An adaptive response to stress accompanied by tears is called. Acute reaction to stress - affective-shock reaction to severe psychotrauma

Types of stress are divided according to the degree of impact on the individual, each type can have both positive and negative effects. The traumatic factor causes certain reactions on the emotional and physical level. Stress behavior depends on personal characteristics, each individual behaves differently in stressful and extreme conditions. Let's look at the main issues of human response to stress.

What are the types of stress

Stress appears when conditions threaten the human body and psyche. There are the following types of negative expressions:

The above traumatic factors cause certain types of reactions in people who are susceptible to them. They have established symptoms and signs.

Types of reactions

Stress factors trigger a range of emotional and physical reactions in the body.

Types of emotional reactions:

• aggression;
• regular;
• for no reason;
• resentment, tearfulness, self-pity;
• panic attacks, feeling of fear;
• sleep difficulties.

Emotions can change, a protracted experience has the most negative effect on the psyche, the state turns into depression, apathy, symptoms of neurosis appear. Successful resolution of short-term relieves emotional manifestations, but some types of stress require the help of a specialist.

Types of physical reactions:

• headache;
• fatigue;
• pain in the chest;
• dry mouth;
• problems with the gastrointestinal tract;
• increased or decreased appetite;
• tics, stuttering.

If the emergency threat disappears, then the physiological manifestations return to normal. With a prolonged stress factor, the symptoms become chronic, diseases develop.

Personal characteristics and reactions

Types of response to a traumatic factor are purely individual and depend on the characteristics of the individual. The temperament, the character of the person, the level of self-esteem and parental attitudes matter.

There are a number of studies that make a connection between temperament and types of reactions to a critical situation.

Equally important to the manifestation of emotional reactions under stress is the level of self-esteem. Underestimation of oneself, lack of confidence in one's abilities increases the state of anxiety and panic during tense life moments. There is evidence that negative self-esteem affects the performance of exams, students do not cope with the exciting load, get low scores.

The types of reactions under stress are influenced by parental attitudes. Some psychologists argue that a person draws a scenario of behavior with a traumatic factor from his parents.

The child absorbs parental examples, and then unconsciously repeats them in adulthood.

So, one person will silently swallow grievances under stress, another will resort to alcohol, the third will start looking for a way to optimize. You can understand the life scenario with the help of a psychologist or with independent analysis.

Ways to respond to stress

People also differ in how they respond to stressors. There are several categories of reactions.

1. "Stress Bunny". In this case, a person passively experiences a traumatic situation. He does not have the strength to activate, he hides from problems.
2. "Stress Lion". A person with this manifestation violently, angrily and expressively reacts to stressful events.
3. "Stress ox". The method implies a type of reaction at the limit of one's mental, emotional and physical capabilities. Such a person can live and work for a long time in a traumatic situation.

The stress factor causes various emotional manifestations, they affect the physical and mental state of a person. Psychologists notice that negative stimuli can actually exist, for example, divorce, but also be far-fetched. Contrived situations include reactions to a particular behavior of others. The stress reaction manifests itself depending on the type of personality, parental attitudes. The response is influenced by features of character and temperament.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

Volgograd State Pedagogical University

Department of Morphology, Human Physiology and Medical and Pedagogical Disciplines

Test

on the physiology of higher nervous activity

and sensory systems

« Stress. Adaptive reactions of the body

Volgograd 2009

1. Stress and its functions.

2. Types of stress: physiological and psychological stress (informational and emotional), their characteristics.

3. Basic concepts of G. Selye about stress.

4. Modern studies of stress. Theory of neural and endogenous

stress regulation.

5. Non-specific protective and adaptive reactions:

a) changes in metabolism and energy

b) a change in the functional state of the vegetative systems of the body. The value of nonspecific protective and adaptive reactions of the body.

6. Characteristics of specific adaptive reactions of the organism (on the example of any stressful impact).

7. The mechanism of development of nonspecific and specific protective and adaptive reactions.

8. Essence of improvement of adaptive physiological mechanisms.

9. Effect of stress on performance, cognitive and integrative processes.

1. Stress (Stress reaction) (from the English stress - tension, pressure, pressure) - a non-specific (general) reaction of the body to an impact (physical or psychological) that violates its homeostasis, as well as the corresponding state of the nervous system of the body (or the body in in general). In medicine, physiology, psychology, positive (eustress) and negative (distress) forms of stress are distinguished. Allocate neuropsychic, thermal or cold, light, anthropogenic and other stresses.

In modern literature, the term "stress" refers to a wide range of phenomena from adverse effects on the body to favorable and unfavorable reactions of the body, both under strong, extreme, and usual effects.

The author of the concept of stress, Hans Selye, defines: "Stress is an organic, physiological, neuropsychic disorder, namely, a metabolic disorder caused by irritating factors." His concept of stress is identical to a change in the functional state that corresponds to the task solved by the body. According to G. Selye, “complete freedom from stress means death”, even in a state of complete relaxation, a sleeping person experiences some stress, while distress is that stress that is unpleasant and harms the body.

Initially, Selye considered stress exclusively as a destructive, negative phenomenon, but later Selye writes “Stress is a non-specific response of the body to any demand presented to it. ….From the point of view of the stress response, it does not matter whether the situation we are facing is pleasant or unpleasant. What matters is the intensity of the need for restructuring or adaptation ”(G. Selye, “The Stress of Life”).

This understanding is shared by researchers who distinguish stress in the narrow sense of the word as a manifestation of the adaptive activity of the organism under strong, extreme effects from stress in the broad sense of the word, when adaptive activity occurs under the action of any factors significant for the organism.

The biological function of stress - adaptation. It is designed to protect the body from threatening, destructive influences of various kinds: physical, mental. Therefore, the appearance of stress means that a person is included in a certain type of activity aimed at resisting the dangerous influences to which he is exposed. This type of activity corresponds to a special FS and a complex of various physiological and psychological reactions. As stress develops, FS and body responses change. Thus, stress is a normal phenomenon in a healthy body. It contributes to the mobilization of individual resources to overcome the difficulties that have arisen. It is a defense mechanism of the biological system. Stress-producing factors are called stressors. Distinguish physiological and psychological stressors.

Physiological stressors have a direct effect on body tissues. These include pain, cold, high temperature, excessive physical activity, etc.

Psychological stressors are stimuli that signal the biological or social significance of events. These are signals of threat, danger, anxiety, resentment, the need to solve a complex problem.

2. In accordance with two types of stressors, there are physiological stress and psychological. The latter is subdivided into informational and emotional.

Information stress arises in a situation of information overload, when a person does not cope with the task, does not have time to make the right decisions at the required pace, with high responsibility for the consequences of the decisions made. Analyzing texts, solving certain tasks, a person processes information. This process ends with a decision. The volume of processed information, its complexity, the need to make decisions often - all this makes up the information load. If it exceeds the capabilities of a person with his high interest in doing this work, then they talk about information overload.

emotional stress, as a special case of psychological stress is caused by signal stimuli. It appears in a situation of threat, resentment, etc., as well as in the conditions of so-called conflict situations in which an animal and a person cannot satisfy their biological or social needs for a long time. Universal psychological stressors that cause emotional stress in a person are verbal stimuli. They are able to have a particularly strong and long-lasting effect (long-acting stressors).

3. The main provisions of G. Selye's concept say that in response to the action of different in quality, but strong stimuli, the same complex of changes develops in the body as a standard, characterizing this reaction, called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), or the reaction stress is a reaction to stress. At the same time, special importance should be attached to the fact that stress is a reaction to a stressor, an extreme stimulus, and not to any stimulus in general, that Selye came to the idea of ​​stress in part because he noticed common signs in a wide variety of diseases, i.e. in emergency circumstances for the organism. Selye, in most of his works, says that stress is a reaction to a strong stimulus, but at the same time he does not clearly distinguish between stimuli by strength. This leads to confusion, to the idea that stress is a general non-specific adaptive response to any stimulus. An interesting question is what property of stimuli can create something common in response to stimuli of different quality, form the basis for a standard adaptive response? Quality cannot be such a basis, since each stimulus has its own quality. The general thing that characterizes the action of a wide variety of stimuli is the amount determined in relation to the living as the degree of biological activity. Irritants of different quality may have the same degree of biological activity (the same amount), and irritants of the same quality may have a different degree of biological activity (different amount). Of course, the idea of ​​a purely quantitative way of adaptation without taking into account the qualitative characteristics of stimuli also contradicts the facts. However, the quantity, the measure can be the basis for the generality of the reaction of the organism to the action of stimuli of different quality, the basis for the development in the process of evolution of biologically expedient complex, standard responses of the organism. Most likely, this basis is based on a quantitative-qualitative principle: in response to the action of stimuli that are different in quantity, i.e. according to the degree of their biological activity, standard adaptive reactions of the body develop, different in quality. In other words, the general adaptive reactions of the organism that have developed in the process of evolution are non-specific, and the specificity, the quality of each stimulus is superimposed on the general non-specific background. General adaptive reactions are the reactions of the whole organism, including all its systems and levels. These reactions of the organism are characterized, first of all, by automatism. How is this automatic self-regulation carried out? These are complex protective reactions created in the long process of evolution. The most important role in adaptation belongs to the central nervous system - the main regulatory system of the body. The cerebral cortex with a system of analyzers receives information from the outside world, subcortical formations of the brain - from the internal environment. Automatic regulation of the constancy of the internal environment is carried out mainly by the hypothalamic region of the brain, which is the center of integration of the autonomic part of the nervous system and the endocrine system - the main executive links that implement the influence of the central nervous system on the internal environment of the body. The hypothalamus combines the nervous and humoral pathways of automatic regulation. The hypothalamus can be figuratively compared with a radar installation included in the system of self-regulation and automation of neurohumoral-hormonal processes that resist dynamically changing factors not only of the internal, but also of the external environment. The presence of the closest anatomical and physiological connection between the hypothalamus and the reticular formation, which plays an important role in the implementation of generalized nonspecific reactions, also indicates the importance of these brain regions in the formation of nonspecific reactions of the body.

In addition to physiological, psychological adaptive reactions are possible that help a person withstand a stressor. A person reacts to the action of a stressor with anxiety, tension and frustration. Adaptive forms of behavior are also a mechanism for adapting to stress, and they are focused either on performing a task (attacking behavior, avoiding stress, compromising behavior) or on self-defense. In table. Figure 9-1 presents options for behavioral responses to stress.

