1752 introduction to true physical chemistry. Physical chemistry

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

Kurgan State University

READING ON THE EDUCATIONAL COURSE

"CONCEPTS OF MODERN

NATURAL SCIENCE"

Part II

CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY

Kurgan 2006

Reader for the course "Concepts of modern natural science". Part II. Chemistry, Biology / Comp. senior lecturer E.N. Kostylev, senior lecturer L.F. Ostroukhova, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Assoc. N.G.Yurovskikh. - Kurgan: Publishing House of the Kurgan State. un-ta, 2006. - 134 p.

Published by the decision of the educational and methodological council of Kurgan State University

Reviewers: Department of Philosophy and History of the KSHA named after T.S. Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Social and Humanitarian Disciplines of the Kurgan Institute of State and Municipal Service VG Tatarintsev.

The reader contains fragments taken from books and articles of famous Western and domestic scientists in the field of chemistry and biology, the comprehension of which will help students in preparing for seminars, tests and exams in the course "Concepts of modern natural science"

Editor-in-Chief: Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Prof., Head of the Department of Philosophy I.N.Stepanova.

state

university, 2006.

I. chemistry

The doctrine of the composition of matter

M.V. Lomonosov. Works on physics, chemistry and corpuscular philosophy

Introduction to True Physical Chemistry

Chapter 1 About physical chemistry and its purpose

Chemical science considers the qualities and changes of bodies. Qualities are of two kinds, namely, some excite in us a precisely distinguishable idea, others only a clear one. The first kind of quality is the mass, figure, movement or rest, and location of every perceptible body; the second kind - color, taste, healing powers, cohesion of parts, etc. The first ones are perceived by the eye and are determined by the geometric and mechanical laws of which they are the subject; the cause of the latter lies in parts inaccessible to visual acuity, therefore the qualities themselves cannot be determined geometrically and mechanically without the help of physical chemistry. The former are necessarily inherent in all bodies, the latter only in some. Therefore, we consider it expedient, on the initiative of Boyle, to call the first qualities general, the second - particular. A mixed body is one which consists of two or more dissimilar bodies connected to each other in such a way that any sensitive part of this body is exactly like any other part of it in respect of particular qualities. Thus, gunpowder consists of saltpeter, sulfur and coal - heterogeneous bodies, and any part of it that is accessible to the senses is completely similar to any other part in color, cohesion of parts, explosive power, etc. The bodies that make up a mixed body, like saltpeter here, sulfur and coal are called constituents.

Components are often themselves mixed bodies, consisting of other heterogeneous bodies. Components of this kind we call components of the second order; and if they, in turn, are mixed bodies, then we call their constituents third-order constituents. It is impossible, however, to go on in this way ad infinitum, but in the end there must be components in which it is impossible to separate from each other by any chemical operations or to distinguish by reasoning heterogeneous bodies; therefore, we designate such components as the last, or - in the language of chemists - as beginnings.

Since a mixed body in any sensitive particle is similar to itself, then, consequently, any sensitive particle of it consists of the same components, therefore, in a mixed body there must be particles that, if subjected to further division, disintegrate into heterogeneous particles of bodies, from which the mixed body consists. We call the first particles the particles of the mixed body, the second - the particles of the constituents. It seems appropriate to call the particles of the last component - the particles of the beginning.

From the definition of a mixed body and examples, it is clear that different qualities and phenomena arise from the mixing of heterogeneous bodies, which therefore requires knowledge of their composition to explain the particular qualities of bodies and their changes. Hence the task of chemistry is to investigate both the composition of bodies accessible to the senses, and that from which composite bodies are first formed - precisely the beginnings.

Chapter 2. On particular qualities of mixed bodies

In the first place it is necessary to put those qualities of mixed bodies which depend on the different cohesion of particles, for no change in mixing in chemistry can result without a change in the cohesion of particles.

From the different cohesion of particles, first of all, solid and liquid bodies arise. A solid body is one whose figure cannot change without an external force, and a liquid body is one whose parts, due to their own gravity, slide around each other and which forms an upper surface parallel to the horizon, and gives the rest of its parts the shape of a cavity containing this body.

Solids are either rigid or malleable. Rigid bodies under the influence of impacts fall apart; malleable ones give in to blows without breaking and are drawn into strips and wires. In both cases, the resistance varies according to the cohesion between the particles, and it cannot be determined in any way, since its degrees are infinitely numerous.

A liquid body is either thick or thin. Fluffy, when the shape of the cavity enclosing it changes, quickly follows the surface of the cavity, and thick - slowly. The first kind of body is water, the second kind is resin, honey, etc.

In addition, physicists distinguish between a liquid and a fluid body. They call a fluid a body that flows and in which the particles are mutually connected; it forms drops like water. Fluid in the proper sense, they call the body, the particles of which slide, free from mutual adhesion. This kind of body is alabaster, turned to powder during the firing.

It seems plausible that, if not always, then in solids, elasticity is due mainly to the cohesion of parts. Elasticity is that quality of bodies by virtue of which their figure, changed by external pressure, is restored to its original one: such are the threads of iron, glass, etc.

As the elasticity of solids comes mainly from the cohesion of particles, so the very property of elasticity of solids determines their sonorousness, which is defined as the perceptible duration of sound after striking the body.

After the qualities that depend on the difference in the cohesion of particles, we must put in the nearest place those that act on the sense of sight: this is required both by the nobility of the corresponding sense organ, and by the almost infinite variety of these qualities.

First of all, the eye distinguishes an opaque body from a transparent one. An opaque body is one that, when placed between the eye and an object, does not allow the image of the latter to be reproduced in the eye. The body is called transparent if, placed between the eye and the object, it passes the image of it to the eye clear and distinct. The first kind of bodies are marbles, metals, etc., the second - water, quartz and the like.

Transparent and opaque bodies are either smooth or rough. The body is smooth if it gives in itself the image of the object brought to it; rough bodies do not give this. By smooth we mean here those bodies that, without the intermediary of human labor, acquire a smooth surface, like water, ice, mercury, transparent and opaque glasses; or rough, like marble in a fracture, dry clay, etc.

For the colors with which bodies act on our eyes, it is impossible to give definitions, nor to enumerate their varieties. But it is quite certain that there are some colors which come from others mixed with each other, and which cannot be obtained by this method. Thus, orange can be made from red and yellow, green from yellow and blue, violet from blue and red, but that red, yellow and blue cannot be created from any other, this clearly shows both the mixing of colored powders and the fusion of solar rays. Therefore, we call red, yellow and blue colors simple, and all other colors, except for black, which is not a color at all, - mixed.

