carthaginian commander Hanno and forced the army of the Punians to leave the city. Carthage declared war on Rome. The Punic army landed in Sicily, where an alliance was made with Hieron, after which the siege of Messina began. An army was sent from Rome under the command of Appius Claudius Caudicaus on ships supplied by the cities of the former Magna Graecia. The Punic army was forced to leave the city, and the Romans devastated the possessions of the Carthaginian allies, but the siege of Syracuse ended in defeat and Appius Claudius crossed the Rhegium Strait.

In 263 BC the Roman army in Sicily grew to the size of 4 legions, consisting of two consular armies led by Manius Valerius Maximus and Manius Otacilius Crassus. These armies conquered more than 50 cities and forced Hiero to enter into an alliance with Rome on the terms of the supply of food and the payment of 100 talents of indemnity, but the capture of the "Punian" part of the island was unsuccessful. Realizing the danger of the situation, in 262 BC. Carthage produced a set of large contingents of mercenaries. The new army stopped in a large Punic fortress - Akragant. The Romans in the amount of 4 legions laid siege to the fortress, and only after 6 months Acragas fell. The authority of Carthage was undermined, and many allied cities went over to the side of Rome.

Already in 260 BC. e., the Romans built a fleet, which consisted of 100 penteres and 20 triremes. The first battle between the new Roman fleet and the Carthaginian ended in the defeat of Rome, but soon the Punic squadron, during the next raid on Italy, was defeated in the battle against the Roman fleet. Many believe that the reason for Rome's victory was the boarding tactics (the use of bridges and boarding hooks), thanks to which Rome sank and captured a huge number of Carthaginian ships. Since then, Rome has become a maritime power. Further fighting went on with varying success.

In the 50s, the consuls Mark Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Volson, after the frequent victories of Rome, proposed to land a legion on the territory of Carthage. At Cape Eknom, the Romans entered into battle with the Punians, but this did not prevent the consuls, because. the battle was won. Then the consuls landed at Klupei and subjected the country to ruin, which led to numerous uprisings of the Libyans. Lucius Volson considered that Regulus and his army would be enough to "finish off" Carthage, and he returned to Rome. The Punians sent an army from Sicily, but the attempt was unsuccessful and Carthage again lost the battle: even more cities were captured by Rome. Peace negotiations began, but the demands put forward by Regulus seemed excessive to Carthage and the negotiations ended in vain. Already in 255 BC. the Punians produced a new set of mercenaries, including the general Xanthippus, after which they went on the offensive. In the battle of Tunet, they inflicted a crushing defeat on Regulus. On the advice of Xanthippus, the Carthaginians began to look for battles on the plains to use cavalry and elephants, a tactic that proved to be very successful. Mark Atilius Regulus was taken prisoner.

Ships were sent to rescue the remaining army, which defeated the Carthaginians at Cape Hermes, but on the way back the storm destroyed almost the entire Roman fleet.

Sicily again became the scene of hostilities - the Carthaginians captured the fortress city of Acragas and equipped a new fleet, Rome also built a fleet. The Romans began to push the Punians, taking advantage of their numerical superiority, returning Acragas and conquering Panormus. Rome again wanted to move the fighting to Africa, but the Punic fleet drove the Romans aground, where most were destroyed by a storm. The Senate left only 60 ships on the borders of the coast.

In 251 BC the Battle of Panorma took place, which was won by Rome thanks to the plan of the consul Caecilius, whose main goal was to put the elephants to flight, which happened. 120 war elephants were also captured.

In 249 BC the battle of Drepan took place. The consul Claudius hoped to catch the Punians, but the Carthaginian admiral Atarbal managed to slip out of the harbor, having previously put the mercenaries on the ships. The Carthaginians pinned down the Roman ships, preventing them from fully lining up facing the Punians. The battle ended with the defeat of Rome.

From 248 to 242 BC small-scale sluggish fighting was carried out, which practically did not solve anything. Only the new commander-in-chief of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca, was able to achieve some success. In 242 BC. a new fleet was built at the expense of citizens.

In 241 BC a decisive battle took place near the Aegates Islands, where the Carthaginian fleet was completely destroyed.

Carthage granted Himilcar Barca the authority to negotiate peace. Carthage pledged:

1. give up sicily
2. pay 3200 talents indemnity over 10 years
3. pay a small ransom for his Sicilian army

However, the demand to extradite defectors and surrender weapons was rejected.