Anxiety- a psychological reaction, expressed in a feeling of horror (fear) or anxiety that arose for unclear reasons. Various levels of anxiety and their corresponding types of behavior are presented in Table. 9-2.

Table 9-1. Variants of behavioral responses to stress

Table 9-2. Anxiety levels

Understanding, which increases with mild anxiety, practically disappears at the level of panic, in which the perception of the environment becomes distorted. A person's condition can fluctuate between several levels of anxiety. The level of anxiety that has arisen and its manifestation depend on the person's age, understanding of the need for treatment, the level of self-esteem and the maturity of the mechanisms for dealing with stressors. People with high anxiety can transmit feelings of anxiety to others. For example, a highly anxious patient may exacerbate a family member's anxiety, and vice versa. The manifestation of anxiety may be the result of the release of energy necessary to restore mental balance. These reactions can be expressed as adaptive or inappropriate behavior. The types of behavioral responses that occur are influenced by mental, social, and cultural factors, overall personality development, past experiences, values, and economic status. Anxiety is very common among patients and their loved ones.

Aggressiveness- a reaction that gives a person the opportunity to feel less helpless and more powerful, relieve anxiety. Manifestations of aggression are possible when the "I-concept" of a person is threatened. People often get angry because of the loss of health, misunderstanding of what is happening to them, therefore they become irritable, overly demanding.

Depression- a common reaction to information about a serious illness. Feelings of sadness or grief can manifest in the following ways:

Loss of desire to communicate with other people;

Disappears interest in vigorous activity, environment;

There is concern about the disease and the amount of assistance (care) needed;

Desire to die or anxious thoughts about death are expressed;

Behavior becomes predominantly addictive;

There are complaints of fatigue or insomnia;

There is tearfulness.

Any talk of suicide should be taken seriously and reported to the doctor immediately.

Secretive behavior (stealth) often appears during illness. It helps the patient conserve mental and physical energy to cope with stressors and speed up recovery and recovery. Secretive patients usually do not cause problems, they are often called good patients. They are undemanding, often have low self-esteem, so they can be "missed".

Suspicion may appear due to a feeling of helplessness, lack of control over circumstances. Suspicious patients are distrustful (for some, this may be a feature of character). They are often wary of personnel, routines and procedures. Whispering conversations within earshot of such a patient may raise the suspicion that others are hiding something important.

Somatic behavior- a habitual reaction to stress, which can be otherwise called an escape into illness. People express anxiety by complaining of a variety of symptoms (pain, shortness of breath, constipation, diarrhea, etc.). Vague complaints of back pain, headache, or fatigue are used by the patient to get attention. Health workers often become angry with patients with somatic behavior because of frequent and vague complaints. Nursing staff may make the mistake of not responding to the complaints of such patients because they may well be genuine.

9.3. NURSING HELP FOR ADAPTATION TO STRESS

Nursing staff working in medical institutions are constantly faced with stress. The environment is often stressful for the patient as well. For example, a patient has a limb amputated as a result of an injury or operation, or a face is disfigured due to a burn. To cope with such experiences, patients need professional help: you can let the patient speak out about his concerns, help him formulate immediate and long-term care goals. The nurse in this way helps the patient to participate in the organization of treatment and care.

Some people solve problems without thinking for a long time, others, on the contrary, do it very thoughtfully. Problem solving is a way of coping with the stress response that will be more effective if the following steps are followed:

Identification of the problem (impact of the stressor);

Establishment of factors influencing the problem (stressor);

Exploring alternative goals and the consequences of achieving them;

Evaluation of the effectiveness of nursing care.

Some behavioral responses that indicate the presence of stress in a person:

Continuous walking back and forth;

Decreased activity, even among people who are fond of entertainment (passivity, prolonged stay in one position, etc.);

Changes in daily life (decreased appetite, constipation, diarrhea);

Changing the perception of reality and social relationships;

Change in attitude towards work.

In the conditions of a medical institution, isolation and the impossibility of everyday communication with loved ones, a large flow of information, excessive noise, a change in the usual way of life, etc. can become stressors. Sometimes the nurse's manipulations, performed without explanation of reasons and goals, become a stressor. Therefore, the nurse, trying to relieve the patient's anxiety, helps him to resist stress. Assessing the patient's condition, one must be able to identify physiological, psychological, and sometimes spiritual indicators of stress.

Physiological indicators of stress include:

Increase or decrease in blood pressure;

Increased heart rate and respiration;

Sweating of the palms or coldness of the hands and feet;

drooping posture, fatigue;

Change in appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bloating;

Change in body weight;

Change in the frequency of urination;

Pathological changes in the results of laboratory, instrumental and hardware studies;

Psychological indicators of stress include:

Abuse of psychotropic drugs;

Changing habits related to eating, sleeping, hobbies;

Mental exhaustion, irritability;

Lack of motivation, emotional outbursts and frequent tearfulness;

Decreased efficiency and quality of work, forgetfulness, deterioration in attention to detail, absent-mindedness (“daydreaming”, “walking in the clouds”), absenteeism;

Increased illness, lethargy, susceptibility to accidents.

Signs of stress within the "I-concept":

Refusal to meet with friends and acquaintances;

Unwillingness to look in a mirror, touch or look at the affected part of the body;

Negative perception of references to deterioration in function, deformity, or deformity;

Reluctance to use prostheses in the absence of a limb;

Refusal of efforts aimed at rehabilitation.

When conducting an initial assessment of the patient's condition, the nurse should identify signs of a violation of the "I-concept" by asking the patient the following questions:

How has illness (violence, divorce, etc.) affected your life?

How are you adjusting to the changes that have taken place in your life?

How can you and your loved ones cope with the changes that have taken place?

Nursing analysis of anxiety is best classified by levels of anxiety. Possible reasons for concern:

Changes in socioeconomic status, role functioning, environment, or habitual interactions.

Care goals depend on the behaviors exhibited by the anxious patient and should be accompanied by a reduction in inappropriate behavior. For example:

The patient will feel more relaxed and less anxious;

The patient will note that sleep has improved;

Pathological symptoms (increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, etc.) will disappear;

Get regular stools

The patient's muscles will be relaxed;

The nurse (together with the patient) develops the optimal care plan. In its implementation, social support from relatives and friends is important. Nursing assistance is aimed at achieving the following goals:

Reducing the frequency of stressful situations;

Elimination of physiological, psychological and spiritual reactions to stress (stress symptoms);

Optimization of behavioral, emotional and spiritual reactions to stress.

When planning nursing care in case of deformation of the “I-concept”, the patient, with the help of a nurse, must change the current situation: begin to share his thoughts and feelings in relation to himself, change the attitude

to my own "I". It should be borne in mind that the goal may turn out to be long-term, sometimes multi-year. Much of the success of a nursing intervention will depend on the nurse's ability to build trust with the patient and their loved ones.

The nurse defines and formulates the goals of nursing care:

The patient will agree to discuss the changes that have taken place;

The patient will be able to discover positive qualities in himself, etc.

With a decrease in patient self-esteem, the nurse must earn his trust. Her art of communication, together with the efforts of relatives, a psychologist, a rehabilitation specialist, will allow the patient to talk about himself, adequately interact with other people, make him agree to treatment, rehabilitation procedures, give up bad habits that destroy the body (smoking, alcohol), etc. P.

When role behavior is disturbed, the nurse seeks to ensure that the patient can discuss ways to cope with the new role; influences his behavior, returning him to his former role.

Nursing interventions designed to combat long-term stress aim to achieve the following goals:

Changing the patient's lifestyle;

Providing the patient with a strict daily routine, rational nutrition, adequate physical activity;

Restriction or complete refusal of the patient from bad habits (alcohol, smoking);

Maintaining or developing self-esteem, suppression of unpleasant thoughts;

Teaching methods of psychophysical self-regulation (overcoming pain, fatigue and loss of strength, fear, depression, timidity, shyness), which consists in special exercises to concentrate the psyche on a state of rest. This skill contributes to breaking the patterns of the modern way of life - stressful situations - mental overload - illness;

Teaching family members, friends and colleagues social support techniques (the ability to listen, understand, advise).

Approach used when working with a patient showing denial:

Explore the causes of fear and anxiety underlying denial;

Avoid direct confrontation;

Assist the individual in carrying out planned nursing interventions;

Assure the patient of his worth as a person, despite his dependent condition;

Encourage behavior that indicates acceptance of reality;

It is correct, but firmly, to outline the permissible limits of denial, the violation of which interferes with treatment.

Approach used when working with a patient showing regression:

Investigate observed behavior;

Discuss the goals pursued by the patient;

Make appropriate changes to your care plan.

Approach used when dealing with a patient who exhibits aggressiveness:

Provide opportunities for the patient to express their feelings and discuss their causes;

Leave the patient's hostility unanswered and not make the person feel guilty;

Anticipate patient problems

Maintain eye contact when communicating with the patient;

Approach the patient calmly, openly, without showing aggressiveness;

Reduce the intensity of irritants in the environment;

Set limits (framework) of aggressiveness;

Drugs or physical restraints should only be used if all other measures have failed and the patient is in danger.

Approach used in caring for a patient with depressive behavior:

Take the patient seriously;

Let the patient know that you understand his feelings;

Help the patient express their feelings;

Recognize the patient's right to negative emotions;

Listen to the patient to vent negative emotions.

Approach used when working with a secretive patient:

Spending time with this patient, at least in silence, to increase his self-esteem;

Gently encourage the patient to talk, express their feelings and get in touch with other people.

Approach for dealing with a suspicious patient:

Allow the patient to talk about his concerns, but do not insist on it;

Keep promises made to the patient in order to inspire his confidence;

Avoid excessive zeal, which can cause an aggravation of suspicion;

Explain the course of procedures and routine manipulations;

Avoid whispering or discussing the patient in their presence

Approach used when working with a patient with somatic behavior:

Believe all symptoms and report them to the doctor;

Make time for this patient;

Listen to the patient's health concerns.

Nursing interventions for a person under stress can be general, designed to reduce the impact of the stressor, and crisis, carried out during a panic to manage stress. General interventions are aimed at maintaining the body's adaptive mechanisms, combating stressors and providing an optimal environment that allows a person to mobilize his strength.

