1 operation of thinking. Basic mental operations

Stav assembly

The most common ways of joining logs into a stave are fastening them with dowels and knitting with knitting. In the first method, transverse bars - dowels - are inserted into the grooves sawn near the ends of the logs, and they are wedged there. The construction is very rigid and durable. Most rafts for sailing on difficult rapids are assembled in this way. In the second method, longitudinal logs are tied with wicks (twisted trunks or branches of young trees) to two thin transverse logs - ronzhins. A raft on vices is less reliable than on dowels, but it is done faster.
Dowel fastening. Dowels are hewn from raw spruce. You can also use larch, but it is more brittle. A dry wood dowel is good because it does not increase the weight of the raft and can be as thick as technological considerations dictate. However, a tree that has dried up at the root has many cracks, which affects the strength of the key and the reliability of its jamming in the grooves; dry dowels can only be recommended for small rafts. The workpiece should be 50 cm longer than expected

The given width of the raft. Choose a log for the dowel without a strong bend, large branches and not twisted (it is difficult to process). With a lack of carpentry skills, pre-mark the log, as shown in fig. 9. With a charcoal or pencil on the end of a smaller diameter, draw a section of the key. Having measured the main dimensions of the section, make the same drawing on the other end of the log, paying attention to the parallelism of the lines of both drawings. For this you can

Rice. 9. Key

Apply a plumb line. After sanding the log in the right places, draw by eye or beat off with a cord the longitudinal lines 3 (Fig. 9), formed by the intersection of the vertical edge of the future key / with the cylindrical surface of the log. To beat off straight lines, nails or small wooden pegs are driven into their intended ends, onto which a string rubbed with charcoal with a diameter of 2-3 mm is pulled. A pulled and sharply released string, clicking on a log, leaves a straight line on it. If the log is long, it is better to beat the line in parts, pressing the stretched twine with your hand and foot at the ends of each section.

It is not necessary to make the key in the form of an isosceles trapezoid: it will be difficult to maintain the correct angles and even more difficult to cut the front and rear grooves in the logs at the same distance. It is much easier to do this if one of the corners is straight (Fig. 9, corner a). The alpha angle is 75-80°. If this angle is too small, then the wedge that secures the key presses strongly upwards and can split the log, and if it is close to 90 °, then with powerful blows against stones, the wood will collapse and the log will jump off the key.

The height of the key h is usually 0.5-0.7 of the diameter of the stack logs at its location and 1.3-1.5 of the width of the key at the base b. Dimensions of dowels for a raft for 7 people: butt - height h - 20 cm, width b - 12 cm (section fits into a circle with a diameter of 24 cm); for peaks - height 15 cm, width 10 cm (fits into a circle with a diameter of 18 cm). It is not known whether the specified dimensions are optimal, but they are sufficient, at least the author does not know of cases of dowel breakage of this size during normal raft accidents. After marking, the log-blank for the key is placed on 2 transverse logs with cuttings so that it does not roll. It is not necessary to sand the whole log, then it lies more stable.

The edges of the key are carved with an axe. Before the beginning of the tesque of each face, notches are made on the surface of the log after 30-40 cm, and then the wood is cut down between them along the longitudinal marking lines. leaving a small allowance for final processing In the second pass, the allowance is removed with light strokes until a clean surface is obtained. In order to have fewer scuffs, it is necessary to hew from the top to the butt. If you need to remove a large layer of wood, then instead of notches, it is better to make transverse cuts, not bringing them 0.5-1 cm to the longitudinal marking lines. It is convenient to start hewing the key from the vertical edge /, then make the base 2 and, already having two planes at right angles, make the last inclined edge. It is even easier to make a rectangular bar first, and then chop one edge to the desired angle. Those who work well with an ax begin to hew a dowel by eye directly from a tree standing on the vine. They fill it up only by making a section of such a length as the height of the worker allows. The production of a key for a raft for 7 people requires about 3 hours, and with the appropriate experience, much less.

It is better to cut the dowels not at the very ends of the logs, but closer to the middle, so that the distance from the bow and stern is approximately "/ 4 of the length of the raft - then the grooves will probably not chip.<саянских>) or trunk, it is desirable to move the dowels to the bow and stern, then do not cut them closer than 60-80 cm from the ends of the logs and closer than 50-70 cm from the risers of the U-shaped podgrebits.

The depth of the grooves in the butts of logs of medium diameter is 13-16 cm - slightly more than the width of the saw. At the tops, the depth of the groove should not be made more than half the diameter of the log in this place, otherwise it will break if the raft, after the impact, begins to crawl out of this log onto a stone. So that the difference in the diameters of different logs does not greatly affect the draft of the raft, saw the thicker ones deeper, distributing this difference between the bottom and the deck. If the river is rich in shoals and small boulders, it is advisable to level all the logs along the bottom to reduce the draft of the raft.