The rich island of Sicily has long been a "bone of contention" between the two powerful states of Rome and Carthage Revyako K.A. uk. op. S. 67. Rome was separated from Sicily only by the narrow Strait of Messina, and therefore the desire to capture and annex the island was an old dream. Before the outbreak of the war, Sicily was divided into three parts. Most of the island was under the rule of Carthage. A smaller part of Sicily was subject to Syracuse, the northeastern lands with the city of Messana were ruled by the Mamertines, becoming, according to Mommsen, "the third power on the island." Mommsen T. uk. op. S. 497 In 268 the Carthaginians landed in Messana. The Mamertines saw no other way but to submit to the Carthaginian occupation. The appearance of the Carthaginians in Rome alarmed Rome. And now, under the guise of help, but in reality because of the fact that Revyako K.A. uk. op. S. 71, a garrison was sent to Messana, headed by the tribune Claudius.

In 264, Appius Claudius managed to capture Messana, and then defeat the troops of the Carthaginians and Syracusans one by one (Polyb., I, 11, 13). The next year brought much more success. So, practically without military clashes, a number of cities expressed their obedience to Rome. But perhaps the main success was that the king of Syracuse, Hieron, made an alliance with Rome (Polyb., I, 16, 5 and 6). The fact is that the Syracusans had to choose between Carthaginian and Roman hegemony. They preferred the latter, as they believed that the Romans had no intention of conquering the entire island. Mommsen T. uk. op. P. 534 This major diplomatic victory dramatically changed the entire geopolitical situation of that time and largely predetermined the further development of events, since since then Hieron has remained the most faithful ally of Rome in Sicily.

This greatly facilitated the conduct of the war. Self-confidence in successful actions made it possible to reduce the army to two legions (Polyb., I, 17, 2). But the need for a more decisive policy forced the consuls of 262 to again bring the army to 400,000. Almost all of it was thrown into the siege of Acragas, which was in fact the main stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily. The siege lasted seven months, and, despite such a long period, the Romans did not lose patience, did not give up their intention to capture Akragant Revyako K.A. uk. op. S. 79, since they did not feel the need for anything (Polyb., I, 18, 5). In the end, thanks to a reliable rear, the troops captured the city. They captured a large number of prisoners and a lot of booty (Polyb., I, 19, 15). However, the successes of 262 were not decisive, since dominance at sea remained in the hands of the Carthaginians, whose ships constantly terrorized the Roman coast up to Ostia (Polyb., I, 20, 7). In order to achieve a turning point in the course of the war, it was necessary to change the strategy and look for a solution not in Sicily, but at sea. 25 Razin E.A. uk. op. S. 293. By this time it was becoming clearer that without the possession of a large fleet, Rome would not be able to win the war. Therefore, it was decided to build 100 five-deck, 20 three-deck ships and recruit 30 thousand rowers from among the Romans and their allies (Polyb., I, 20, 9). In general, as military researchers note, the Roman fleet was significantly inferior to the Carthaginian in combat qualities: the ships were clumsy, and the crews were poorly trained. But thanks to the use of ravens - special bridges with hooks at the end, the forces of the Romans and Carthaginians became almost equal.

In 260, near the Aeolian Islands, which is northwest of Messana, the first naval battle took place between the Roman and Carthaginian fleets. According to the estimates of modern researchers, the number of ships among the opponents was approximately equal: 120 - among the Romans, 130 - among the Carthaginians. Through the use of boarding bridges, Rome won a major victory, destroying 50 enemy ships in the process. “The Carthaginians, frightened by an unusual way of war, fled, having lost fifty ships” (Polyb., I, 23, 10). The victory at the Aeolian Islands brought Rome power over the Sicilian cities of Segesta, Macella and the surrounding lands. Revyako K.A. uk. op. S. 82 This was followed by a series of military expeditions to Sardinia and Corsica. There, the consul of 259, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, managed to defeat the forces of the Carthaginians and occupy a number of important cities. What were the results of the first period of the war. Rome captured a number of cities in Sicily and won a number of naval victories. But did it affect his foreign policy? Obviously not. Most of the annexed cities received the status of allies and only a few were governed under the laws of war. In support of the above, an example can be given with the same Mamertines, who, after the capture of Messana, “were accepted into the alliance” (Polyb., I, II). That is, they acquired the status of allies of the Roman people, and not its subordinates.