/ Ekzamen_psikhiatria_1 / 79. Reactions to severe stress and adaptation disorders

Reactions to severe stress are currently (according to ICD-10) divided into the following:

post-traumatic stress disorder;

Acute reaction to stress

A transient disorder of significant severity that develops in individuals without apparent mental impairment in response to exceptional physical and psychological stress, and which usually resolves within hours or days. Stress can be an intense traumatic experience, including a threat to the safety or physical integrity of an individual or loved one (eg, natural disaster, accident, battle, criminal behavior, rape) or an unusually abrupt and threatening change in the patient's social position and/or environment, such as the loss of many loved ones or a fire in the house. The risk of developing the disorder increases with physical exhaustion or the presence of organic factors (for example, in elderly patients).

Individual vulnerability and adaptive capacity play a role in the occurrence and severity of acute stress reactions; this is evidenced by the fact that this disorder does not develop in all people subjected to severe stress.

Symptoms show a typical mixed and changing picture and include an initial state of "dazedness" with some narrowing of the field of consciousness and reduced attention, inability to adequately respond to external stimuli, and disorientation. This state may be accompanied by either further withdrawal from the surrounding situation up to dissociative stupor or agitation and hyperactivity (flight or fugue reaction).

Autonomic signs of panic anxiety (tachycardia, sweating, redness) are often present. Typically, symptoms develop within minutes of exposure to a stressful stimulus or event and disappear within two to three days (often hours). Partial or complete dissociative amnesia may be present.

Acute reactions to stress occur in patients immediately after traumatic exposure. They are short, from several hours to 2-3 days. Autonomic disorders are usually mixed: there is an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, along with this - pallor of the skin and profuse sweat. Motor disturbances are manifested either by a sharp excitation (throwing) or inhibition. Among them, there are affective-shock reactions described at the beginning of the 20th century: hyperkinetic and hypokinetic. In the hyperkinetic variant, patients rush about non-stop, make chaotic non-purposeful movements. They do not respond to questions, especially the persuasion of others, their orientation in the environment is clearly upset. In the hypokinetic variant, patients are sharply inhibited, they do not react to the environment, do not answer questions, and are stunned. It is believed that not only a powerful negative impact plays a role in the origin of acute reactions to stress, but also the personal characteristics of the victims - advanced age or adolescence, weakness due to some somatic disease, such character traits as increased sensitivity and vulnerability.

In ICD-10, the concept post-traumatic stress disorder combines disorders that do not develop immediately after exposure to a traumatic factor (delayed) and last for weeks, and in some cases for several months. These include: periodic occurrence of acute fear (panic attacks), severe sleep disturbances, obsessive memories of a traumatic event from which the victim cannot get rid of, persistent avoidance of places and people associated with a psychotraumatic factor. This also includes the long-term persistence of a gloomy-dreary mood (but not to the level of depression) or apathy and emotional insensitivity. Often people in this state avoid communication (run wild).

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a non-psychotic delayed reaction to traumatic stress that can cause mental impairment in almost anyone.

Historical research on post-traumatic stress has evolved independently of stress research. Despite some attempts to build theoretical bridges between "stress" and post-traumatic stress, the two areas still have little in common.

Some of the famous researchers of stress, such as Lazarus, who are followers of G. Selye, mostly ignore PTSD, like other disorders, as possible consequences of stress, limiting their field of attention to research on the characteristics of emotional stress.

Research in the field of stress is experimental in nature, using special experimental designs under controlled conditions. In contrast, PTSD research is naturalistic, retrospective, and largely observational.

Criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (according to ICD-10):

1. The patient must have been exposed to a stressful event or situation (both brief and prolonged) of an exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature that is capable of causing distress.

2. Persistent memories or "revival" of the stressor in intrusive reminiscences, vivid memories and recurring dreams, or re-experiencing grief when exposed to situations resembling or associated with the stressor.

3. The patient must exhibit actual avoidance or avoidance of circumstances resembling or associated with the stressor.

4. Any of the two:

4.1. Psychogenic amnesia, either partial or complete, for important periods of exposure to the stressor.

4.2. Persistent symptoms of increased psychological sensitivity or excitability (not present prior to exposure to the stressor) represented by any two of the following:

4.2.1. difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep;

4.2.2. irritability or outbursts of anger;

4.2.3. difficulty concentrating;

4.2.4. increased level of wakefulness;

4.2.5. enhanced quadrigeminal reflex.

Criteria 2,3,4 occur within 6 months after a stressful situation or at the end of a stressful period.

Clinical symptoms in PTSD (according to B. Kolodzin)

1. Unmotivated vigilance.

2. "Explosive" reaction.

3. Dullness of emotions.

5. Violations of memory and concentration.

7. General anxiety.

8. Fits of rage.

9. Abuse of narcotic and medicinal substances.

10. Unwanted memories.

11. Hallucinatory experiences.

13. Thoughts of suicide.

14. Survivor's Guilt.

Speaking, in particular, about adjustment disorders, one cannot but dwell in more detail on such concepts as depression and anxiety. After all, they are always accompanied by stress.

Previously dissociative disorders described as hysterical psychoses. It is understood that in this case, the experience of a traumatic situation is forced out of consciousness, but is transformed into other symptoms. The appearance of very bright psychotic symptoms and the loss of sound in the experiences of the transferred psychological impact of the negative plan mark the dissociation. The same group of experiences includes conditions previously described as hysterical paralysis, hysterical blindness, and deafness.

The secondary benefit for patients of manifestations of dissociative disorders is emphasized, that is, they also arise according to the mechanism of flight into the disease, when psychotraumatic circumstances are unbearable, superstrong for the fragile nervous system. A common feature of dissociative disorders is their tendency to recur.

Distinguish the following forms of dissociative disorders:

1. Dissociative amnesia. The patient forgets about the traumatic situation, avoids places and people associated with it, a reminder of the trauma meets violent resistance.

2. Dissociative stupor, often accompanied by loss of pain sensitivity.

3. Puerilism. Patients in response to psychotrauma exhibit childish behavior.

4. Pseudo-dementia. This disorder occurs against a background of mild stunning. Patients are confused, look around in bewilderment and show the behavior of the weak-minded and incomprehensible.

5. Ganser's syndrome. This state resembles the previous one, but includes passing, that is, patients do not answer the question (“What is your name?” - “Far from here”). Not to mention the neurotic disorders associated with stress. They are always acquired, and not constantly observed from childhood to old age. In the origin of neuroses, purely psychological causes (overwork, emotional stress) are important, and not organic influences on the brain. Consciousness and self-awareness in neurosis are not disturbed, the patient is aware that he is ill. Finally, with adequate treatment, neuroses are always reversible.

Adjustment disorder observed during the period of adaptation to a significant change in social status (loss of loved ones or prolonged separation from them, the position of a refugee) or to a stressful life event (including a serious physical illness). more than 3 months from the onset of the stressor.

At adjustment disorders in the clinical picture are observed:

a feeling of inability to cope with the situation, to adapt to it

some decrease in productivity in daily activities

propensity for dramatic behavior

According to the predominant feature, the following are distinguished adjustment disorders:

short-term depressive reaction (no more than 1 month)

prolonged depressive reaction (no more than 2 years)

mixed anxiety and depressive reaction, with a predominance of disturbance of other emotions

reaction with a predominance of behavioral disorders.

Among other reactions to severe stress, nosogenic reactions are also noted (they develop in connection with a severe somatic disease). There are also acute reactions to stress, which develop as reactions to an exceptionally strong, but short-lived (within hours, days) traumatic event that threatens the mental or physical integrity of the individual.

By affect it is customary to understand a short-term strong emotional excitement, which is accompanied not only by an emotional reaction, but also by the excitation of all mental activity.

Allocate physiological affect, for example, anger or joy, not accompanied by clouding of consciousness, automatisms and amnesia. Asthenic affect- a rapidly depleting affect, accompanied by a depressed mood, a decrease in mental activity, well-being and vitality.

Sthenic affect characterized by increased well-being, mental activity, a sense of one's own strength.

Pathological affect- a short-term mental disorder that occurs in response to intense, sudden mental trauma and is expressed in the concentration of consciousness on traumatic experiences, followed by an affective discharge, followed by general relaxation, indifference and often deep sleep; characterized by partial or complete amnesia.

In some cases, the pathological affect is preceded by a long-term traumatic situation, and the pathological affect itself arises as a reaction to some kind of “last straw”.

3. Standard non-specific adaptive reactions: training, activation, stress. Their phases, mechanisms.

Non-specific- occur in response to the action of any stimuli.

Adaptive - provide adaptation to the action of stimuli. Therefore, the nature of the reaction, its severity and duration depend on the nature of the stimulus.

Types of adaptive reactions.

The nature of the response to the stimulus is determined.

1) tension sympathoadrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary systems, which mobilize the body's resources for adaptation.

2) resistance, i.e., the resistance of behavior, the control apparatus that maintains homeostasis, to the action of factors.

3) reactivity- the ability to respond to a stimulus. Depends on the functional state of the reacting structures.

Characteristics of the training response.

1) Orientation stage- occurs 6 hours after exposure, lasts 24 hours.

Accompanied by a moderate increase in the secretion of glucocorticoids, excitation occurs in the central nervous system, followed by inhibition. The excitability of the hypothalamus is reduced. The body stops responding to weak stimuli. For the next stage to occur, a higher stimulus strength is needed.

2) The stage of restructuring.

a) There is a decrease in the secretion of glucocorticoids and an increase in mineralocorticoids.

b) The body's defenses increase.

c) In the CNS, the threshold of irritation increases, metabolism is reduced, there is a minimum consumption of plastic materials, they accumulate. This stage lasts for a month or more.

d) Stage of training.

It occurs if the strength of the stimulus reaches new levels of the threshold of excitation.

Increased resistance to the action of stimuli due to the growth of the activity of protective forces. In the brain, the processes of anabolism, in the central nervous system - protective inhibition.

The cessation of the action of weak stimuli leads to detraining.

Characterization of the activation reaction.

Occurs under the action of stimuli of medium strength. Has 2 stages:

1) Stage of primary activation. In the central nervous system, moderate excitation, moderate physical activity. Increased secretion of somatotropic, thyroid-stimulating and gonadotropic hormones. Increased processes of anabolism. There is an increase in albumin in the brain, liver, spleen, testicles, blood serum.