Rice. 10. Dimensions and angles of the groove and key:
1 - log; 2-key; 3 wedge;
alpha is greater than beta B - b more than 4-5 cm;
In more than the width of the ax blade;
the angle alpha is 90°;
angle gamma is less than angle beta

Cuts for the groove, like the edges of the key, are made at different angles - one vertical, the other inclined (Fig. 10). The bevel cut is made at an angle slightly sharper than the slope of the corresponding key face (gamma angle is less than beta angle), so that in the event of an error in the manufacture of one of the corners, the wedge does not extrude upwards. The width of the groove at the top (A) should be greater than the width of the key at the base (b), so that the key fits easily into the groove right from above - this makes it easier to assemble the raft (the so-called<открытый паз>). The difference in the width of the bases of the groove and the key (B - B) should be at least 4-5 cm, so that the wedge is not a thin plank, which will immediately crack when hammered, but a block of wood that is not afraid of a good blow. If it is necessary to dismantle the raft, such a wedge can be knocked out or, in extreme cases, cut down without damaging the groove and keys.

The wedge is hammered from the side of the inclined edge of the key, and its vertical edge is pressed directly against the vertical cut of the groove. With this arrangement of the wedge and the key, it is necessary to maintain the distance between the vertical cuts L (Fig. 11). This is easier than maintaining the distance between the lower corners of the grooves for all logs (distance M in the figure), especially if the depth of the grooves is different. Such a problem would have to be faced if the wedge were located on the side of the vertical edge or if both sides of the key were inclined (equilateral trapezoid). The required accuracy is ensured by measuring from a pole evenly cut along the length, along which both vertical grooves are sawn. After the vertical cuts are accurately made, the inclined cuts are made at an approximate distance from them. The measure is often the width of the sole of the boot: all the same, the errors will be chosen by the wedge. You only need to follow the angle of the saw and ensure that the groove. walked across the log, and not obliquely.

Rice. 11. Keyways in a log

Having made cuts, they cut a groove along the base of the log, first from one side and then from the other side (Fig. 12, b), then, with a strong blow of the butt, the wood is knocked out of the groove (Fig. 12, c). If this does not work, additional cuts are made along the dotted lines (Fig. 12, b). If necessary, the base of the groove is cleaned with a hatchet or chisel. So that these works do not cause difficulties, the width of the groove, at least at the base, must be greater than the width of the ax blade. If there is a bough at the site of the future groove, then, in order to make it easier to clean the groove, make 3-4 cuts, drawing the middle ones as close as possible to the bough (Fig. 12, d). Simultaneously with the grooves for the dowels, grooves are made for the ridges, various columns, logs are hewn in the right places, etc. Marking and selecting all the grooves takes 4 people 3 hours.

Wedges for fastening dowels are best made from dry larch. Such a wedge is durable, does not wrinkle and does not urinate when driving. Wedges from dry spruce also hold well. Blanks for wedges should be made centrally. From the unused butts left when cutting out the logs of the stav, or from a specially selected tree, several logs of various lengths are sawn off, determined by the diameter of the logs being rallied, and split into rectangular chopping blocks. The wedge, in order for it to hold tightly, must enter tightly. You need to drive wedges with beaters (Fig. 13, a) made of raw larch (it has many branches, and from one tree it is possible to make a whole set of beaters of different weights and for every taste). Good beaters are obtained from birch. Spruce quickly urinate.

Rice. 12. Making a keyway

The wedges are hewn out of the blanks right in place and driven into the gap between the key and the inclined wall of the groove on the side, along the key. To prevent the wedge from crawling up, they begin to hammer it, pointing it a little down (Fig. 13, b): with the correct angles of the grooves and the key, after several blows, it will stand horizontally. In order for the wedge to hold with its entire surface, it is better to make it in the form of a bar with almost parallel edges, only there should be a 5-7 cm long lead-in in front. 5 cm. If the wedge went too easily, knock it back, make a new one, and this one will come in handy for a narrower gap. The wedge is driven all the way into the wedge of the previous log.