After what is revealed to the sense of the eye, comes that which is distinguished by the sense of the tongue, namely, different tastes. Tasteful bodies are those that give the tongue a pleasant or unpleasant sensation; tasteless - not causing it. The main and more distinct tastes are: 1) sour, as in vinegar; 2) caustic, as in wine spirit; 3) sweet, like in honey; 4) bitter, as in pitch; 5) salty, as in salt; 6) sharp, as in a radish; 7) tart, as in unripe fruits.

Odors that act on the sense of smell are for the most part combined with tastes, for example, what has a sour taste also acts on the nose with a sour smell.

It remains for us to say something about those intrinsic properties of mixed bodies which may be natural or artificially produced, such as the powers of attraction, repulsion, stray fires, spontaneous combustion, etc., as well as medicinal or poisonous powers.

Chapter 3. Of the means by which mixed bodies are changed

Mixed bodies change from the addition or loss of one or more components. In this case, it is necessary that each corpuscle of a mixed body acquire or lose one or more corpuscles of its constituents. And this cannot happen without changing the connection of the particles; therefore, forces are needed that could destroy the cohesion between the particles. The easiest way to produce such an action is fire: there is not a single body in nature whose internal parts would be inaccessible to it and the mutual connection of the particles of which it would help to destroy.

Five circumstances the chemist must especially observe in relation to fire: 1) the degree of tension, 2) its relation to the body subjected to its action, 3) duration in time, 4) the speed of forward movement, 5) its form.

Having destroyed or weakened, or in any way changed the force of cohesion between the particles of mixed bodies, fire can do nothing more, unless water or air, separately or together, will assist; they move away from each other, transfer and exchange places freed from the mutual connection of particles. So, fire tends to change the cohesion between particles, and air and water change their arrangement. Thus, the first one is, as it were, a tool, the author's two are carriers.

Air unites with mixed bodies in two ways: either by flowing around them and leaning on their surface, or by occupying their pores. In the latter case, it should be called internal, in the first - external. The influence of both of them on chemical phenomena is considerable.

Outside air, both being immobile near the surface of the body, often changes the composition of the body, after moving the latter’s own particles with the help of fire, and being in motion, brings to it foreign particles that it brings with it, or takes away with it the torn off particles of the body. , or produces both at the same time. And the faster the air movement, the more foreign particles come in or the body's own particles leave.

The particles that the moving air brings to a mixed body are either taken from the atmosphere itself or artificially delivered by a chemist. The first differ depending on the weather, the nature and position of the place, its population and location near factory establishments; the latter depend on the nature of the fuel used to fuel the fire, or on the nature of the body specially taken for the experiment. It is necessary that the chemist be careful in both cases: 1) not to consider the effect of the air of swampy places in summer sometimes or places, but in the vicinity of which a lot of sulfur is burned from metals, and the effect of drier and cleaner air; from mutual cohesion, dissipate, and the inner air mixes with the outer, the finer particles must fly away from the mixed body, and hence considerable changes in qualities must follow.

Then, the inner air, released from disintegrated bodies and filled with subtle vapors, often occupies an amazingly vast space and has a great force of influence on the obstacles encountered. 2) not to take what has been added from combustible material or from another neighboring body as inherent in the body itself.

Experience shows that there are several types of water, differing in the bodies in them. Rain water has some properties, river water has others, and spring water has still others. When rain falls from above through the atmosphere, it takes in the sulfur and salt vapors encountered. Therefore, if the water stands for several days in the summer in the sun, it produces a green mud; it also delivers food to plants, etc. River water contains salt particles washed out of the earth, from fermenting, rotting and burned bodies, brought by streams flowing from everywhere; many of these particles are found in the residue when pure water vapor from heat has dissipated into the air. Spring water very often, almost always, carries with it minerals dissolved in the mountains, which can often be discovered by taste, sometimes even by smell.

Of natural waters, it is purer than others made from snow that is not polluted with dust, especially from that which falls after a severe frost in calm weather, for the surface of the earth, bound by the ferocity of winter and covered with snow, emits salt and combustible vapors, as in summer. In second place is the river water flowing under the ice in the middle of winter. The third place is occupied by rainwater. Other waters cannot be used without research and purification.

The effect produced by water when the composition of bodies changes is still greatly aggravated by the fact that it itself is the main component in so many bodies, so that after its removal they completely change their appearance. Therefore, the water used as a remedy must be strictly distinguished from that which exists in the body itself as a component and is of no small importance among the other components with which it forms a mixed body.

Chemical operations are the ways in which mixed bodies are changed by means of chemicals because they are mixed. With the help of this definition, we can easily distinguish which chemical operations are basic and main, and which are only auxiliary. Namely, the first ones either 1) combine individual components into a mixed body, or 2) divide a mixed body into components, or 3) do both at the same time, or 4) change the ratio of the number of components, or, finally, 5) move the arrangement of particles in a mix. In all cases, private qualities change - one or more. The second operations do nothing of the sort, but contribute to the preparation of the bodies for the main operations.

Lomonosov M.V. Selected works: In 2 vols. Vol.1. Natural sciences and philosophy. - M., 1986. - S. 133-146.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - a branch of chemistry devoted to the study of the relationship between chemical and physical phenomena in nature. Positions and methods F. x. are important for medicine and biomedical sciences, F.'s methods x. are used to study life processes both in normal and pathological conditions.

The main subjects of study F. x. are the structure of atoms (see A volume) and molecules (see Molecule), the nature of chemical. bonds, chem. equilibrium (see Chemical equilibrium) and kinetics (see Chemical kinetics, Kinetics of biological processes), catalysis (see), theory of gases (see), liquids and solutions (see), structure and chem. properties of crystals (see) and polymers (see. Macromolecular compounds), thermodynamics (see) and thermal effects chemical. reactions (see. Thermochemistry), surface phenomena (see. Detergents, Surface tension, Wetting), properties of solutions of electrolytes (see), electrode processes (see. Electrodes) and electromotive forces, corrosion of metals, photochemical. and radiation processes (see Photochemical reactions, Electromagnetic radiation). Most of the theories F. x. is based on the laws of statics, quantum (wave) mechanics and thermodynamics. When studying the problems posed in F. x. widely used various combinations of experimental methods of physics and chemistry, the so-called. fiz.-chem. methods of analysis, the foundations of which were developed in 1900-1915.