Defensive forces are activated, resistance is increased.

2) Stage of persistent activation occurs with repeated actions of medium-strength stimuli. It is characterized by activation of neurons of the reticular formation. Excitation predominates in the central nervous system, a persistent increase in protective forces is noted, resistance is increased and persists for some time after the cessation of stimuli.

A stereotypical psychophysiological reaction to significant and strong influences, leading to the mobilization of the body's defenses.

Stress - the reaction develops due to:

1) the actions of factors.

The stimulus becomes stressful:

a) due to interpretation or

b) if it has a sympathomimetic effect;

2) individual properties GNI and CNS;

3) the value of the functional reserve physiological systems.

Characteristics of the phases of stress.

In response to a stressor, the mental state, emotional status, motor acts, autonomic reactions change. The launch of such changes is carried out:

1) nervously through direct innervation of organs that respond to a stimulus;

2) neuroendocrine by the sympathoadrenal system.

3) by the endocrine route - the main role in the anxiety phase is played by the hormones of the adrenal cortex.

Phases of increased resistance.

The task of this phase is to maintain a new (increased) mode of operation of physiological systems and the body.

Options for the outcome of stress.

1) eustress – good stress.

At the same time, the level of tension of the body does not go beyond the boundaries of the functional reserve of systems. As a result, adaptation to the acting factor and the elimination of stress develop.

2) Distress – bad stress.

The tension necessary for adaptation to the stimulus goes beyond the capabilities of the body, exhaustion sets in. It manifests itself in symptoms of stress or even diseases.

Regulation and self-regulation of functions (systems of regulation of functions, levels and contours of regulation, their relationship, the concept of health and disease from the standpoint of regulation and self-regulation).

Regulation and self-regulation of functions:

I) Functioning of regulatory systems.

There are two ways and two systems of regulation of functions:

1) Nervous regulation > unconditioned reflex (provides automated

management of the activities of bodies and

conditioned reflex - purposeful activity.

2) Humoral > carried out by primary and secondary mediators.

II) Levels and contours of regulation, their relationship.

There are several levels of regulation in the body:

a) local (tissue) - micro-regional;

The functioning of the levels of regulation is carried out through the contours of self-regulation.

Contours of the local level of regulation.

1) Myogenic circuit- includes a shift in the geometry of the tissue and the occurrence of a response. For example: stretching of the smooth muscles of blood vessels - a decrease in their lumen; stretching of the myocytes of the heart - an increase in the strength of their contraction.

humoral circuit the local level of regulation includes a change in the amount or the appearance of new humoral substances in the intercellular spaces. This automatically leads to a change in tissue activity.

Local level of regulation and activity of other levels.

The expressiveness of the functioning of the myogenic and humoral circuits of the local level provides:

1) activation of receptors of the region (regions) and transmission of an afferent signal to the central nervous system;

2) excitation of the CNS by the humoral route through the internal environment of the body. As a result, higher-level regulatory systems are activated.

Contraction > H+ > Blood > Central and peripheral chemoreceptors

Transport and metabolic

Concept of health and disease(from the standpoint of regulation and self-regulation).

According to I.P. Pavlov, the principle of self-regulation is the law of maintaining the stability of functions, and hence health. Disease is a violation of homeostasis. It is important for a doctor to establish the cause of the disorder, which may lie in a defect in the operation of various parts of the homeostasis maintenance system: a signaling device, a control apparatus, a corrective device, and the structural and functional state of the tissue. Health disorders can be associated with a violation of the regulation and self-regulation of somatic, vegetative functions, their integration, purposeful activity and its provision.

Functions of the cerebellum. Symptoms of damage to the cerebellum in humans

In the system of control and coordination of movements, the cerebellum takes part at three levels.

1. Vestibulocerebellum provides the movements necessary to maintain balance.

2 Spinocerebellum provides coordination mainly to the distal limbs (especially the hands and fingers).

3. Neocerebellum receives all connections from the motor cortex and adjacent areas of the premotor and somatosensory areas of the brain. It sends signals back to the big brain, planning the sequence of actions along with the sensorimotor area and anticipating future actions tens of seconds ahead.

- In persons with vestibulocerebellar disorders, the balance is most disturbed when trying to move quickly than during rest. This is especially true when trying to change the direction of motion of the body. This testifies that vestibulocerebtllum controls the balance between agonistic and antagonistic contractions of the muscles of the spine, hip and shoulder girdle during rapid changes in body positions.

- The intermediate zone of each of the cerebellar hemispheres receives two types of information. At the moment the movement begins, information comes from the motor cortex and the red nucleus, informing the cerebellum about sequence of the proposed plan of movements. At the same time, information from the peripheral parts of the body (especially from the proprioreceptors of the extremities) comes to the cerebellum, telling the cerebellum about the nature of the actual movement.

— Spinocerebellum provides smoothness, coordination of movements of agonists and antagonists, comparing the movements planned by the cortex with the movements actually performed. This is done using the anterior spinal tract, which transmits "copies" of real motor signals to the cerebellum.

Almost all movements of our body are “pendulum-like”. For example, when moving a hand, there is momentum in execution and there may be inertia in excess before the movement is stopped. Due to inertia, all pendulum movements tend to be exceeded. If a person with a damaged cerebellum has an excess range of movements, then with the help of consciousness he recognizes this and tries to make a movement in the opposite direction. But the limb (due to inertia and a violation of the cerebellar correction mechanism) continues to oscillate back and forth until the hand returns to its original position. This phenomenon is an action tremor, or intentional tremor. If the cerebellum is not damaged and trained accordingly, then subconscious signals will exactly stop the movement at a given point and stop the tremor. This damping function will be performed by the spinoceredellum.

The function of the spinocerebelum is to control very fast, short movements called ballistic movements (eg, typing on a computer keyboard or saccadic movements of the eyeball). After removal of the cerebellum, movements begin and end slowly, and they are weaker, that is, the usual automatism of ballistic movements is lost.

The planning of the sequence of movements is carried out by the lateral zones of the cerebellar hemispheres together with the pemotor and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex with a constant two-way connection between the cerebral cortex and the basal nuclei. The "plan" of successive movements arises in the sensory and premotor areas of the cortex, from where this plan is transmitted to the lateral parts of the cerebellar hemispheres. Then, through many bilateral connections between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex, the necessary motor signals ensure the transition from one movement to the next. It is important that patterns of impulse activity appear in the neurons of the deep dentate nuclei of the cerebellum for subsequent movements at this moment, when real movements are just beginning. An important function of the neocerbellum is the timing of each subsequent movement. Removal of the lateral sections of the cerebellar hemispheres leads to the loss of the subconscious ability to calculate the time of occurrence of certain body movements.

neocerebellum plays a role in predicting the time sequence not only for movements, but also for other body systems. In particular, a person, based on visual observations, can predict how fast a moving object can approach an object.

The cerebellum and movement learning.

The degree of participation of the cerebellum in the coordination of movements and learning is revealed when trying to perform new motor acts. As a rule, new movements are initially uncertain, inaccurate, and require great effort. After repeated repetitions, the movements become more precise and easily reproducible. The basis for such learning is the entry through the kernels of the olive. Each Purkinje cell receives from 250 thousand to 1 million mossy fibers and only one climbing fiber from the lower olive, but this climbing fiber forms 2–3 thousand synapses on the Purkinje cell. Activation of the climbing fiber causes a large complex discharge (spike) in the Purkinje cell; this spike causes a long-term persistent change in the activity spectrum of the input of mossy fibers in the same Purkinje cell. The activity of climbing fibers increases with learning new movements. Selective defeat of the olivar complex disrupts the ability to regulate motor acts.

Features of digestion in the large intestine. The act of defecation.

Motor function of the large intestine.

Chyme enters the large intestine through the ileocecal valve 200 - 500 ml. per day. The sphincter opens after 1 - 4 minutes and 15 ml. chyme enters the caecum, it stretches and the sphincter closes. This is the viscero-visceral reflex.

Large bowel movements:

2) peristaltic(weak, strong and very strong or propulsive). They start in the caecum and move the contents into the sigmoid or rectum.

3) antiperistaltic contractions provide compaction of feces.

1) Local- with irritation of mechanoreceptors by the contents of the intestine.

2) Extraintestinal influences- carried out from various receptors of the esophagus, stomach, oral cavity, conditioned reflex.

Motility is inhibited through the sympathetic system.

Parasympathetic - activates. ANS acts on the MCC or directly on the smooth muscles of the intestine.

Defecation. Defecation reflexes.

1. Own recto-sphincter reflex occurs when the wall of the rectum is stretched by fecal masses. An afferent signal through the intermuscular plexus activates the peristaltic waves of the descending, sigmoid, and rectum, forcing the movement of feces to the anus. At the same time, the internal anal sphincter relaxes. If at this time there are conscious signals to relax the external anal sphincter, then the act of defecation begins.

Adaptive plant responses to environmental stress

Adaptive syndrome in plants to the action of stressors: temperature, light, moisture, soil, radiation. Classification of plants depending on the type of adaptation. Physiological, biochemical and ecological bases of nonspecific and specific reactions to stress.

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There are three main groups of factors that cause stress in plants: physical - insufficient or excessive humidity, light, temperature, radioactive radiation, mechanical stress; chemical — salts, gases, xenobiotics (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, industrial wastes, etc.); biological - damage by pathogens or pests, competition with other plants, the influence of animals, flowering, fruit ripening. a set of adaptive reactions of the body that are of a general protective nature and arise in response to adverse effects that are significant in strength and duration - stressors. The functional state that develops under the influence of stressors is called stress. The adaptation syndrome was proposed by the Canadian physiologist-endocrinologist Hans Selye (1936). In the development of A. s. usually there are 3 stages. The 1st stage of anxiety lasts from several hours to 2 days and includes two phases - shock and anti-shock, the last of which mobilizes the body's defense reactions. During the 2nd stage A. s. - stages of resistance - the body's resistance to various influences is increased. This stage either leads to stabilization of the condition and recovery, or is replaced by the last stage of A. s. - the stage of exhaustion, which can end in the death of the body.