Rice. 13. Doweled raft assembly:
a - driving a wedge,
b - the position of driven and driven wedges;
c - wedge;
g - bending of the dowels during the assembly of the stave (the curvature is exaggerated)

Despite the fact that the angle of the wedge is small, it still clamps the key more strongly on the side from which it is hammered (Fig. 13, d). parallelogram view To maintain axial symmetry, assemble the raft starting from the middle, adding a log from each side. The vertical edges of the front and rear grooves should be directed in the same direction so that, despite the bending of both keys, the distance between them remains more or less constant and the next logs sit down without difficulty. If vertical cuts are made from different sides, for example, at the bow key in front, and at the stern key at the back, then when wedges are driven from the side of the inclined edges, both keys will bend in different directions, and in order to plant the next log, they will have to be pulled together with a rope or widened the groove in log. It is better to make the wall of the groove front along the raft vertical - then when the log hits the stone, the force on the key will be transmitted through the wide, well-fitted edge of the groove, and not through the wedge. The next log is planted on both dowels, pressed with a wedge in the butt to the adjacent log and fastened with a wedge to the butt dowel. After that, the top, if it has moved to the side, is pulled to the fixed log with a rope loop, twisting it with a stick, and the wedge of the nose key is driven in. And so on, until the entire stav is assembled. For two, it takes about 4 hours to assemble a large raft.

Knitting. For knitting a raft stave, threads are used from trunks of birches or fir trees 3-4 m long and 3-5 cm in diameter in a butt, and for tying podgreb and other parts - also from branches of larch, willow, bird cherry. When twisting, the stem splits into fibers and becomes flexible without losing tensile strength. It turns out something like a thick, non-stretching rope.

Vitz production technology is simple, although it requires some skills. For vices, high stems are used without thick knots and with a small taper; they usually grow in dense areas of the forest. When clearing the tree of branches, do not chop the stem itself - it is better to let the remnants of the knots stick out slightly. At the very top of the stem, the branches are not cut down, leaving a half-meter panicle. To store more than 2-3 hours, the blanks are placed in water so that they do not dry out. The trunks should be steamed on the coals of a long fire immediately before twisting. It is harder to twist without a steamer, the percentage of rejects increases and the strength of the threads decreases due to the rupture of some of the fibers. Cold spruce trunks are better twisted than birch.

For twisting, the stem is split at the butt, a loop is inserted into the crack (tied from a meter-long piece of thin rope, for example, a cord), into which a stick 0.5-1 m long is inserted. The loop is twisted into a kind of tourniquet. This tourniquet is wrapped around the butt of the stem, thereby keeping it from further splitting; after that, the workpiece can be twisted (Fig. 14, a, b).

Rice. 14. Making vics:
a, b - fastening the collar for twisting the vice;
in - twisting of the vice; d, e - fixing the top of the vice

The easiest way is to twist the vices with two people. The first, putting on mittens, presses the top of the bow to a tree trunk with a diameter of 30-40 cm (Fig. 14, c), and the second, holding the stick-collar, proceeds to twist the stem. The operation is easy at first, as the thinnest part of the stem is twisted at the very top. When this part of the stem is sufficiently twisted, but the fibers have not yet begun to tear, at the signal of the first, the second takes several steps around the tree trunk so that the twisted part of the thread no longer hangs in the air, but is pressed against the tree trunk. The first additionally presses it with his hand, as a result of which the thicker part of the vice is now twisted. So, gradually winding the wick on the tree, bring the twist almost to the butt. Having finished twisting, the wick is unwound from the tree, unwinding it a little, and immediately put into the water. A small number of thin threads, intended for fastening the parts of the podgreb and trunk, can be twisted using the butt of the same stem, 30-50 cm long, broken across the butt as a gate. in fig. 14, d, d. It is necessary to harvest vices with a margin - one and a half times more than required by calculations.

Rice. 15. Knitting logs with vices

When assembling the raft, the logs of the stave are pulled in pairs by rings of vices to the ronzhina - a transverse log with a diameter of 10-15 cm. It is better to make a ring by wrapping its butt with the top of the vice (Fig. 15, a). The method shown in fig. 15, b, allows you to quickly adjust the diameter of the ring, breaking the butt in the right place, but a thin loop of such a thread can break if the wedge is driven too hard.

A ring of vice is put on the ends of the logs, its length is adjusted in place and pulled around the ronzhina with a strong stake (Fig. 15, d, e). Please note that the place of twisting of the thread is located in the area of ​​the stake and the ronjin, and the butt of the twist is pressed against the ronjin by the part of the thread that falls under the log. If a whisk of branches is left at the end of the vice, then the twist does not unravel, and by tapping on the vice in the right places with the butt of an ax, it can be pulled tight. After that, instead of a stake, a wedge is inserted, made of split logs with a diameter of 12-15 cm and a length of about 0.5 m. The nose of the wedge is hemmed with a boat, as in fig. 15, c, and the bark is not removed so that it slips less. Dry wedges are lighter but more difficult to handle. Pressing the wedge with the foot, it is hammered with an ax between the ronzhina and a pair of logs (Fig. 15, f) to the position marked with the letters w and h in the same figure. If the wedge enters easily, it is removed and the wick is twisted, reducing the size of the ring. Do not drive the wedge to the very end, leave the opportunity to tighten the mount if the wedge loosens.