There were no major events over the next three years. This makes it possible to assume that the powers were preparing for a decisive breakthrough (Polyb., I, 26,2). Indeed, by the year 256, the Romans had collected 330 triremes (Polyb., I, 25, 7) for an amphibious landing in Africa. In the summer of the same year, they head for Carthage, but a large enemy fleet (about 350 ships) was already waiting for them near Cape Eknom. Opponents were absolutely equivalent, notes Polybius (I, 28, 5). Thanks to a clear organization and good interaction, the Romans managed to win a second major victory at sea. In addition to the capture of about 64,000 prisoners of war (Polyb., I, 28, 14), it had other more far-reaching consequences. In the Mediterranean basin there was a change in the balance of power: the Romans opened a direct route to Carthage.

Initially, after the landing, Rome was successful: a number of the most important strategic points were captured, and large cities were blocked. But then, among the Roman legionnaires, rebellions began, caused by a drop in discipline. And this is not surprising, because nine-tenths of the army consisted of Italian peasants, who for the first time participated in a major overseas campaign, whose interests were alien to them. The peasants began to demand that they be allowed to go home to work the fields. And the Roman command made concessions, obviously wanting to maintain good relations with the allies. It was decided to leave only 15 thousand foot soldiers, 500 horsemen, 40 ships in Africa (Polyb., I, 29, 7). Consul Regulus was appointed commander of these forces. The army was mainly engaged in plundering and ruining the country. Historiography traditionally associates the course of further events with the mediocrity of the Roman commander. Kovalev S.I. uk. op. P.192. So, after several successful raids, he was asked to make peace, but he refused this, putting forward unacceptable conditions. (Polyb., I, 31, 5)

At this time, the Carthaginians were not inactive either. So, good cavalry was recruited from the nomads of Numidia, a large number of infantry were recruited, and the Greek Xanthippus, a man of Laconian education, excellently tested in military affairs, was invited to the post of army commander (Polyb., I, 32, 2). In the spring of 255, his newly trained army defeated the Romans. And the consul Regulus was captured and, according to one version, was soon executed. As a result, only 2 thousand Romans managed to hide in the fortress of Klupeya (Polyb., I, 34, 7-12), from where they were soon taken out by the fleet. In general, it must be said that the year 255 was extremely unfortunate for the Romans: almost all major naval formations were destroyed by terrible storms, including those ships that transported the army evacuated to Italy. Of course, such large material and human losses could not but affect the affairs of Rome. Many researchers believe that the African campaign was unsuccessful and ended in a complete disaster. Razin E.A. uk. op. P.298 But in reality this is not entirely true. Such large-scale military operations for the first time showed the power of the young Roman state, its ability to achieve a military goal. Rome also managed to undermine the economy of Carthage for some time, which made it possible to better prepare for the next stage of the struggle. Whether Rome had aggressive goals when organizing a campaign in Africa is a very controversial issue. How should this enterprise be considered: as a gamble or as an attempt to gain a foothold in enemy territory? The answer to this question is very difficult, if not impossible. And yet, if we consider the invasion of Africa as an attempt to finally put an end to Carthage, then the logic of the behavior of the Roman Senate, which ordered most of the troops to return to Italy, remains incomprehensible. Unfortunately, due to the tragic death of most of the army (Polyb., I, 37), we did not manage to find out about its true purpose. After all, it is quite possible that it was she who was prepared for the task of clearing Sicily of the enemy.