In the first phase, significant deviations in the physiological and biochemical processes are observed, both symptoms of damage and a protective reaction appear. The value of protective reactions lies in the fact that they are aimed at eliminating (neutralizing) the resulting damage. If the exposure is too great, the organism dies even in the alarm stage during the first hours. If this does not happen, the reaction passes into the second phase. In the second phase, the body either adapts to new conditions of existence, or the damage intensifies. With the slow development of adverse conditions, the body adapts to them more easily. After the end of the adaptation phase, plants normally vegetate under unfavorable conditions already in an adapted state with a generally reduced level of processes. In the phase of damage (exhaustion, death), hydrolytic processes intensify, energy-forming and synthetic reactions are suppressed, and homeostasis is disturbed. With a strong stress intensity exceeding the threshold value for the organism, the plant dies. With the termination of the stress factor and the normalization of environmental conditions, the processes of reparation, i.e., restoration or elimination of damage, are switched on. The adaptation process (adaptation in the broad sense) proceeds constantly and carries out the "adjustment" of the organism to changes in the external environment within the limits of natural fluctuations of factors. These changes can be both non-specific and specific. Nonspecific are the same type of reactions of the body to the action of heterogeneous stressors or different organisms to the same stress factor. Specific reactions include responses that differ qualitatively depending on the factor and genotype. The most important nonspecific response of cells to the action of stressors is the synthesis of specific proteins.

Stress is a general non-specific adaptive reaction of the body to the action of any adverse factors. There are three main groups of factors that cause stress in plants: physical - insufficient or excessive humidity, light, temperature, radioactive radiation, mechanical stress; chemical — salts, gases, xenobiotics (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, industrial wastes, etc.); biological - damage by pathogens or pests, competition with other plants, the influence of animals, flowering, fruit ripening.

Adaptation (adaptation) of a plant to specific environmental conditions is ensured by physiological mechanisms (physiological adaptation), and in a population of organisms (species) - due to the mechanisms of genetic variability, heredity and selection (genetic adaptation). Environmental factors can change regularly and randomly. Regularly changing environmental conditions (change of seasons) develop in plants genetic adaptation to these conditions. Adaptation is the process of adaptation of living organisms to certain environmental conditions. There are the following types of adaptation:

1. Adaptation to climatic and other abiotic factors (leaf fall, cold resistance of coniferous trees).

2. Adaptation to obtaining food and water (long roots of plants in the desert).

4. An adaptation that ensures the search and attraction of a partner in animals and pollination in plants (smell, bright color in flowers).

5. Adaptation to migrations in animals and seed dispersal in plants (wings of seeds for wind transport, spines of seeds).

Various plant species provide stability and survival in adverse conditions in three main ways: through mechanisms that allow them to avoid adverse effects (dormancy, ephemera, etc.); through special structural devices; due to physiological properties that allow them to overcome the harmful effects of the environment. Annual agricultural plants in temperate zones, completing their ontogeny in relatively favorable conditions, overwinter in the form of stable seeds (dormancy). Many perennial plants overwinter as underground storage organs (bulbs or rhizomes) protected from freezing by a layer of soil and snow. Fruit trees and shrubs of temperate zones, protecting themselves from the winter cold, shed their leaves.

Protection from adverse environmental factors in plants is provided by structural adaptations, features of the anatomical structure (cuticle, crust, mechanical tissues, etc.), special protective organs (burning hairs, spines), motor and physiological reactions, and the production of protective substances (resins, phytoncides , toxins, protective proteins).

Structural adaptations include small-leaved and even the absence of leaves, a waxy cuticle on the surface of leaves, their dense omission and immersion of stomata, the presence of succulent leaves and stems that retain water reserves, erectoid or drooping leaves, etc. Plants have various physiological mechanisms that allow them to adapt to unfavorable conditions. environmental conditions. This is the self-type of photosynthesis of succulent plants, minimizing water loss and essential for the survival of plants in the desert, etc. The ways of plants surviving in the steppe

It is known that the overwhelming majority of steppe plants are characterized by the development of strong pubescence of stems, leaves, and sometimes even flowers. Because of this, the steppe herbage has a dull, grayish or bluish color, contrasting with the bright emerald green of the meadow communities. Many representatives of the genus Euphorbia can serve as examples of widespread plant species with a bluish wax coating. A general reduction in the evaporating surface also contributes to a decrease in water consumption, which is achieved due to the development of narrow leaf blades in many steppe grasses and sedges, which, moreover, in dry weather can fold along , reducing the evaporating surface. A similar property was noted, in particular, in some species of feather grass. The reduction of the evaporating surface in many steppe plants is also achieved due to strongly dissected leaf blades. A similar phenomenon can be observed when comparing many closely related species of Umbelliferae, as well as in wormwood from the Compositae family. A number of plants solve the problem of lack of moisture by developing deep root systems, which make it possible to obtain water from deeper soil horizons and thus maintain relative independence from abrupt changes in moisture that occur during the growing season. This group includes many steppe plants - alfalfa, some astragalus, kermeks, as well as a number of species from the Asteraceae family.

The ability of a plant to endure the action of adverse factors and produce offspring under such conditions is called resistance or stress tolerance. Adaptation (lat. adaptio - adaptation, adjustment) is a genetically determined process of the formation of protective systems that ensure an increase in stability and the flow of ontogenesis in previously unfavorable conditions for it. Adaptation includes all processes (anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioral, population, etc.). However, the key factor is the time given to the body to respond. The more time allowed for a response, the greater the choice of possible strategies.

With the sudden action of an extreme factor, the response should follow immediately. In accordance with this, three main adaptation strategies are distinguished: evolutionary, ontogenetic, and urgent.

Evolutionary (phylogenetic) adaptations are adaptations that arise during the evolutionary process (phylogenesis) on the basis of genetic mutations, selection and are inherited.

An example is the anatomical and morphological features of plants living in arid hot deserts of the globe, as well as in saline areas (adaptation to moisture deficiency). Biorhythms are the body's biological clock. Most of the biological rhythms in plants, animals and humans developed in the process of evolution of life on Earth under the influence of various environmental factors, primarily cosmic radiation, electromagnetic fields, etc.

Phylogenetic adaptation is a process that lasts for several generations, and for this reason alone, according to Yu. Malov, it cannot be a property of one single organism. The homeostasis of an organism as a basic property is the result of phylogenetic adaptation. The uniformity of the representatives of the human species is manifested not in the strict similarity of the morphological and functional characteristics of individual individuals, but in accordance with their external environmental conditions. The difference in the structure of organs and tissues is not yet a negation of the norm. It is important whether this structure and its functions correspond to variations in the external environment. If the structure corresponds to the fluctuations of external factors, then it ensures the viability of the organism and determines its health. The content of the concept of adaptation covers not only the ability of living systems to reflect, through change, environmental factors, but also the ability of these systems in the process of interaction to create mechanisms and models of active change and transformation of the environment in which they live.

genotypic adaptation - selection of a hereditarily determined (genotype change) increased adaptability to changed conditions (spontaneous mutagenesis), phenotypic adaptation - with this selection, variability is limited by the reaction rate determined by a stable genotype.

Ontogenetic, or phenotypic, adaptations ensure the survival of a given individual. They are associated with genetic mutations and are not inherited. The formation of such adaptations requires a relatively long time, so they are sometimes called long-term adaptations. A classic example of such adaptations is the transition of some C3 plants to the CAM type of photosynthesis, which helps conserve water, in response to salinity and severe water scarcity.

Ontogenetic adaptation is the ability of an organism to adapt in its individual development to changing external conditions. The following subspecies are distinguished: genotypic adaptation - selection of a hereditarily determined (genotype change) increased adaptability to changed conditions (spontaneous mutagenesis); phenotypic adaptation - with this selection, variability is limited by the reaction rate determined by a stable genotype. Ontogenetic or phenotypic adaptations ensure the survival of a given individual. They are associated with genetic mutations and are not inherited. A classic example of such adaptations is the transition of some C3 plants to the CAM type of photosynthesis, which helps to conserve water, in response to salinity and severe water deficiency. In plants, non-hereditary adaptive reactions - modifications - can also be a source of adaptation. Ontogeny of an individual begins from the moment of its formation. This event of an individual can be the germination of a spore, the formation of a zygote, the beginning of fragmentation of the zygote, the emergence of an individual in one way or another during vegetative reproduction (sometimes the beginning of ontogenesis is attributed to the formation of initial cells, for example, oogonia). In the course of ontogenesis, growth, differentiation and integration of parts of the developing organism occur. The ontogenesis of an individual can end with its physical death or its reproduction (in particular, during reproduction by division). Each organism during the period of individual development is an integral system, therefore, ontogenesis is an integral process that cannot be decomposed into simple constituent parts without loss of quality. The degree of possible variability during the implementation of the genotype is called the reaction norm and is expressed by the totality of possible phenotypes under various environmental conditions. This determines the so-called ontogenetic adaptation, which ensures the survival and reproduction of organisms, sometimes even with significant changes in the external environment. Moisture and shade tolerance, heat resistance, cold resistance and other ecological features of specific plant species have been formed in the course of evolution as a result of long-term exposure to appropriate conditions. Thus, heat-loving plants and plants of a short day are characteristic of southern latitudes, plants that are less demanding on heat and plants of a long day are characteristic of northern latitudes.

Urgent adaptation, which is based on the formation and functioning of shock protective systems, occurs with rapid and intense changes in living conditions. These systems provide only short-term survival under the damaging effect of the factor and thus create conditions for the formation of more reliable long-term mechanisms of adaptation. Shock defense systems include, for example, the heat shock system, which is formed in response to a rapid increase in temperature, or the SOS system, the trigger for which is DNA damage.

Urgent adaptation is an immediate response of the body to the influence of an external factor. Long-term adaptation is a gradually developing response of the body to the action of an external factor. The first, initial, provides imperfect adaptation. It starts from the moment of action of the stimulus and is carried out on the basis of existing functional mechanisms (for example, increased heat production during cooling).

In the process of adaptation, the plant goes through two different stages:

1) fast initial response;

2) a much longer stage associated with the formation of new isoenzymes or stress proteins that ensure the flow of metabolism under changed conditions.

The rapid initial reaction of a plant to a damaging effect is called a stress response, and the phase following it is called a specialized adaptation. When the stressor ceases, the plant enters a state of recovery.