Each pair of logs, starting with medium ones, is tied with butts to one ronzhin, then with tops to another. Some raftmen make notches in the logs (Fig. 15, i) in order to protect the bows from being hit by stones, which is not practical: the charm of the raft on the bows is in its simplicity and quick manufacture. In addition, the bows on the move, even when the raft climbs over stones, rarely break, and if this happens, you can tie up a pair of logs that have come off, and put a new bow in a calm environment.

To fasten the parts of the podgreb and the trunk with the screws in the place of attachment in the described way, weave a ring, which is twisted with a stake. You need to twist it right at the place of the weave of the ring, upsetting the vice with light blows of the butt of the ax After the first, most difficult, half turn is made, the stake is replaced with a meter stick with a diameter of 4 -6 cm, the screw is tightly twisted and, so that it does not unwind, the stick is fixed with a wedge driven into the slot of the log (Fig. 15, j). For reliability, you can also grab a stick with a thin rope. To prevent the screw from bursting, do not twist it more than 1-1.5 turns. If the loop is tightened weakly, unwind the stick and twist the twist shorter.

Despite the plaintive crackling of the vices when driving a wedge or twisting a stick, and very<непромышленный>type of construction, the strength of such fastening is very high. The wickets do not stretch over time like ropes, so the rows and trunks tied with the wickets do not sway. The author sailed on rafts, connected entirely on bows, along rapids and shivers of medium complexity, and there were no cases of their breakage. The vices, examined at the end of one of the campaigns, when it was often necessary to crawl over stones and shallows, were worn out by no more than a third of their thickness. At the same time, a knitted raft is made about a day faster than a doweled raft. Becoming going right on the water, and for two it takes about 2 hours. Therefore, if you do not expect to swim through canyons, two-meter waves and hang on rocks several times, then you can safely use vices. Such a raft can be useful for a group that, having lost the first raft and not having the time or strength to continue the fight against the river, bypassed the main rapids on foot and is trying to get out to the people as soon as possible.

In addition to rafts on dowels and on vices, you can build<гибридные>rafts, in which the butts of logs are fastened with a dowel, and the tops with ribs. In terms of labor intensity, strength and reliability, such a raft occupies an intermediate position, respectively. This design is convenient for the northern rivers flowing in the forest border zone, where the trees are stunted, with a large taper and the logs at one end are so thin that there is simply nowhere to cut the key.

About the assembly of the raft. You can assemble the raft on the ground and right on the water. For assembly on the ground, a slipway is used, on which the marking and processing of logs were carried out. The finished raft is pushed into the water with the help of a wag. If not very large boulders lie on the way, they lay them not on the ground, but on cairns or on log masonry (<колодец>). There is no need to use any rollers: the raft goes downhill quite easily on damp slopes.

For assembling a raft on the water, a quiet backwater with a depth of 0.5-1 m is ideal, at such a depth it is easy to get a drowned tool. At great depths, place a free tool only on the shore, and keep the chisel, which usually bounces far to the side with an unsuccessful blow, on a meter leash. You can also collect a raft in a fairly fast current. In this case, ropes are tied to both ends of the butt ronzhina or dowel, which are fastened upstream on the bank so that the ronzhina (key) can be held across the stream. The average pair of logs has to be fixed while standing in the water, and then you can climb out onto the bonded logs and work, remaining almost dry.

Advantages of assembling a raft on the ground: no need to climb into the water; any attachment point is easy to reach; located around the raft on the ground, people interfere with each other less; free approach and a tray of material from any side, ease of handling tools and small parts that will not sink or float away.

Advantages of assembling on the water: easy to move and put the logs in place; two people can assemble the raft, and with some skill even one person; no need to build a slipway and a special congress into the water; if the logs are fastened with screws, then even a platform on the shore is not needed - it is only necessary to cut out a small number of service grooves that do not need special accuracy, they can be made by slightly rolling the log out of the water.

Thus, it is better to assemble a raft on the water if it is large or made of heavy larch logs, and also if the coast breaks off into the water for a considerable distance or is formed by boulders having 1-1.5 m in diameter. In other cases, it is more convenient to collect the raft on the shore. Saw off the protruding ends of the key or ronzhin only after the fully completed raft with all the equipment has been tested afloat under full load.