To the most common physical and chemical methods of the second half of the 20th century. include electron paramagnetic resonance (see), nuclear magnetic resonance (see), mass spectrometry (see), the use of the Mössbauer effect (nuclear gamma resonance), radiospectroscopy (see Spectroscopy), spectrophotometry (see) and fluorimetry (see), X-ray diffraction analysis (see), electron microscopy (see), ultracentrifugation (see), gas and liquid chromatography (see), electrophoresis (see), isoelectric focusing (see), polarography (see), potentiometry (see Potentiometric titration), conductometry (see), osmometry (see Osmotic pressure), ebulliometry (see), etc.

The term "physical chemistry" first appeared in the works of him. alchemist Khunrath (H. Kuhnrath, 1599), but for a long time the meaning given to this term did not correspond to its true meaning. The tasks of physical chemistry, close to their modern understanding, were first formulated by M. V. Lomonosov in the course “Introduction to True Physical Chemistry”, which he read in 1752 to students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences: physical chemistry, according to M. V. Lomonosov, there is a science that explains, on the basis of the provisions and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies with chem. reactions. Systematic teaching F. x. It was begun since 1860 in Kharkiv un-those by H. N. Beketov, to-ry for the first time on natural f-those of this un-that organized physical and chemical department. Following Kharkiv un-that teaching F. x. was introduced in Kazan (1874), Yuriev (1880) and Moscow (1886) high fur boots. Since 1869, the journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society begins to appear. Abroad, the Department of Physical Chemistry was first established in Leipzig in 1887.

F.'s formation x. as an independent scientific discipline is associated with the atomic and molecular theory, i.e., primarily with the discovery in 1748-1756. M.V. Lomonosov and in 1770-1774. A. Lavoisier of the law of conservation of mass of substances in chemical. reactions. The works of Richter (J. V. Richter, 1791 - 1802), who discovered the law of shares (equivalents), Proust (J. L. Proust, 1808), who discovered the law of constancy of composition, and others contributed to the creation in 1802-1810. J. Dalton of atomic theory and the discovery of the law of multiple ratios, which establishes the laws of formation of chemical. connections. In 1811, A. Avogadro introduced the concept of "molecule", linking the atomic theory of the structure of matter with the laws of ideal gases. The logical conclusion of the formation of atomistic views on the nature of matter was the discovery by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 of the periodic law of chem. elements (see Periodic system of chemical elements).

The modern concept of the structure of the atom was formed at the beginning

20th century The most important milestones along this path are the experimental discovery of the electron and the establishment of its charge, the creation of a quantum theory (see) Planck (M. Plank) in 1900, the work of Bohr (N. Bohr, 1913), who suggested the existence of an electron shell in an atom and who created his planetary model, and other studies that served as confirmation of the quantum theory of the structure of the atom. The final stage in the formation of modern ideas about the structure of the atom was the development of quantum (wave) mechanics, with the help of methods a swarm subsequently managed to explain the nature and direction of chemical. connections, theoretically calculate physical.-chemical. constants of the simplest molecules, develop the theory of intermolecular forces, etc.

The initial development of chem. thermodynamics, which studies the laws of mutual transformations of various forms of energy in equilibrium systems, is associated with the research of S. Carnot in 1824. Further work by R. Mayer, J. Joule and G. Helmholtz led to the discovery of the conservation law energy, so-called the first law, or the first law of thermodynamics. The introduction by R. Clausius in 1865 of the concept of "entropy" as a measure of free energy led to the development of the second law of thermodynamics. The third fundamental law of thermodynamics was derived from the Nernst thermal theorem on the asymptotic convergence of the free energy and the heat content of the system, in 1907 A. Einstein compiled the equation for the heat capacity of simple harmonic oscillators, and in

1911 Planck concluded that the entropy of pure substances at absolute zero is zero.

The beginning of the independent existence of thermochemistry - the science of the thermal effects of chemical. reactions, was laid down by the works of G. I. Hess, who established in 1840 the law of constancy of heat sums. Of great importance for the development of thermochemistry were the works of Berthelot (R. E. M. Berthelot), to-ry developed calorimetric methods of analysis (see Calorimetry) and discovered the principle of maximum work. In 1859, Kirchhoff (H. Kirch-hoff) formulated a law relating the thermal effect of a reaction to the heat capacities of the reactants and reaction products. In 1909-

1912 Nernst (W. H. Nernst), Einstein and Debye (P. Debye) developed the theory of quantum heat capacity.

The development of electrochemistry, which deals with the study of the relationship between chemical and electrical phenomena and the study of the effect of electric current on various substances in solutions, is associated with the creation of Volta (A. Volta) in 1792-1794. galvanic element. In 1800, the first works of V. Nicolson and Carlyle (A. Kag-leil) appeared on the decomposition of water, and in 1803-1807. works of I. Berzelius and W. Hisinger about electrolysis (see) solutions of salts. In 1833-1834. Faraday (M. Faraday) formulated the basic laws of electrolysis, relating the yield of electrochemical. reactions with the amount of electricity and chemical. substance equivalents. In 1853-1859. Hittorf (J. W. Hittorf) established the relationship between the electrochemical. action and mobility of ions, and in 1879 F. W. Kohlrausch opened the law of the independent movement of ions (see) and established connection between equivalent electric conductivity and mobility of cations and anions. In 1875 - 1878. Gibbs (J. VV. Gibbs) and in 1882 G. Helmholtz developed a mathematical model that connects the electromotive force of a galvanic cell with the internal energy of a chemical. reactions. In 1879, G. Helmholtz created the doctrine of a double electric layer. In 1930-1932. Volmer (M. Vol-mer) and A. N. Frumkin proposed a quantitative theory of electrode processes.

The beginning of the study of solutions was laid by the works of Gassenfratz (J. H. Hassenfratz, 1798) and J. Gay-Lussac (1819) on the solubility of salts. In 1881 -1884. D. P. Konovalov laid the scientific foundations for the theory and practice of distillation solutions, and in 1882 Raul (F. M. Raoult) discovered the law of lowering the freezing point of solutions (see Cryometry). The first quantitative measurements of osmotic pressure (see) were made in 1877 by W. F. Ph. Pfeffer, and in 1887 Ya. -ra, its volume and absolute temperature. S. Arrhenius in 1887 formulated the theory of electrolytic dissociation and ionization of salts in solutions (see Electrolytes), and Nernst in 1888 - the osmotic theory. Ostwald (W. Ostwald) discovered regularities relating the degree of dissociation of the electrolyte with its concentration. In 1911, Donnan (F. G. Don-pap) created a theory of the distribution of electrolytes on both sides of a semi-permeable membrane (see. Membrane equilibrium), which is widely used in biophysical chemistry (see) and colloidal chemistry (see). In 1923, Debye and E. Huckel developed the statistical theory of strong electrolytes.