According to the degree of adaptation of plants to conditions of extreme heat deficiency, three groups can be distinguished:

1) non-cold-resistant plants - are severely damaged or die at temperatures that have not yet reached the freezing point of water. Death is associated with inactivation of enzymes, impaired metabolism of nucleic acids and proteins, membrane permeability, and cessation of the flow of assimilates. These are plants of tropical rainforests, algae of warm seas;

2) non-frost-resistant plants - tolerate low temperatures, but die as soon as ice begins to form in the tissues. With the onset of the cold season, they increase the concentration of osmotically active substances in the cell sap and cytoplasm, which lowers the freezing point to - (5-7) ° C. The water in the cells can cool below freezing without immediate ice formation. The supercooled state is unstable and lasts most often for several hours, which, however, allows plants to endure frosts. Such are some evergreen subtropical plants - laurels, lemons, etc.;

3) ice-resistant, or frost-resistant, plants - grow in areas with a seasonal climate, with cold winters. During severe frosts, the above-ground organs of trees and shrubs freeze through, but nevertheless remain viable, since crystalline ice is not formed in the cells. Plants are prepared for the transfer of frost gradually, undergoing preliminary hardening after the growth processes are completed. Hardening consists in the accumulation in cells of sugars (up to 20-30%), derivatives of carbohydrates, some amino acids and other protective substances that bind water. At the same time, the frost resistance of cells increases, since the bound water is more difficult to be drawn off by ice crystals formed in the extracellular spaces.

Thaws in the middle, and especially at the end of winter, cause a rapid decrease in plant resistance to frost. After the end of winter dormancy, hardening is lost. Spring frosts, which come suddenly, can damage shoots that have begun to grow, and especially flowers, even in frost-resistant plants.

According to the degree of adaptation to high temperatures, the following groups of plants can be distinguished:

1) non-heat-resistant plants are damaged already at + (30-40) ° С (eukaryotic algae, aquatic flowering, terrestrial mesophytes);

2) heat-tolerant plants tolerate half an hour heating up to + (50-60) ° С (plants of dry habitats with strong insolation - steppes, deserts, savannas, dry subtropics, etc.).

Some plants are regularly affected by fires, when the temperature briefly rises to hundreds of degrees. Fires are especially frequent in savannahs, in dry hardwood forests and shrubs such as chaparral. There is a group of pyrophyte plants that are resistant to fires. Savannah trees have a thick bark on their trunks, impregnated with refractory substances that reliably protect internal tissues. The fruits and seeds of pyrophytes have thick, often lignified integuments that crack when scorched by fire.

Heat resistance (heat tolerance) - the ability of plants to endure the action of high temperatures, overheating. This is a genetically determined trait. According to heat resistance, three groups of plants are distinguished.

Heat-resistant - thermophilic blue-green algae and bacteria of hot mineral springs that can tolerate temperature rises up to 75-100 ° C. The heat resistance of thermophilic microorganisms is determined by a high level of metabolism, an increased content of RNA in cells, and resistance of the cytoplasmic protein to thermal coagulation.

Heat-tolerant - plants of deserts and dry habitats (succulents, some cacti, members of the Crassula family), withstanding heating by sunlight up to 50-65 ° C. The heat resistance of succulents is largely determined by the increased viscosity of the cytoplasm and the content of bound water in the cells, and reduced metabolism.

Not heat-resistant - mesophytic and aquatic plants. Mesophytes of open places endure short-term exposure to temperatures of 40-47°C, shaded places - about 40-42°C, aquatic plants withstand temperatures up to 38-42°C. Of the agricultural crops, heat-loving plants of southern latitudes (sorghum, rice, cotton, castor beans, etc.) are the most heat-tolerant.

Many mesophytes tolerate high air temperatures and avoid overheating due to intensive transpiration, which reduces the temperature of the leaves. More heat-resistant mesophytes are distinguished by increased viscosity of the cytoplasm and increased synthesis of heat-resistant enzyme proteins.

Heat resistance largely depends on the duration of high temperatures and their absolute value. Most agricultural plants begin to suffer when the temperature rises to 35-40°C. At these and higher temperatures, the normal physiological functions of the plant are inhibited, and at a temperature of about 50 ° C, protoplasm coagulation and cell death occur.

Exceeding the optimal temperature level leads to partial or global denaturation of proteins. This causes the destruction of the protein-lipid complexes of the plasma membrane and other cell membranes, leading to the loss of the osmotic properties of the cell.

Under the action of high temperatures in plant cells, the synthesis of stress proteins (heat shock proteins) is induced. Plants in dry, light habitats are more resistant to heat than shade-loving ones.

Heat resistance is largely determined by the phase of growth and development of plants. High temperatures cause the greatest harm to plants in the early stages of their development, since young, actively growing tissues are less stable than old and “resting” ones. Resistance to heat in different plant organs is not the same: underground organs are less resistant, shoots and buds are more resistant.

10 . Physiological and biochemical basics non-specific and specific reactions on the stress

Nonspecific are the same type of reactions of the body to the action of heterogeneous stressors or different organisms to the same stress factor. Specific reactions include responses that differ qualitatively depending on the factor and genotype.

The primary nonspecific processes occurring in plant cells under the action of any stressors include the following:

1. Increased membrane permeability, depolarization of the membrane potential of the plasmalemma.

2. Entry of calcium ions into the cytoplasm from cell walls and intracellular compartments (vacuole, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria).

3. Shift in the pH of the cytoplasm to the acid side.

4. Activation of the assembly of actin microfilaments of the cytoskeleton, resulting in an increase in the viscosity and light scattering of the cytoplasm.

5. Increased oxygen uptake, accelerated consumption of ATP, development of free radical processes.

6. An increase in the content of the amino acid proline, which can form aggregates that behave like hydrophilic colloids and help retain water in the cell. Proline can bind to protein molecules, protecting them from denaturation.

7. Activation of the synthesis of stress proteins.

8. Increased activity of the proton pump in the plasmalemma and, possibly, in the tonoplast, which prevents adverse shifts in ion homeostasis.

9. Strengthening the synthesis of ethylene and abscisic acid, inhibition of division and growth, absorption activity of cells and other physiological processes occurring under normal conditions.

Cross-adaptations or cross-adaptations are adaptations in which the development of resistance to one factor increases resistance to the accompanying one.

In relation to light, all plants, including forest trees, are divided into the following ecological groups:

heliophytes (light-loving), requiring a lot of light and able to tolerate only slight shading (photophilous include almost all cacti and other succulents, many representatives of tropical origin, some subtropical shrubs) pine, wheat, larch (powerful cuticle, many stomata);

sciophytes (shade-loving) - on the contrary, they are content with insignificant lighting and can exist in the shade (various conifers, many ferns, some decorative leafy plants belong to shade-tolerant ones);

shade-tolerant (facultative heliophytes).

Heliophytes. light plants. Inhabitants of open habitats: meadows, steppes, upper tiers of forests, early spring plants, many cultivated plants.

small size of leaves; seasonal dimorphism occurs: leaves are small in spring, larger in summer;

leaves are located at a large angle, sometimes almost vertically;

leaf blade shiny or densely pubescent;

form scattered stands.

Sciophytes. Can't stand strong light. Habitat: lower darkened layers; inhabitants of the deep layers of water bodies. First of all, these are plants growing under the canopy of the forest (oxalis, kostyn, gout).

They are characterized by the following features:

leaves are large, tender;

dark green leaves;

the so-called leaf mosaic is characteristic (that is, a special arrangement of leaves, in which the leaves do not obscure each other as much as possible).

Shade-tolerant. They occupy an intermediate position. They often thrive in normal lighting conditions, but can also tolerate dark conditions. According to their characteristics, they occupy an intermediate position.

The reasons for this difference must be sought, first of all, in the specific features of chlorophyll, then in the different architectonics of the species (in the structure of the shoots, the arrangement and shape of the leaves). By arranging the trees of the forest according to their need for light, which is manifested in their competition when they grow together, and putting the most light-loving in front, we will get approximately the following rows.

1) Larch, birch, aspen, alder

2) ash, oak, elm

3) spruce, linden, hornbeam, beech, fir.

It is a remarkable and biologically important circumstance that almost all trees can tolerate more shading when young than when they are more mature. Further, it should be noted that the ability to tolerate shading is in a certain dependence on the fertility of the soil.

Plants are divided into:

1. long-day 16-20 hours day length - temperate zone, northern latitude,

2. short-day night is equal to day - equatorial latitudes,

3. neutral - American maple, medicinal dandelion, etc.

Shade-tolerant plants, plants (mainly woody, many herbaceous under the canopy of hardwoods, greenhouses, etc.), which tolerate some shading, but develop well in direct sunlight. Physiologically, T. r. characterized by a relatively low intensity of photosynthesis. Leaves T. r. have a number of anatomical and morphological features: the columnar and spongy parenchyma are poorly differentiated, the cells contain a small number (10–40) of chloroplasts, the surface area of ​​which varies within 2–6 cm2 per 1 cm2 of leaf area. A number of plants under the forest canopy (for example, wild hoof, gout, etc.) in early spring, before the leaves of the tree layer open, are physiologically photophilous, and in the summer, when the canopy is closed, they are shade-tolerant.

Shade-tolerant plants are shade-tolerant plants that grow predominantly in shady habitats (unlike light-loving plants, heliophytes), but also develop well in open areas with more or less direct sunlight (unlike shade-loving plants, sciophytes). Shade-tolerant plants are considered in plant ecology as an intermediate group between heliophytes and sciophytes; they are defined as facultative heliophytes.

Features of the morphology and physiology of shade-tolerant plants

The mosaic arrangement of the leaves contributes to a better capture of diffused light. sugar maple leaves

Shade-tolerant plants are characterized by a relatively low intensity of photosynthesis. Their leaves differ from the leaves of heliophytes in a number of important anatomical and morphological features. In the leaf of shade-tolerant plants, columnar and spongy parenchyma are usually poorly differentiated; characterized by enlarged intercellular spaces. The epidermis is rather thin, single-layered, the cells of the epidermis may contain chloroplasts (which is never found in heliophytes). The cuticle is usually thin. Stomata are usually located on both sides of the leaf with an insignificant predominance on the reverse side (in photophilous plants, as a rule, stomata are absent on the front side or are located mainly on the reverse side). Compared with heliophytes, shade-tolerant plants have a significantly lower content of chloroplasts in leaf cells - on average, from 10 to 40 per cell; the total surface of leaf chloroplasts slightly exceeds its area (by a factor of 2–6; while in heliophytes the excess is tenfold).