Other ways of knitting a stav. Along with dowels and screws, logs can be fastened with ropes, wire, steel cable ... Of course, you will have to carry special fastening material with you, but it will be possible to assemble the raft in a shorter time. It is possible to knit logs with a rope, which, as a rule, is stretchable and not strong enough, only when making a temporary raft for crossing a group across a deep river on the walking part of the route or in order to quickly reach people along the already simple part of the river. You can quickly tie a fairly strong raft with a soft iron wire with a diameter of about 3 mm. A small raft is knitted in one layer; for a large one, the wire will have to be folded in half. A strong raft is obtained by fastening the logs with a 3-5 mm steel braided cable.

Using these tools, you can knit a raft according to the same principle as knitting. At the same time, the rope is not cut into pieces, but separate loops are knitted at the common long end, with which pairs of logs are attached to the ronjin. When the wedge is driven in, the wire or cable is pulled under tension, cuts into the wedge, and, since the steel is well springy, it is impossible to drive the wedge further. In order not to suffer, put

Rice. 16. Fastening logs with the long end of the cable
a - ronzhnna; b - board;
c - a wedge between the wedge and the wire, a small plank 1-2 cm thick.
Sliding on it, the wedge will fit well into place.

If the cable is of sufficient length, it is better for them to grab the logs to the ronjin one at a time, as shown in fig. 16. A ronzhin cut from above and below is placed across the logs, a board is placed on it and all together tightly braided with a cable; the cable is tied at the end, and wedges are hammered between the board and the ronzhina, pulling the cable. The advantages of this design are quick assembly and the absence of a cable or rope that tightens a pair of logs. The latter is the most vulnerable spot when fastening with separate rings, since a narrow stone, passing along the raft along the gap between a pair of logs, can break the loop that tightens this pair. In the described design, the cable covers all the logs along the lower semicircle. design vulnerability in<веревочном>execution is that the rope can be interrupted by a stone, and then the whole raft will immediately crumble. To prevent this from happening, you can entangle each ronjin with two ropes, securing even logs with one and odd logs with the other.

In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished: analysis, comparison, abstraction, synthesis, concretization, generalization, classification and categorization. With the help of these operations of thinking, penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person is carried out, the properties of the elements that make up this problem are considered, and a solution to the problem is found.

Concepts and judgments are such forms of reflection of reality in our minds, which are obtained as a result of complex mental activity, consisting of a number of mental operations.

In order to reflect with the help of thinking any connections and relations between objects or phenomena of the objective world, it is necessary, first of all, in perception or representation to single out those phenomena that become the object of thinking. The isolation of the object of thought is, therefore, the initial mental operation, without which the process of thinking cannot be carried out.

For example, in order to understand the reason for the unsuccessful performance of a given physical exercise by an athlete, it is necessary to focus your thoughts on this exercise and on the conditions under which it was performed. The selection of an object from the sensory field also takes place in the processes of attention and perception. However, in the process of thinking, this selection is always associated with the awareness of the task that confronts us, it always presupposes a preliminary statement of the question, which determines the selection of the objects of interest to us.

The next thought process is comparison selected objects. Comparing phenomena with each other, we note both their similarity and difference in certain respects. For example, low and high starts are similar to each other in their purpose, being the initial moment of the exercise, but differ in the position of the athlete's body.

Comparison allows us to establish sometimes not the similarity or difference of objects, but their identity or opposite. Comparing the phenomena identified in the process of thinking, we know them more precisely and penetrate deeper into their originality than in those cases when we consider them without relation to other phenomena.

In order to make a comparison, it is necessary to mentally distinguish between the individual properties of objects and think these properties abstractly from the objects themselves. This mental operation is called abstraction. Abstraction is always combined with generalization, because we immediately begin to think of the abstracted properties of objects in their generalized form.

For example, understanding the characteristic features of a boxer's punch during a knockout, we single out such a property as sharpness; at the same time, we think of this property in its generalized form, using the concept of sharpness, which we have developed on the basis of acquaintance with this phenomenon in many other cases (not only in boxing, but also in fencing; not only when hitting, but also when hitting the ball and etc.), i.e., as a combination of force with a short-term touch on the object being struck.

Abstraction is a mental operation that allows one to think of a given phenomenon in its most general, and therefore most essential, characteristic features. This mental operation alone allows us to reflect in our minds the essence of the phenomenon: the striking power of a blow during a knockout lies precisely in its sharpness.