The development of the doctrine of the kinetics of chem. reactions, equilibrium and catalysis began with the work of Wilhelmy (L. Wil-helmy), who created in 1850 the first quantitative theory of chem. reactions, and Williamson (A. W. Williamson), who presented equilibrium as a state of equality of the rates of direct and reverse reactions. The concept of "catalysis" was introduced into physical chemistry by I. Berzelius in

1835 Basic Principles of Doctrine

about chem. equilibrium were formulated in the works of Berthollet (C. L. Beg-thollet). The beginning of the dynamic theory of equilibria was laid by the works of Williamson and Clausius, the principle of moving equilibrium was developed by J. V ant-Hoff, Gibbs and Le Chatelier (H. Le Chatelier). Berthelot and Pean-saint-Gilles (L. Pean-saint-Gilles) established a relationship between the reaction rate and the state of equilibrium. Basic law of chem. kinetics about the proportionality of the reaction rate to the product of active masses (i.e., concentrations) of reacting substances - the law of mass action - was formulated in 1864-1867. Guldberg (S. M. Guldberg) and Waa-ge (P. Waage). In 1893-1897. A. N. Bach and Engler (K. Engler) created the peroxide theory of slow oxidation (see Peroxides), in 1899-1904. Abegg (R. Abegg) and Bodlender (H. Bodlander) developed the concept of valency as the ability of an atom to accept or give away electrons, in 1913-1914. L. V. Pisarzhevsky and S. V. Dain developed the electronic theory of redox reactions (see). In 1903-1905. N. A. Shilov proposed the theory of conjugated reactions, and in 1913 Bodenstein (M. Vo-denstein) discovered chain reactions (see), the theoretical foundations for the course of which were developed in 1926 -1932. H. N. Semenov and Hinshelvud (S. N. Hinsheiwood).

The phenomenon of radioactive decay of atoms (radioactivity) was discovered in 1896 by A. Becquerel. Since then, much attention has been paid to the study of radioactivity (see) and significant progress has been made in this area, starting with the artificial fission of atoms and ending with developments in controlled thermonuclear fusion. Among problems F. x. it is necessary to highlight the study of the effect on molecules of gamma radiation (see), the flow of high-energy particles (see Alpha radiation, Yass-mic radiation, Neutron radiation, Lroton radiation), laser radiation (see Laser), as well as the study of reactions in electrical discharges and low-temperature plasma (plasma chemistry). Physical-chem. is successfully developing. mechanics, investigating the influence of surface phenomena on the properties of solids.

One of the sections of F. x. - photochemistry (see), studies the reactions that occur when a substance absorbs light energy from an external source of radiation.

In F. x. there is no such section, to-ry would not matter for medico-biol. disciplines and ultimately for practical medicine (see Biophysical chemistry). Phys.-chem. methods make it possible to study a living cell and tissues in vivo without exposing them to destruction. Equally important for medicine are physical. theories and ideas. So, the doctrine of the osmotic properties of solutions turned out to be extremely important for understanding water metabolism (see Water-salt metabolism) in humans in normal and pathological conditions. The creation of the theory of electrolytic dissociation significantly influenced the idea of bioelectric phenomena (see) and marked the beginning of the ionic theory of excitation (see) and inhibition (see). The theory of acids and bases (see) made it possible to explain the constancy of the internal environment of the body and served as the basis for studying acid-base balance (see). To understand the energy of life processes (eg, the functioning of ATP), studies are widely used using chemical methods. thermodynamics. Development fiz.-chem. ideas about surface processes (surface tension, wetting, etc.) is essential for understanding the reactions of cellular immunity (see), spreading of cells on non-cellular surfaces, adhesion, etc. Theory and methods of chemical. kinetics are the basis for studying the kinetics of biological, primarily enzymatic, processes. A big role in understanding of essence biol. processes are played by the study of bioluminescence, chemiluminescence (see Biochemiluminescence), the use of luminescent antibodies (see Immunofluorescence), fluorescent ohroms (see), etc. to study the properties of tissue and subcellular localization of proteins, nucleic acids, etc. Physical .-chem. methods for determining the intensity of basal metabolism (see) are extremely important in the diagnosis of many diseases, including endocrine.

It should be noted that the study of physical. biol properties. systems and processes occurring in a living organism, makes it possible to look deeper into the essence and reveal the specifics of living matter and these phenomena.

The main research centers in the field of physical chemistry in the USSR are the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, its branches and departments, the Academy of Sciences of the Union Republics: Physico-Chemical Institute im. L. Ya. Karpova, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Physics, Institute of New Chemical Problems, Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry im. A. E. Arbuzova, Institute of Catalysis, Institute of Chemical Kinetics and Combustion, Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, etc., as well as the corresponding departments in high fur boots.

The main press organs that systematically publish articles on physical chemistry are: the Journal of Physical Chemistry, Kinetics and Catalysis, the Journal of Structural Chemistry, Radiochemistry, and Electrochemistry. Abroad articles on F. x. are published in "Zeitschrift fiir physi-kalische Chemie", "Journal of Physical Chemistry", "Journal de chimie physique et de physico-chimie bio-logique".

Bibliography: Babko A. K. and others.

Physical and chemical methods of analysis, M., 1968; Kireev V. A. Course of physical chemistry, M., 1975; Melvin Hughes

E. A. Physical chemistry, trans. from English, vol. 1 - 2, M., 1962; Nikolaev L. A. Physical chemistry, M., 1972; Development

Physical Chemistry in the USSR, ed. Ya. I. Gerasimova. Moscow, 1967. Solo

viev Yu. I. Essays on the history of physical chemistry, M., 1964; Physical

Chemistry, Modern problems, ed. Ya. M. Kolotyrkina, M., 1980.

Periodicals - Journal of Structural Chemistry, M., since 1960; Journal of Physical Chemistry, M., since 1930; Kinetics and catalysis, M., since 1960; Radiochemistry, M.-L., since 1959; Electrochemistry, M., since 1965; Journal de chimie physique et de physico-chimie biologique, P., since 1903; Journal of Physical Chemistry, Baltimore, since 1896; Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, Lpz., from 1887.

Material from the Uncyclopedia

Back in 1752, M. V. Lomonosov said: “Physical chemistry is a science that explains, on the basis of the provisions and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies during chemical operations.” Let's compare this definition with the modern one: "The science that explains chemical phenomena and establishes their laws on the basis of the general principles of physics." As you can see, outwardly these definitions are similar. Lomonosov systematically investigated the problems of physical science, he correctly understood how important it is to use physical knowledge and methods in the study of chemistry.