Some shade-tolerant plants are characterized by the formation of anthocyanin in the cells when growing in bright sun, which gives a reddish or brownish color to the leaves and stems, which is uncharacteristic in the natural habitat conditions. In others, when growing in direct sunlight, a paler color of the leaves is noted.

The appearance of shade-tolerant plants also differs from light-loving ones. Shade-tolerant plants usually have wider, thinner, softer leaves to capture more diffused sunlight. In shape, they are usually flat and smooth (whereas heliophytes often have folded, tubercular leaves). The horizontal arrangement of foliage is characteristic (in heliophytes, leaves are often located at an angle to the light) and leaf mosaic. Forest grasses are usually elongated, tall, have an elongated stem.

Many shade-tolerant plants have a high plasticity of their anatomical structure, depending on the illumination (first of all, this concerns the structure of the leaves). For example, in beech, lilac, and oak, leaves formed in the shade usually have significant anatomical differences from leaves grown in bright sunlight.

Some root crops (radishes, turnips) and spicy plants (parsley, lemon balm, mint) are shade-tolerant. Regarding shade-tolerant common cherry (one of the few shade-tolerant fruit trees); shade-tolerant are some berry bushes (currants, blackberries, some varieties of gooseberries) and herbaceous plants (garden strawberries, lingonberries).

Some shade-tolerant plants are valuable fodder crops. Vetch grown for these purposes is also used as green manure.

15. Light-loving plants and them anatomical and physiological peculiarities

Light-loving plants, heliophytes, plants growing in open places and not enduring long-term shading; For normal growth, they need intense solar or artificial radiation. Mature plants are more photophilous than young ones. K S. r. include both herbaceous (large plantain, water lily, and others) and woody (larch, acacia, and others) plants; have a number of anatomical, morphological and physiological features: relatively thick leaves with small-celled columnar and spongy parenchyma and a large number of stomata. Leaf cells contain from 50 to 300 small chloroplasts, the surface of which is tens of times greater than the surface of the leaf. Compared with shade-tolerant plants, the leaves of S. r. contain more chlorophyll per unit area and less per unit mass of the leaf. A characteristic physiological sign of S. p. - high intensity of photosynthesis, (heliophytes).

Plants that do not tolerate long-term shading. These are plants of open habitats: steppe and meadow grasses, rock lichens, plants of alpine meadows, coastal and aquatic (with floating leaves), early spring herbaceous plants of deciduous forests.

Light-loving trees include: saxaul, honey locust, black locust, albitia, birch, larch, Atlas and Lebanese cedars, Scots pine, common ash, Japanese sophora, white mulberry, squat elm, Amur velvet, walnut, black and white poplar, aspen , common oak; to shrubs - narrow-leaved sucker, amorpha, oleander, etc. Leafy, golden, white-variegated forms of tree species and shrubs are more demanding of light. In light-loving plants, the leaves are usually smaller than in shade-tolerant ones. Their leaf blade is located vertically or at a large angle to the horizontal plane, so that during the day the leaves receive only gliding rays. This arrangement of leaves is typical for eucalyptus, mimosa, acacia, and many steppe herbaceous species. The surface of the leaf is shiny (laurel, magnolia), covered with a light wax coating (cacti, spurge, crassula) or densely pubescent, there is a thick cuticle. The internal structure of the leaf is distinguished by its features: the palisade parenchyma is well developed not only on the upper, but also on the lower side of the leaf, the mesophyll cells are small, without large intercellular spaces, the stomata are small and numerous. photophilous plants. characterized by a high intensity of photosynthesis, slowing down growth processes, more sensitive to the lack of light. Demanding for light changes with the age of the plant and depends on environmental conditions. The same species is more shade tolerant when young. When moving (in culture) a tree species from warm regions to colder regions, its need for light increases, which is also affected by the nutritional conditions of plants. On fertile soil, plants can develop with less intense lighting, on poor soil, the need for light increases.

16. Shade-loving plants and them anatomical and physiological peculiarities

Plants that can't stand strong light. These include, for example, many forest herbs (oxalis, maynik, etc.). When felling the forest, once in the light, they show signs of oppression and die. The highest intensity of photosynthesis is observed in such plants under moderate lighting.

Most agricultural plants begin to suffer when the temperature rises to 35-40°C. At these and higher temperatures, the normal physiological functions of the plant are inhibited, and at a temperature of about 50 ° C, protoplasm coagulation and cell death occur. Exceeding the optimal temperature level leads to partial or global denaturation of proteins. This causes the destruction of the protein-lipid complexes of the plasma membrane and other cell membranes, leading to the loss of the osmotic properties of the cell. As a result, there is a disorganization of many cell functions, a decrease in the rate of various physiological processes. So, at a temperature of 20°C, all cells undergo the process of mitotic division, at 38°C, mitosis is observed in every seventh cell, and an increase in temperature to 42°C reduces the number of dividing cells by 500 times (one dividing cell per 513 non-dividing cells). At maximum temperatures, the consumption of organic substances for respiration exceeds its synthesis, the plant becomes poorer in carbohydrates, and then begins to starve. This is especially pronounced in plants of a more temperate climate (wheat, potatoes, many garden crops).

Photosynthesis is more sensitive to high temperatures than respiration. At suboptimal temperatures, plants stop growing and photoassimilating, which is due to a violation of the activity of enzymes, an increase in respiratory gas exchange, a decrease in its energy efficiency, an increase in the hydrolysis of polymers, in particular protein, and poisoning of the protoplasm with decay products harmful to the plant (ammonia, etc.). In heat-resistant plants, under these conditions, the content of organic acids that bind excess ammonia increases.

Enhanced transpiration provided by a powerful root system can serve as a way to protect against overheating. As a result of transpiration, the temperature of plants sometimes decreases by 10–15°C. Withering plants, with closed stomata, die more easily from overheating than adequately supplied with water. Plants tolerate dry heat more easily than humid heat, since during heat with high air humidity, the regulation of leaf temperature due to transpiration is limited.

An increase in temperature is especially dangerous with strong insolation. To reduce the intensity of exposure to sunlight, plants arrange their leaves vertically, parallel to its rays (erectoid). At the same time, chloroplasts actively move in the cells of the leaf mesophyll, as if moving away from excessive insolation. Plants have developed a system of morphological and physiological adaptations that protect them from thermal damage: a light surface color that reflects insolation; folding and twisting of leaves; pubescence or scales that protect deeper tissues from overheating; thin layers of cork tissue that protect the phloem and cambium; greater thickness of the cuticular layer; a high content of carbohydrates and a low content of water in the cytoplasm, etc. Under field conditions, the combined effect of high temperatures and dehydration is especially destructive. With prolonged and deep wilting, not only photosynthesis is inhibited, but also respiration, which causes a violation of all the basic physiological functions of the plant. High temperatures cause the greatest harm to plants in the early stages of their development, since young, actively growing tissues are less stable than old and “resting” ones. Heat resistance in various plant organs is not the same: underground organs are less stable, shoots and buds are more. Plants react very quickly to heat stress by inductive adaptation. During the formation of generative organs, the heat resistance of annual and biennial plants decreases. The harmful effect of elevated temperatures is one of the most important reasons for the significant reduction in yields of early spring crops when their sowing is delayed. For example, in wheat in the tillering phase, spikelet differentiation occurs in the growing cone. The high temperature of the soil and air leads to damage to the growth cone, speeds up the process and reduces the time for passing through stages IV-V, as a result, the number of spikelets per spike, as well as the number of flowers per spike, decreases, which leads to a decrease in yield.

The development of plants, their growth and other physiological processes take place under certain temperature conditions. Moreover, each type of plant has temperature minima, optima and maxima for each physiological process. Therefore, heat is an important ecological factor that determines the life of an individual plant, the distribution of plant species over the earth's surface, and the formation of vegetation types.

For each plant species, two temperature limits must be distinguished: minimum and maximum, i.e., temperatures at which life processes in plants cease, and the optimum temperature, which is most favorable for plant life. For various physiological processes (photosynthesis, respiration, growth) in the same plant species, the position of these boundaries is not the same. It is also different for phenological phases in tree species. For example, the growth of spruce and fir shoots begins at temperatures from +7 to +10°C, and flowering begins at higher temperatures, above +10°C. Such species as alder, aspen, hazel, willow bloom at lower temperatures, and their shoot growth occurs much later at higher temperatures.

For all life processes of plants, it is characteristic that the optimal temperatures for them are closer to the maximum than to the minimum. If the growth of pine occurs within the temperature range from +7 to +34°, then the optimum temperature is from +25 to +28°.

Seeds of many plants, including woody ones, require preliminary exposure to low temperatures for timely normal germination. The stratification of seeds of some woody plants is based on this principle: ash, linden, euonymus, hawthorn. Also, after the action of low temperatures, the blooming of leaf and flower buds in woody plants occurs faster.

Higher temperatures are better tolerated by plants if they contain little water (especially plant seeds and spores) or if they are dormant (desert plants).

Protection against overheating of plants is transpiration, which significantly lowers the body temperature of the plant. The accumulation of salts in plant cells also increases the resistance of their protoplasm to coagulation under the action of high temperature. This is especially common in desert plants (saxaul, saltwort). In sprouts and annual seedlings of woody plants, high temperature, in addition to drying, sometimes causes opal of the root neck.

The minimum temperature has a large amplitude for various plant species. So, some tropical plants are damaged by cold already at a temperature of + 5 °, and die below zero (for example, some orchids). The reason for the death of plants from the cold is mainly the loss of water by the cells. Ice crystals formed in the intercellular spaces draw water out of the cells, drying them out and destroying them. Therefore, plants and their parts that contain little water are more tolerant of low temperatures (for example, lichens, dry seeds and plant spores).

In many cases, it is not the low temperature itself, which leads to freezing, that is harmful to the plant, but rapid thawing or alternating thawing with freezing. However, some plants, such as sphagnum mosses, although they contain a lot of water, can freeze and thaw quickly without harm to life.