Over the next 12 years, Sicily became the main scene of clashes. Military operations were reduced mainly to attempts by both sides to capture a particular city. So the city of Panormus was besieged by the Carthaginians. But attempts to take it did not lead to success. At the same time, the Romans annexed a number of settlements, and also blocked the large fortress of Lilebey (Polyb., I, 42), captured Eriks. Perhaps the lower activity of the Carthaginians is explained by the fact that at that time another party came to power in Carthage and there was a change of course. A new intensification of actions began in 242, when the consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus, at the head of a newly assembled large fleet, set off for the coast of Sicily, quite unexpectedly for the Carthaginians (Polyb., I, 58, 9). The Romans quickly captured the Drepani harbor and all the piers of Lillebay. Having hastily assembled and equipped his squadron, Carthage sent it to Sicily under the command of Hanno (Polyb., I, 60, 2-4). The decisive battle took place near the Aegat Islands in March 241. In it, Carthage lost 120 ships. In general, this year was in many ways a turning point for both sides, as both powers realized that the war had reached a dead end. Therefore, it is no coincidence that calls for a truce are being heard more and more often from different sides. But still, the initial initiative came from Carthage: the Senate gave Hamilcar the authority to conduct military negotiations. Both commanders worked out the text of the peace treaty, which is reported by Polybius (I,62,8-9). According to him, the Carthaginians were obliged to leave all of Sicily, not to fight with Hieron, not to go to war with Syracuse and their allies, to give Rome all the prisoners without ransom, and also to pay 2000 Euboean talents of silver within 20 years. But the Roman government considered the treaty too lenient and refused to ratify it. A commission was sent to Carthage, which made sure that it was unlikely that any big concessions could be achieved, and the enemies could resume the war. Therefore, in the final version of the agreement, only a few points were changed. In particular, the indemnity was increased to 3.2 thousand talents, which were to be paid for 10 years, and, among other things, Carthage undertook to clear the Aeolian Islands (Polyb., I, 63, 3). On these terms, the agreement was approved by the Roman people's assembly in 241 BC. And so ended the 23-year struggle, which cost both sides a lot of effort.

Before you start talking about the causes of the Punic wars, you need to figure out how many of these wars there were, between whom they were fought and what their periodization was.
The Punic Wars are a series of major military conflicts between Ancient Rome and Carthage. Throughout history, there have been three major wars between them:
- 264-261 years. BC e.
- 218-201 BC e.
- 149-146 years. BC e.

Causes of the First Punic War
Before the outbreak of the first war between the Carthaginians and the Romans, these two peoples were staunch allies. However, Rome planned to expand its influence, and first of all, he began to conquer Italy, which did not suit Carthage at all. And when Rome captured Sicily, relations between the states finally deteriorated. Sicily is an important strategic point that gave control over the Mediterranean Sea.
The war was difficult for both sides, but nevertheless the Roman Republic managed to win and the island of Sicily became its reward.

Causes of the Second Punic War
After the defeat in the first military conflict, Carthage forever lost the island of Sicily and the income from it, and also lost the monopoly on trade with the Mediterranean Sea, which seriously hit the power of Carthage.
But after the defeat, Carthage began to seize Spain and, with the help of its resources, was able to restore its power. Moreover, Spain is a rather advantageous springboard for an attack on Italy.
At this time, the Romans conclude an alliance with Sagunt and Spain, which was hostile to Carthage. Also, one cannot ignore the personality of Hannibal, who saw his destiny in the war against Rome, he fiercely sought to give revenge to Rome and defeat him.
Hannibal also saw that now the number of soldiers of Rome was not so large - a little more than 60 thousand. At the same time, this large army was divided into three smaller ones, controlled by consuls. At the time of the outbreak of the war, Hannibal had a little more than 50 thousand soldiers. He knew that to strike at Rome when her troops were scattered was now the easiest thing to do.
As for the main reason for the start of the war, it is the establishment of dominion in the Mediterranean Sea.
The Second Punic War without controversy proved to be the largest and most bloody. The remaining two wars were only "rehearsals". Both sides suffered huge losses. But, like last time, Rome won. However, there were moments when Rome almost fell into the hands of Hannibal and only a miracle helped Rome.
As a result of the war, Carthage lost almost its entire fleet and had to pay a huge indemnity for 50 years. And Rome became the strongest state in the Mediterranean.

Causes of the Third Punic War
Rome was afraid that Carthage would be able to restore its power, although it had been severely undermined during the Second Punic War. Rome in this period was significantly strengthened, conquered Greece, Egypt.
Although Carthage lost its military power, it still remained a major trading center, which prevented the flourishing of Roman trade.
And Rome was not worried in vain, Carthage quickly began to accumulate its wealth again. The Roman politician Mark Porcius Cato said at one of the meetings of the Senate: "Carthage must be destroyed." And most of the senators adhered to his opinion.
This time, it was Rome that initiated the conflict, while the first two Punic Wars were initiated by Carthage.
As a result of the conflict, the city of Carthage was completely burned to the ground. It burned for several weeks. Although the Carthaginians defended themselves fiercely (for more than two years), they all fell under the onslaught of the Roman army. The Romans cursed this land forever.