In 1752-1753. M.V. Lomonosov was the first to read the course "Introduction to True Physical Chemistry" for students.

He formulated one of the basic laws of chemistry - the law of mass constancy in chemical transformations.

It was physics that gradually transformed chemistry from a descriptive science into an exact one. Qualitative characteristics of substances and their mutual transformations were more and more supplemented by quantitative ones.

The development of physical chemistry was later associated with the research of scientists who studied the effect of heat and electricity on the course of chemical processes. The study of the release or absorption of heat during chemical reactions marked the beginning of thermochemistry. The Russian scientist G. I. Hess formulated one of the fundamental laws of physical chemistry - the law of constancy of heat sums during chemical transformations.

In 1887, the German scientist W. Ostwald founded the first department of physical chemistry at the University of Leipzig and began publishing the first physical and chemical journal.

At the end of the XIX century. physical chemistry finally formed as an independent science. It includes a number of scientific disciplines.

The American scientist J. Gibbs developed the fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics. Thanks to the laws of thermodynamics, scientists have been able to predict whether a particular chemical reaction will or will not proceed. Here, for the first time, chemistry began to make extensive use of the mathematical apparatus.

The relationship between chemical and electrical phenomena was established by electrochemistry. The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen by the action of an electric current gave rise to the study of electrolysis. The quantitative laws of electrolysis were brought out by M. Faraday. Achievements in thermochemistry and electrochemistry underlie many modern chemical industries.

These first areas of physical chemistry helped in many ways to study solutions, to a correct understanding of their nature and properties. Assuming that electrolytes in solutions spontaneously decompose into positively and negatively charged ions, S. Arrhenius created the theory of electrolytic dissociation.

Chemical transformations that occur under the action of light are studied by photochemistry. The discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity made it possible to investigate the effect of radioactive radiation on various substances. Here a new branch of physical chemistry arose - radiation chemistry.

It has long been noted that various chemical reactions proceed at different rates: some very slowly, others instantaneously. The concept of the rate of a chemical reaction formed the basis of chemical kinetics. It turned out that the reaction rate depends on many factors - the concentration of reactants, temperature, etc. The presence of catalysts significantly affects the rate. The acceleration of the reaction under the action of catalysts is the essence of the phenomenon of catalysis. Catalysts are used today for many chemical reactions in laboratories and in industry.

Chemical kinetics and catalysis form the basis of the modern theory of the reactivity of matter - another extensive branch of physical chemistry.

When the electronic model of the structure of the atom was developed (after the discovery of the electron), a fundamentally new stage began in physical chemistry. Previously, scientists were limited only to the study of directly observed chemical phenomena and processes, the study of macroscopic objects. Now, any chemical process can be explained by taking into account the change in the electronic configurations of the reacting molecules. Electronic theories of chemical bonding, valence, structure and properties of molecules were developed.

The main feature of modern physical chemistry is the widespread use of physical research methods, the establishment of a detailed mechanism for the occurrence of chemical reactions. Physical chemistry provides a theoretical basis for the development of other branches of chemical science and chemical technology.

New areas of physical chemistry are being developed, connected with the study of chemical reactions that proceed under the influence of powerful electrical influences (fluxes of high-energy particles, laser radiation, etc.). The processes occurring in low-temperature plasma (plasma chemistry), the chemistry of polymers, the electrochemistry of gases, the influence of surface phenomena on the properties of solids, etc. are studied.

MV Lomonosov , written in Latin in 1752 during a lecture in physical chemistry to students of the Academy of Sciences . The work is the first part of a textbook on physical chemistry, which Lomonosov planned to write, but the second part was not completed, and the third was not even started. The surviving text of the work contains the first 5 completed chapters, chapter 6, which ends at paragraph 138, and several unnumbered paragraphs of chapter 9.

History of writing

On May 15, 1752, the Chancellery of the Academy of Sciences received a statement from the conference, according to which Lomonosov "in writing to the meeting presented what kind of chemical lectures he would give to students and chemical experiments he intended to do." When exactly the course began is unknown. In May, Mikhail Vasilyevich was still about to start it, and in a report on his studies for September 1752, he writes that he "gave chemical lectures to students, showing chemical experiments at the same time." In his monograph "The Biography of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov," the Soviet chemist and historian of chemistry B. N. Menshutkin suggests that the start of the lectures may have coincided with the beginning of the new academic year, July 11. According to Lomonosov, he dictated to students and interpreted to the students about physical chemistry "prolegomena in Latin, which are contained on 13 sheets in 150 paragraphs with many figures on six half-sheets." Lomonosov's lectures at the academy continued until 1753, as Mikhail Vasilyevich himself wrote, "they have to be completed around the Mayan month of this 1753."

"Introduction to true physical chemistry" is the first part of the textbook that M. V. Lomonosov intended to write. Before starting work on the text, the scientist drew up a plan for the course, according to which there should have been three parts: "Introduction", "Experimental part of Physical Chemistry" and "Theoretical part of Physical Chemistry". According to the plan, the first part provides a presentation of the general issues of the course. The experimental part considers experiments on various types of substances (salt bodies, mixed flammable bodies, juices, metals, semi-metals, earths and stones). The theoretical part is devoted to questions about the properties and changes of mixed bodies (chemical compounds), atomistics and, on this basis, the consideration of theoretical questions of chemistry of the main classes of substances. The second part of the textbook, called "The experience of physical chemistry, part one, empirical", is an unfinished work of Lomonosov in 1754 and consists of a concise outline of the first two chapters. The third part, about theoretical physical chemistry, was never written.

Structure and content

The surviving text of the work contains the first 5 completed chapters, chapter 6, which ends at paragraph 138, and several unnumbered paragraphs of chapter 9:

1. On physical chemistry and its purpose (§ 1-8) 2. On the particular qualities of mixed bodies (§ 9-30) 3. On the means by which mixed bodies are changed (§ 31-51) 4. On chemical operations (§ 52 -107) 5. On the genera of mixed bodies (§ 108-129) 6. On the chemical laboratory and dishes (§ 130-137) 9. On the method of presenting physical chemistry

Physical chemistry is a science that explains, on the basis of the provisions and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies during chemical operations.