However, abstraction always presupposes the opposite mental operation - specification, i.e., the transition from abstraction and generalization back to concrete reality. In the educational process, concretization often acts as an example for an established general position. In conjunction with abstraction, concretization is an important condition for a correct understanding of reality, since it does not allow our thinking to break away from reality, from the living contemplation of phenomena. thinking psychology abstraction

Thanks to concretization, our abstractions become vital, behind them a directly perceived reality is always felt. This is best achieved by giving not one, but several different examples in which a given abstraction finds its concrete expression. For example, we will better understand the essence of the abstract proposition "life is a form of existence of protein bodies" if we concretize it using examples from both the plant and animal worlds, in relation to both microorganisms and more advanced creatures. The lack of concretization leads to the formalism of knowledge, which remains bare, divorced from life, and therefore useless abstractions.

From abstraction and generalization it is necessary to distinguish such mental operations as analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of a complex object or phenomenon into its component parts. Analysis is often used in practice, when we strive to better master one or another subject in the labor process. Here it takes the form of the actual dismemberment of the object into its constituent parts. The possibility of practically performing such a division underlies the mental division of an object into elements.

For example, when thinking about the complex structure of a jump, we mentally identify the following main elements or parts in it: takeoff, push, flight phase, landing. This mental analysis is facilitated by the fact that in reality we can isolate these moments and improve in the process of training the speed of the take-off, the power of the push, the correct grouping in flight, etc. Synthesis called the reverse process of mental reunification of a complex object or phenomenon from those of its elements that were known to us in the process of its analysis.

Thanks to synthesis, we get a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon, as consisting of naturally connected parts. As in analysis, synthesis is based on the possibility of practically performing such a reunion of an object from its elements. The interrelation of analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood in such a way that analysis must first be carried out, and then synthesis. All analysis presupposes synthesis, and synthesis always presupposes analysis.

In the analysis, not all parts are singled out, but only those that are essential for a given subject. For example, in such a physical exercise as a jump, many different elements can be noted: hand movement, head movement, facial expressions, etc. All these elements are related to this exercise to one degree or another, and we highlight them. However, in the process of scientific analysis, we rely not on these, but on the essential parts of the whole, without which this whole cannot exist.

Essential for the jump are not facial expressions or movements of the head and hands, but the run and push. This selection of essential elements in the analysis of a complex phenomenon does not occur mechanically, but as a result of understanding the significance of individual parts for the whole phenomenon. Before mentally isolating the essential features or parts, we must have at least a vague general synthetic concept of the entire object as a whole, in the aggregate of all its parts. Such a concept arises as a result of a preliminary, formed even before a detailed analysis of the general idea of ​​the subject on the basis of practical acquaintance with it.

These are those complex mental operations, as a result of which we get concepts about the objects and phenomena around us. However, the phenomena of the world around us do not exist in isolation, but always in connection with each other. An adequate reflection of objective objects in our thinking therefore requires not only the formation of a multitude of corresponding concepts, but also their classification and systematization.

classification is called the summing up of individual objects or phenomena - on the basis of their common features - under more general concepts denoting certain classes of certain objects or phenomena. For example, to accurately reflect objective reality, it is not enough to have separate concepts about birch, oak, pine, spruce, etc. One must have an idea about certain classes of corresponding objects or phenomena, namely, about the class of coniferous trees.

Assigning an object to a certain class not only allows us to reflect the diversity of phenomena in our minds, but also refines our knowledge of individual objects. The fact that in the classification of chemical elements we attribute sulfur to the group of metalloids, and zinc to the class of metals, deepens our understanding of these chemical elements. Without assignment to related classes on the basis of similar features, our concepts of objects would be limited, incomplete.

Classification will be valuable only when it is carried out not in general according to similar characteristics, but according to those similar characteristics that are essential for a given series of phenomena. Where such a classification is difficult or not yet complete, there is no deep understanding of the essence of phenomena. An example is the lack of an adequate classification of physical exercises, which are often divided into classes or depending on the season (winter and summer sports), or in connection with the use of certain items (gymnastic exercises on apparatuses, with apparatuses, without apparatuses, with sticks, balls, etc.).

All such attempts at classification are unsuccessful because they rely on random features. It is impossible to correctly understand the nature of physical exercises while they are reflected in our minds as a variety of species that have not yet been united into classes according to essential features.

Systematization called the arrangement of the classes of objects or phenomena established by us in a certain order, in accordance with their general laws. Thanks to the systematization of the phenomena of the objective world, they are reflected in our consciousness not separately, but in a certain system, which allows us to better understand their relationship and use this knowledge more correctly in our practical activities.

An example of a fruitful scientific systematization of phenomena is the discovery of D.I. Mendeleev of the periodic system of elements. DI. Mendeleev did not limit himself to a refined distribution of chemical elements into classes according to their essential characteristics. He sought to understand the very classes of chemical elements not as random phenomena, but as a definite system arising from the general laws of nature. He managed to do this when he discovered the dependence of the qualitative features of chemical elements on their atomic weight.