Chapter 1. "On physical chemistry and its purpose." § one

The first chapter "On physical chemistry and its purpose" begins with a definition of physical chemistry. It was in this work that Lomonosov first defined this term, although in his earlier works he wrote about the need to combine physics and chemistry: “it is possible to combine physical truths with chemical ones and thereby more successfully cognize the hidden nature of bodies.” Further, the scientist shares the concepts of physical and technical chemistry, which includes "everything related to economic sciences, pharmacy, metallurgy, glasswork, etc." In the same chapter he, according to Robert Boyle, divides the qualities of bodies into "general" and "private". Mikhail Vasilyevich refers to the general mass, figure, movement or rest, the location of each tangible body, and to the private - color, taste, healing powers, adhesion of parts. In paragraphs 5-7, Lomonosov defines the terms "mixed body", "components", "beginning", "particles of the beginning" and others. The last paragraph of the chapter gives an explanation of the problem of chemistry, which consists in the study of the composition of bodies and the selection of principles.

The second chapter "On the particular qualities of mixed bodies" describes the particular qualities of bodies and shows their dependence on the combination of particles that make up the corpuscles of the body. Lomonosov then gives definitions of solid and liquid bodies, noting that depending on the difference in particle cohesion, the former can be rigid or malleable, while the latter can be thick or thin. Other properties of bodies depend on how they are perceived by sight - these are transparency, translucency and opacity, brilliance and color. Moreover, all colors, according to Lomonosov, consist of red, yellow, and blue and differ in taste and smell.

In the third chapter, "On the means by which mixed bodies are changed," the means are considered by which the composition and properties of mixed bodies can be changed, destroying the cohesion between particles. The best such means, according to Mikhail Vasilyevich, is fire: "there is not a single body in nature, whose internal parts would be inaccessible to him and whose mutual connection he could not destroy." Further, Lomonosov writes that water and air, unlike fire, can "change the cohesion between particles."

In the fourth chapter of "Introduction..." the author gives a systematic of chemical operations, in which, unlike his predecessors, he characterizes operations not by external signs or means of influence, but by changes taking place with the "component parts of bodies", giving a list of common chemical operations, which include loosening, compaction, dissolution, precipitation, digestion and sublimation.

In the fifth chapter, On the Genera of Mixed Bodies, Lomonosov characterizes bodies and their various classes. So, he divides bodies into organic and inorganic and classifies mixed bodies into genera: consisting of salts and hydrochloric alcohols, sulfuric bodies, juices, metals, semi-metals, earths and stones.

In the unfinished sixth chapter, Lomonosov describes a typical chemical laboratory and laboratory glassware, and in the ninth chapter, he gives instructions on how to present a course in physical chemistry.

Criticism

Editions

The manuscript in Latin is stored in the Archives of the Academy of Sciences along with the lecture notes of one of the students - V. I. Klementyev. In 1904, the Russian translation of "Introduction to True Physical Chemistry" by B. N. Menshutkin was published for the first time. In 1910, "Introduction ..." and a number of other works by Lomonosov were translated into German and published in Ostwald's "Classics of the Exact Sciences" series under number 178. In 1970, the manuscript was also translated into English and included in the book "Mikhail Vasil"evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory" by Henry Lester de.

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Notes

Literature

Lomonosov M.V. Physico-chemical works / ed. Menshutkina B. N. - M.-Pg.: Gosizdat, 1923. - 124 p.
Lomonosov M.V.. - M.-L.: AN SSSR, 1951. - T. 2. - 726 p.
Lomonosov M.V. Selected works on chemistry and physics / ed. Topchieva A. V. . - M .: AN SSSR, 1961. - 563 p.
Menshutkin B. N.. - M.-L.: AN SSSR, 1947. - 295 p.
Figurovsky N.A. Proceedings of M.V. Lomonosov on physics and chemistry // Lomonosov M.V. Selected works on chemistry and physics. - M .: Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1961.
Karpeev E.P.. - St. Petersburg. , 2012. - 218 p.
Arbuzov A. E.. - M.-L.: AN SSSR, 1948. - 223 p.

Chugaev L. A.. - M .: AN SSSR, 1962. - T. 3. - 491 p.
Gerasimov Ya. I. Course of physical chemistry. - M .: Chemistry, 1964. - T. 1. - 626 p.
Figurovsky N. A. Essay on the general history of chemistry. From ancient times to the beginning of the 19th century .. - M .: Nauka, 1969. - 454 p.
Lomonosov M. V., Menšutkin B. N., Speter M. en. Physikalisch-chemische Abhandlungen M. W. Lomonossows, 1741-1752. - Leipzig: Engelmann, 1910. - 60 p.
Leicester H.M. de. Mikhail Vasil "evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory. - Cambridge, MA: HUP, 1970. - 289 pp. - ISBN 978-0-674-42424-1.

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An excerpt characterizing the Introduction to True Physical Chemistry

– Is it possible to forget? - she said.
- It was so good for me today to tell everything; and hard, and painful, and good. Very well, - said Natasha, - I'm sure that he definitely loved him. From that I told him… nothing that I told him? – suddenly blushing, she asked.
- Pierre? Oh no! How beautiful he is,” said Princess Mary.
“You know, Marie,” Natasha suddenly said with a playful smile, which Princess Mary had not seen on her face for a long time. - He became somehow clean, smooth, fresh; just from the bath, you understand? - morally from the bath. Truth?
“Yes,” said Princess Marya, “he won a lot.
- And a short frock coat, and cropped hair; for sure, well, for sure from the bathhouse ... dad, it happened ...
“I understand that he (Prince Andrei) did not love anyone as much as he did,” said Princess Mary.
- Yes, and he is special from him. They say that men are friendly when they are very special. It must be true. Doesn't he really look like him at all?
Yes, and wonderful.
“Well, goodbye,” Natasha answered. And the same playful smile, as if forgotten, remained on her face for a long time.

Pierre could not sleep for a long time that day; he walked up and down the room, now frowning, pondering something difficult, suddenly shrugging his shoulders and shuddering, now smiling happily.
He thought about Prince Andrei, about Natasha, about their love, and then he was jealous of her past, then he reproached, then he forgave himself for it. It was already six o'clock in the morning, and he kept walking around the room.
“Well, what to do. If you can't live without it! What to do! So it must be so,” he said to himself, and, hastily undressing, went to bed, happy and excited, but without doubts or indecisions.
“It is necessary, strange as it may seem, no matter how impossible this happiness is, everything must be done in order to be husband and wife with her,” he said to himself.
A few days before this, Pierre had appointed the day of his departure for Petersburg on Friday. When he woke up on Thursday, Savelich came to him for orders to pack things for the journey.
“How to Petersburg? What is Petersburg? Who is in Petersburg? – involuntarily, though to himself, he asked. “Yes, something long, long ago, even before this happened, for some reason I was going to go to Petersburg,” he recalled. - From what? I will go, maybe. What a kind, attentive, how he remembers everything! he thought, looking at Savelich's old face. And what a nice smile! he thought.
“Well, you still don’t want to be free, Savelich?” Pierre asked.
- Why do I need, Your Excellency, will? Under the late count, the kingdom of heaven, we lived and we don’t see any offense with you.
- Well, what about the children?
- And the children will live, your excellency: you can live for such gentlemen.
“Well, what about my heirs?” Pierre said. "Suddenly I'll get married ... It might happen," he added with an involuntary smile.
- And I dare to report: a good thing, Your Excellency.
“How easy he thinks,” thought Pierre. He doesn't know how scary it is, how dangerous it is. Too soon or too late… Scary!”
- How would you like to order? Would you like to go tomorrow? Savelich asked.
- Not; I will postpone a little. I'll tell you then. Excuse me for the trouble, ”said Pierre, and looking at Savelich’s smile, he thought:“ How strange, however, that he does not know that now there is no Petersburg and that first of all it is necessary that this be decided. However, he certainly knows, but only pretends. Talk to him? What does he think? thought Pierre. No, sometime later.
At breakfast, Pierre told the princess that he had been at Princess Mary's yesterday and found him there - can you imagine who? - Natalie Rostov.
The princess pretended that she did not see anything more unusual in this news than in the fact that Pierre saw Anna Semyonovna.
– Do you know her? Pierre asked.
“I saw the princess,” she answered. - I heard that she was married to the young Rostov. This would be very good for the Rostovs; They say they are completely broke.
- No, do you know Rostov?
“I only heard about this story then. Very sorry.
“No, she doesn’t understand or pretends to be,” thought Pierre. "Better not tell her either."
The princess also prepared provisions for Pierre's journey.
“How kind they all are,” thought Pierre, “that now, when it certainly couldn’t be more interesting for them, they are doing all this. And everything for me; that's what's amazing."
On the same day, a police chief came to Pierre with a proposal to send a trustee to the Faceted Chamber to receive the things that were now being distributed to the owners.
“This one too,” thought Pierre, looking into the face of the police chief, “what a glorious, handsome officer and how kind! Now he's dealing with such nonsense. And they say that he is not honest and uses. What nonsense! And yet, why shouldn't he use it? That's how he was brought up. And everyone does it. And such a pleasant, kind face, and smiles, looking at me.
Pierre went to dine with Princess Mary.
Driving through the streets between the conflagrations of houses, he marveled at the beauty of these ruins. Chimneys of houses, fallen off walls, picturesquely reminiscent of the Rhine and the Colosseum, stretched, hiding each other, through the burnt quarters. The cabbies and riders who met, the carpenters who cut the log cabins, the traders and shopkeepers, all with cheerful, beaming faces, looked at Pierre and said as if: “Ah, here he is! Let's see what comes out of it."
At the entrance to the house of Princess Mary, Pierre was doubtful about the fairness of the fact that he was here yesterday, saw Natasha and spoke with her. “Maybe I made it up. Maybe I'll go in and see no one." But before he had time to enter the room, as already in his whole being, by the instant deprivation of his freedom, he felt her presence. She was in the same black dress with soft folds and the same hairdo as yesterday, but she was completely different. If she had been like that yesterday, when he entered the room, he could not have failed to recognize her for a moment.
She was the same as he knew her almost as a child and then the bride of Prince Andrei. A cheerful, inquiring gleam shone in her eyes; there was an affectionate and strangely mischievous expression on his face.
Pierre dined and would have sat out all evening; but Princess Mary was on her way to Vespers, and Pierre left with them.
The next day, Pierre arrived early, dined and sat out the whole evening. Despite the fact that Princess Mary and Natasha were obviously glad to have a guest; despite the fact that all the interest in Pierre's life was now concentrated in this house, by evening they had talked everything over, and the conversation moved incessantly from one insignificant subject to another and was often interrupted. Pierre sat up so late that evening that Princess Mary and Natasha looked at each other, obviously expecting him to leave soon. Pierre saw this and could not leave. It became difficult for him, awkward, but he kept sitting, because he could not get up and leave.
Princess Mary, not foreseeing the end of this, was the first to get up and, complaining of a migraine, began to say goodbye.
- So you are going to Petersburg tomorrow? Oka said.
“No, I’m not going,” Pierre said hastily, with surprise and as if offended. - No, to Petersburg? Tomorrow; I just don't say goodbye. I’ll call for commissions, ”he said, standing in front of Princess Marya, blushing and not leaving.
Natasha gave him her hand and left. Princess Mary, on the contrary, instead of leaving, sank into an armchair and, with her radiant, deep gaze, looked sternly and attentively at Pierre. The weariness that she had obviously shown before was completely gone now. She sighed heavily and long, as if preparing herself for a long conversation.
All the embarrassment and awkwardness of Pierre, when Natasha was removed, instantly disappeared and was replaced by an excited animation. He quickly moved the chair very close to Princess Marya.
“Yes, I wanted to tell you,” he said, answering, as if in words, in her glance. “Princess, help me. What should I do? Can I hope? Princess, my friend, listen to me. I know everything. I know that I'm not worth it; I know it's impossible to talk about it now. But I want to be her brother. No, I don't want... I can't...
He stopped and rubbed his face and eyes with his hands.
“Well, here it is,” he continued, apparently making an effort on himself to speak coherently. I don't know since when I love her. But I have loved her alone, alone in my whole life, and I love her so much that I cannot imagine life without her. Now I do not dare to ask for her hand; but the thought that maybe she could be mine and that I would miss this opportunity ... opportunity ... is terrible. Tell me, can I hope? Tell me what should I do? Dear princess,” he said, after a pause and touching her hand, as she did not answer.
“I am thinking about what you told me,” Princess Mary answered. “I'll tell you what. You are right, what now to tell her about love ... - The princess stopped. She wanted to say: it is now impossible for her to talk about love; but she stopped, because for the third day she saw from the suddenly changed Natasha that not only Natasha would not be offended if Pierre expressed his love to her, but that she wanted only this.
“It’s impossible to tell her now,” Princess Marya said anyway.
“But what am I to do?
“Give it to me,” said Princess Mary. - I know…
Pierre looked into the eyes of Princess Mary.
“Well, well…” he said.
“I know that she loves ... she will love you,” Princess Mary corrected herself.
Before she had time to say these words, Pierre jumped up and, with a frightened face, grabbed Princess Mary by the hand.
- Why do you think? Do you think that I can hope? You think?!
“Yes, I think so,” said Princess Mary, smiling. - Write to your parents. And entrust me. I'll tell her when I can. I wish it. And my heart feels that it will be.
- No, it can't be! How happy I am! But it can't be... How happy I am! No, it can not be! - said Pierre, kissing the hands of Princess Mary.
- You go to St. Petersburg; this is better. I'll write to you, she said.
- To Petersburg? Drive? Okay, yes, let's go. But tomorrow I can come to you?
The next day, Pierre came to say goodbye. Natasha was less lively than in the old days; but on this day, sometimes looking into her eyes, Pierre felt that he was disappearing, that neither he nor she was anymore, but there was one feeling of happiness. “Really? No, it can’t be,” he said to himself at her every look, gesture, word that filled his soul with joy.
When, bidding her farewell, he took her thin, thin hand, he involuntarily held it a little longer in his.
“Is it possible that this hand, this face, these eyes, all this treasure of female charm, alien to me, will this all be forever mine, familiar, the same as I am for myself? No, It is Immpossible!.."
“Farewell, Count,” she said to him loudly. “I will be waiting for you very much,” she added in a whisper.
And these simple words, the look and facial expression that accompanied them, for two months, were the subject of Pierre's inexhaustible memories, explanations and happy dreams. “I will be waiting for you very much ... Yes, yes, as she said? Yes, I will be waiting for you. Ah, how happy I am! What is it, how happy I am!” Pierre said to himself.