The great importance of systematization for the knowledge of the world can be seen from the fact that it helps to discover new phenomena and clarify the understanding of the connections between them. Without the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev, the discovery of new elements would still remain spontaneous, as it was at the stage of only the classification of these phenomena. Only correct systematization made it possible to foresee the qualitative features of still unknown elements and to direct scientific thought towards their discovery.

When we are faced with the need to prove the truth of certain judgments, we resort to a mental operation called inference.

In some cases, the truth or falsity of judgments is established as a result of direct perception. Such, for example, are the judgments: "today is a hot day", "Ivanov came first to the finish line", "five more than three", etc., which are called, therefore, directly obvious. But in most cases the truth of propositions cannot be deduced from direct observation. For example, the truth of the proposition "the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles" is not obvious, but must be proved, which is carried out by a mental operation called inference.

Any inference is a reasoning in which the truth of a certain proposition is deduced from the truth of other propositions. A correctly constructed inference always creates confidence in the necessity and obligatoriness of the conclusions to which it leads. To do this, it must be based on strictly verified, completely reliable prior knowledge. The slightest mistake made in the assessment of the primary data on which the conclusion is based leads to its fallacy. However, in order to draw correct conclusions from reliable knowledge, it is also necessary that the conclusions themselves obey certain rules, considered in a special scientific discipline - logic.

Distinguish deductive and inductive reasoning(deduction and induction), as well as inferences by analogy (based on the similarity of objects or phenomena).

Deduction is called inference, in which, from previously known general provisions, a conclusion is made about certain particular truths. This type of reasoning is most often used in mathematics. For example, in order to prove that a given angle in a triangle is greater than another, the following deductive reasoning is constructed: it is known and previously proved that in a triangle there is always a larger angle opposite the larger side; this angle lies opposite the larger side; from these two reliable positions, the conclusion is drawn: therefore, this angle is greater than the other.

There is an opinion that deductive reasoning only refines our knowledge, revealing in a particular conclusion what was already contained in a hidden form in a general judgment. However, in some cases, deductive reasoning can lead to important discoveries. Such, for example, was the discovery of the planet Neptune, as well as some chemical elements.

Induction is called inference, in which, from observations of some particular cases, a general conclusion is made that extends to everything, including unobserved cases. This type of reasoning is most often used in the natural sciences. For example, observing in one or two cases the benefit of vernalization of plants, we extend this proposition to all cases of plant growth, although they have not been observed by us. The reliability of inductive reasoning is based on the unity and interconnection of the objective laws of nature and society that actually exists and is confirmed by human practice.

It follows from this that once an essential connection of phenomena has been observed, it must be repeated under similar conditions. For the truth of inductive reasoning, a comprehensive account of the conditions under which the phenomenon takes place is necessary. Without this, inductive inferences will differ only by a certain degree of probability.

by analogy is called such an inference in which the conclusion is made on the basis of partial similarities between phenomena, without a sufficient study of all conditions. For example, seeing some similarity of physical indicators characteristic of the Earth and Mars, they make a conclusion about the possibility of life on Mars. It is easy to see that conclusions by analogy differ not in reliability, but only in greater or lesser probability and need to be confirmed by other evidence. However, the usefulness of reasoning by analogy is undeniable: it consists in a guess that pushes scientific thought to further research.

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In the process of evolution of views on the nature and essence of the thought process, the issue of the formation of mental operations attracted special attention of scientists. , unlike other physiological processes, is performed on the basis of a certain logic. This allows us to single out individual structural elements: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, classification and categorization, concretization, generalization, comparison, and to characterize them. The patterns of functioning of the named operations of thinking are, in fact, the main internal, specific foundations of thinking. Their study helps to obtain a detailed explanation of all external manifestations of mental activity.

• abstraction
• Analysis and synthesis
• Classification and categorization
• Specification
• Generalization
• Comparison

abstraction

Abstraction (abstraction) is one of the main processes of human mental activity, cognition based on the allocation of essential, regular features, properties, connections of an object of an object or phenomenon, distraction from non-essential aspects. In everyday life, the ability to abstract is most often associated with the ability to focus on finding and solving the most important aspect of the problem under consideration.

Depending on the goals of abstraction, there are formal and meaningful abstractions. Formal abstraction is the selection of properties of an object that do not exist independently of it (for example, shape or color). It serves as the basis for the assimilation of knowledge by children, describing objects according to their external properties, which serves as a prerequisite for theoretical thinking. Meaningful abstraction is the isolation of those properties of an object that in themselves have relative independence (for example, a cell of an organism). This type of abstraction develops the ability to operate on properties separately.