In Pierre's soul now nothing similar happened to what happened in her in similar circumstances during his courtship with Helen.
He did not repeat, as then, with painful shame, the words he had spoken, he did not say to himself: “Ah, why didn’t I say this, and why, why did I say “je vous aime” then?” [I love you] Now, on the contrary, he repeated every word of hers, his own, in his imagination with all the details of her face, smile, and did not want to subtract or add anything: he only wanted to repeat. There was no doubt now whether what he had done was good or bad, there was no shadow now. Only one terrible doubt sometimes crossed his mind. Is it all in a dream? Was Princess Mary wrong? Am I too proud and arrogant? I believe; and suddenly, as it should happen, Princess Marya will tell her, and she will smile and answer: “How strange! He was right, wrong. Doesn't he know that he is a man, just a man, and I? .. I am completely different, higher.
Only this doubt often came to Pierre. He didn't make any plans either. It seemed to him so incredibly impending happiness that as soon as this happened, nothing could be further. Everything ended.
Joyful, unexpected madness, for which Pierre considered himself incapable, took possession of him. The whole meaning of life, not for him alone, but for the whole world, seemed to him to consist only in his love and in the possibility of her love for him. Sometimes all people seemed to him busy with only one thing - his future happiness. It sometimes seemed to him that they all rejoiced in the same way as he himself, and only tried to hide this joy, pretending to be occupied with other interests. In every word and movement he saw hints of his happiness. He often surprised people who met him with his significant, expressing secret consent, happy looks and smiles. But when he realized that people might not know about his happiness, he felt sorry for them with all his heart and felt a desire to somehow explain to them that everything they were doing was complete nonsense and trifles not worthy of attention.
When he was offered to serve, or when some general state affairs and war were discussed, assuming that the happiness of all people depended on such or such an outcome of such and such an event, he listened with a meek, condoling smile and surprised the people who spoke to him with his strange remarks. But both those people who seemed to Pierre to understand the real meaning of life, that is, his feeling, and those unfortunate people who obviously did not understand this - all people in this period of time seemed to him in such a bright light of the feeling shining in him that without the slightest effort, he immediately, meeting with any person, saw in him everything that was good and worthy of love.

"INTRODUCTION TO TRUE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY", the first part of the unfinished work of L., in which he, following R. Boyle and for the first time in Russia, based on the corpuscular theory of the structure of matter developed by him, tried to give physical explanations for a number of chemical phenomena. Preserved in a Latin manuscript written in 1752 in preparation for lecturing students Academic University. First published in Latin in vol. VI Acad. ed., and a full Russian translation - in the book: Menshutkin, p. 388-414. Judging by the surviving notes and plans, for V. and. f. X. two more parts, devoted to experimental and theoretical chemistry, were to follow. The surviving text of the work contains the first 5 completed chapters, which breaks off at § 138 of the 6th chapter and several unnumbered paragraphs of the 9th chapter. L. gives a definition of physical chemistry as a science that explains “based on the provisions and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies (see “ On the difference between mixed bodies...") in chemical operations". He distinguishes physical chemistry from technical chemistry, which includes "everything related to the economic sciences, pharmacy, metallurgy, glass making, etc." Then L., following Boyle, divides the qualities of bodies into general and particular. The first (mass, figure, rest or movement, location, etc.) are inherent in all bodies, and the second (hardness or liquid, elasticity, transparency, color, etc.) - only to some. After that, L. gives definitions of a mixed body and "beginnings", to which he refers bodies that do not have components (now they are called elements). The task of chemistry is to study the composition of bodies and to isolate the beginnings. In the 2nd chapter

L. describes the particular qualities of bodies and shows their dependence on the combination of particles that make up the corpuscles of the body. A change in the chemical properties of a body can occur only as a result of a change in the cohesion of these particles in corpuscles. Then L. gives definitions of solid and liquid bodies, noting that the former can be rigid or malleable, strong or brittle, and elastic, and the latter - only "thick or thin." These qualities depend on the difference in particle cohesion. Other properties of bodies are perceived by sight: transparency, translucency and opacity, brilliance and color. Moreover, all colors, L. believed, consist of three simple ones - red, yellow (yellow - this is L. proves in “ A word about the origin of light, a new theory about colors representing") and blue. In addition, all bodies differ in taste (tasteless, sour, pungent, sweet, bitter, salty, pungent, and astringent), as well as in smell. In the 3rd chapter, L. considers the means by which you can change the composition and properties of mixed bodies, which, as already noted, depend on the cohesion of particles. The instrument that weakens or destroys this cohesion in any body on Earth is fire, the "tension" of which can be divided into "temperature regions", and the latter into degrees. Water or air carries the separated particles and separates them from each other. The following is a list and definitions of various operations (loosening, compaction, dissolution, precipitation, digestion, sublimation), then the types of compaction of bodies (solidification, solidification, thickening, crystallization, folding, hardening, sintering, vitrification, annealing) and many other chemical operations are considered. and also describes the chemicals known at the time. In the unfinished 6th chapter, L. describes a typical chemical laboratory and laboratory glassware, and in the 9th chapter gives instructions on how to present the course of physical chemistry. L. also wrote an outline of two chapters of the second part of the course of physical chemistry, devoted to experiments on the dissolution of salts. (PSS. T. 2. S. 481-578, 694-699 ).