Analysis and synthesis

In any kind of intellectual work - in the field of mathematics, political science, painting, etc. - analysis and synthesis are widely used. This is not about scientific methods, but about interconnected mental operations.

The etymology of the word "analysis" comes from the ancient Greek "to break", "to dismember". As a mental operation, analysis involves the study of a thing, property, process or relationship between objects by real or mental division of the whole into components. This operation is one of the basic ones in the process of cognition and subject-practical human activity.

An example of a practical analysis is the chemical process of splitting a kitchen salt molecule into Sodium and Chlorine ions in order to study the composition and molecular bonds. The mental operation of analysis involves the theoretical ability to operate with the constituent parts of an object or phenomenon and, on the basis of this, draw certain conclusions. For example, thanks to mental analysis, a child learns to distinguish geometric shapes as a set of separate characteristics: a square consists of four straight lines, a triangle differs from a square in the number of angles and lines.

Synthesis (from the ancient Greek “connection”, “folding”) is the study of something through the unification of things, concepts, judgments about a phenomenon or object in order to obtain a comprehensive and versatile idea of ​​it. An example of synthesis can be the case when, while writing a history essay on the topic “Common Features of the Economic Systems of the USSR and China”, a student, relying on knowledge of two different topics, determines what was common in the development of the two main socialist countries in a given period.

John Locke, in his Essay on the Human Mind, believed that knowledge is created by combining perception, representation, and other kinds of knowledge. Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason argued that there are two mutually complementary operations: analysis - understanding through the study of parts, synthesis - understanding through connection, unification of components, ascent from the individual to the plural. In ordinary language, analysis and synthesis are two sides of the same coin.

Classification and categorization

We constantly encounter classification and categorization in everyday life, it is so firmly ingrained in it that most people do not even think about it when they resort to such a mental operation. Throughout life, concepts and knowledge about objects, we almost subconsciously attribute them to one category or another, which leads to ease of use of information. Almost everything around us obeys a certain logic: be it departments in a supermarket or road signs.

Most modern dictionaries use the terms "classification" and "categorization" interchangeably. There is also a different opinion that "category" is a broader concept than "class", but even in this case, the definition of the term itself remains the same. Classification is a logical operation of dividing the scope of a concept based on its characteristics. An example is a table known to us from the school bench:

Specification

Concretization (from the Latin “established”) is a method of cognition, a logical operation associated with the transfer of a certain general statement to a specific object or phenomenon. For example, it is known that corrosion of metals occurs as a result of the influence of the environment, in particular oxygen, on the metal. Therefore, having discovered a new metal, it can be assumed that it will also corrode under the influence of oxygen.

Generalization

Generalization is a logical operation opposite to specification. It implies the transfer of a particular statement applicable to one or more objects to other objects, as a result of which it ceases to be specific, acquiring a general character. So, having studied photosynthesis on the example of several plants, we can conclude that the process is impossible without sunlight in other plants.

Comparison

Everyone at least once heard the conclusion: "Everything is known in comparison." Indeed, to determine what is good and what is better, to compare the properties of two objects is possible only by resorting to a comparison operation - the process of quantitative or qualitative comparison of different properties (similarities, differences, advantages and disadvantages) of objects. Comparison is the most important mental category on the basis of which our idea of ​​the world around us is formed.

All of the above logical operations are mutually complementary, help to receive and transform information, quickly use it at the right time.

Development of the ability to perform mental operations

Few adults today think about the fact that many children's games and puzzles offered in elementary school are designed in such a way as to develop basic mental operations. Logical chains, rebuses, riddles and puzzles aim to develop the skills of abstract-logical thinking from childhood, to teach how to identify similarities and differences in objects, define concepts, and eliminate superfluous things. Growing up, we perform these operations without thinking, but sometimes we encounter difficulties in solving. This is precisely due to the fact that over the years of professional activity, our brain improves the performance of certain tasks related to the occupation to automatism. But as soon as we meet with another area, difficulties arise. To prevent this from happening, you need to constantly improve, developing all the basic mental operations. Help in this exercise on the ability to understand, identify and apply these operations.

Classic examples of such games are chess, backgammon, scrabble. In Soviet times, puzzles with matches were quite popular, which today have gained a new life thanks to the popularization in social networks. You can try your hand at this kind of puzzles with the help of.

An interesting and effective exercise for the development of mental operations can be an IQ test. There are many varieties of it, the most popular of which is the Eysenck test. You can find recommendations for passing such tests, which are also popular nowadays when applying for a job.

Detailed information about the development of different types of thinking, as well as exercises for training them, are collected in the course. Take it if you are interested in developing your thinking!