Very low winter temperatures (-40 - 45 °) are tolerated by some tree species without harm (pine, larch, Siberian cedar, birch, aspen), other species are damaged. However, the nature and extent of damage are different. In European spruce, one-year-old needles and even resting buds are partially or completely damaged. In oak, ash, maple, dormant buds die off; in this case, the trees remain without leaves for a long time, until the end of June, until the dormant buds germinate and restore normal crown leafing. Sometimes the resting buds remain intact, but the cambium of the trunk and branches is very badly damaged by frost, which is especially dangerous, because after that the buds open in the spring, but soon the young shoots wither and the tree dies off completely. This is observed in some poplars, young trees of black alder, apple trees.

When the outer parts of the trunk are supercooled during sharp drops in temperature in winter, sometimes a longitudinal rupture of the trunk surface occurs and frost cracks form, which weakens the tree and spoils the quality of the wood. Coniferous trees sometimes suffer from early spring heating, when the thawed needles begin to evaporate water, and water does not yet flow from the frozen parts of the trunk and roots. This phenomenon is called sunburn, it leads to browning of younger, usually one-year-old needles.

Trees react differently to late spring frosts, which occur at the beginning of the growing season, when the temperature in the lower layers of the atmosphere (up to a height of 3–4 m) drops to -3–5 ° at night. Then, in young trees, shoots that have just appeared after bud break are damaged to such an extent that sometimes they die completely; such species include spruce, fir, oak, ash.

In relation to heat, woody plants naturally growing or bred in the USSR are classified as follows:

1. Completely cold-resistant, completely undamaged by low winter temperatures, enduring frosts down to -45-50 °, and some even lower, not damaged by late spring frosts. Such woody plants include Siberian and Dahurian larches, Scots pine, Siberian spruce, Siberian and dwarf cedars, common juniper, aspen, downy and warty birches, gray alder, mountain ash, goat willow, and fragrant poplar.

2. Cold-resistant, enduring severe winters, but damaged by very severe frosts (below -40 °). In some, the needles are damaged, in others, resting buds. Some species of this group are damaged by late spring frosts. These include European spruce, Siberian fir, black alder, small-leaved linden, elm, elm, Norway maple, black and white poplars.

3. Relatively thermophilic with a longer growing season, as a result of which their annual shoots do not always have time to become woody and are partially or completely beaten by frost; all plants are severely damaged by very low winter temperatures; many of them are damaged by late spring frosts. Such species include summer and winter oaks, common ash, large-leaved linden, hornbeam, birch bark, velvet tree, Manchurian walnut, euonymus, Canadian poplar.

4. Heat-loving with an even longer growing season, their shoots often do not ripen and die from frost. In severe prolonged frosts in such plants, the completely aerial part dies, and its renewal occurs from dormant buds at the root neck. Such species include pyramidal poplar, walnut, real chestnut, mulberry, white acacia.

5. Very heat-loving, which do not tolerate or do not tolerate prolonged frosts down to -10-15 °. At this temperature for several days they either die completely or are badly damaged; these include real cedar, cypress, eucalyptus, citrus fruits, cork oak, large-flowered magnolia, silk acacia.

A sharp boundary between these groups cannot be drawn; many woody plants occupy an intermediate position. The increase in cold resistance of the same species also depends on the growing conditions. However, all this does not exclude the need for a comparative characterization and classification of woody plants in relation to heat.

ADAPTATION

Adaptation- a systemic, stage-by-stage process of adapting the body to factors of unusual strength, duration or nature (stress factors).

The adaptation process is characterized by phase changes in vital activity, which provide an increase in the body's resistance to the factor affecting it, and often to stimuli of a different nature (the phenomenon of cross-adaptation). For the first time, the concept of the adaptation process was formulated by Selye in 1935-1936. G. Selye singled out the general and local form of the process.

The general (generalized, systemic) adaptation process is characterized by the involvement of all or most organs and physiological systems of the body in response.

The local adaptation process is observed in individual tissues or organs during their alteration. However, local adaptation syndrome is also formed with more or less participation of the whole organism.

If the current stress factor is characterized by high (destructive) intensity or excessive duration, then the development of the adaptation process can be combined with a violation of the body's vital functions, the occurrence of various diseases, or even its death.

Adaptation of the body to stress factors is characterized by the activation of specific and non-specific reactions and processes.

Specific Component the development of adaptation ensures the adaptation of the body to the action of a specific factor (for example, to hypoxia, cold, physical activity, a significant excess or deficiency of a substance, etc.).

Non-specific component The adaptation mechanism consists in general, standard, non-specific changes in the body that occur when exposed to any factor of unusual strength, nature or duration. These changes are described as stress.

Etiology of the adaptation syndrome

Causes adaptation syndrome is divided into exogenous and endogenous. Most often, the adaptation syndrome is caused by exogenous agents of various nature.

Exogenous factors:

♦ Physical: significant fluctuations in atmospheric pressure, temperature, significant increased or decreased physical activity, gravitational overload.

♦ Chemical: deficiency or increased oxygen content in the inhaled air, starvation, lack or excess of fluid entering the body, intoxication of the body with chemicals.

♦ Biological: infection of the body and intoxication with exogenous biologically active substances.

Endogenous causes:

♦ Lack of functions of tissues, organs and their physiological systems.

♦ Deficiency or excess of endogenous biologically active substances (hormones, enzymes, cytokines, peptides, etc.).

Conditions, affecting the emergence and development of the adaptation syndrome:

The state of reactivity of the organism. It is on it that the possibility (or impossibility) of occurrence, as well as the features of the dynamics of this process, largely depend.

Specific conditions under which pathogenic factors act on the body (for example, high air humidity and the presence of wind exacerbate the pathogenic effect of low temperature; insufficient activity of liver microsomal enzymes leads to the accumulation of toxic metabolic products in the body).

Stages of the adaptation syndromeSTAGE OF EMERGENCY ADAPTATION

The first stage of the adaptation syndrome is urgent (emergency) adaptation- consists in the mobilization of pre-existing compensatory, protective and adaptive mechanisms in the body. This is manifested by a triad of regular changes.

Significant activation of the "exploratory" behavioral activity of the individual, aimed at obtaining maximum information about the emergency factor and the consequences of its action.

Hyperfunction of many body systems, but mainly those that directly (specifically) provide adaptation to this factor. These systems (physiological and functional) are called dominant.

Mobilization of organs and physiological systems (cardiovascular, respiratory, blood, IBN, tissue metabolism, etc.), which respond to the impact of any factor that is extraordinary for a given organism. The totality of these reactions is designated as a non-specific - stress component of the adaptation syndrome mechanism.

The development of urgent adaptation is based on several interrelated mechanisms.

♦ Activation of the nervous and endocrine systems. It leads to an increase in the blood and other body fluids of hormones and neurotransmitters: adrenaline, norepinephrine, glucagon, gluco- and mineralocorticoids, thyroid hormones, etc. They stimulate catabolic processes in cells, the function of organs and tissues of the body.

♦ Increase in the content in tissues and cells of various local "mobilizers" of functions - Ca 2+ , a number of cytokines, peptides, nucleotides and others. They activate protein kinases and the processes catalyzed by them (lipolysis, glycolysis, proteolysis, etc.).

♦ Changes in the physicochemical state of the membrane apparatus of cells, as well as the activity of enzymes. This is achieved due to the intensification of LPO, activation of phospholipases, lipases and proteases, which facilitates the implementation of transmembrane processes, changes the sensitivity and number of receptor structures.

♦ Significant and prolonged increase in organ function, consumption of metabolic substrates and macroergic nucleotides, relative insufficiency of tissue blood supply. This may be accompanied by the development of dystrophic changes in them and even necrosis. As a result, at the stage of urgent adaptation, the development of diseases, disease states and pathological processes (for example, ulcerative changes in the gastrointestinal tract, arterial hypertension, immunopathological conditions, neuropsychiatric disorders, myocardial infarction, etc.), and even death of the body, is possible.

The biological meaning of the reactions developing at the stage of urgent adaptation is to create the conditions necessary for

so that the body "holds on" until the stage of formation of its stable increased resistance to the action of an extreme factor.

The second stage of the adaptation syndrome - increased stable resistance, or long-term adaptation of the body to the action of an emergency factor. It includes the following processes.

The formation of a state of resistance of the organism to both a specific agent that caused adaptation, and often to other factors.

Increasing the power and reliability of the functions of organs and physiological systems, providing adaptation to a certain factor. In the endocrine glands, effector tissues and organs, an increase in the number or mass of structural elements (i.e., their hypertrophy and hyperplasia) is observed. The complex of such changes is designated as a systemic structural trace of the adaptation process.

Elimination of signs of stress reactions and achievement of a state of effective adaptation of the body to the extraordinary factor that caused the adaptation process. As a result, a reliable, stable system of adaptation of the body to changing environmental conditions is formed.

Additional energy and plastic supply of cells of dominant systems. This is combined with a limited supply of oxygen and metabolic substrates to other body systems.

With the repeated development of the adaptation process, hyperfunction and pathological hypertrophy of the cells of the dominant systems are possible. This leads to a violation of their plastic support, inhibition of the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins in them, disorders in the renewal of structural elements of cells and their death.

EXHAUST STAGE

This step is optional. With the development of the stage of exhaustion (or wear), the processes underlying it can cause the development of diseases and even the death of the organism. Such states are referred to as adaptation diseases(more precisely, its violations) - maladaptation. An important and necessary component of the adaptation syndrome is stress. However, in a large number of cases it can develop as an independent process.

STRESS

Stress is a generalized non-specific response of the body to the impact of various factors of an unusual nature, strength or duration.

Stress is characterized by staged non-specific activation of protective processes and an increase in the overall resistance of the body, with a possible subsequent decrease in it and the development of pathological processes and reactions.

The causes of stress are the same factors that cause the adaptation syndrome (see above).

FEATURES OF STRESS

The impact of any emergency factor causes two interrelated processes in the body:

♦ specific adaptation to this factor;

♦ activation of standard, non-specific reactions that develop under the influence of any unusual effect for the body (stress itself).

Stress is an obligatory link in the process of urgent adaptation of the body to the effects of any emergency factor.

Stress precedes the development of the stage of stable resistance of the adaptation syndrome and contributes to the formation of this stage.

With the development of an increased resistance of the organism to an emergency factor, a violation of homeostasis is eliminated, and stress stops.

If, for some reason, increased resistance of the body is not formed (and in connection with this, deviations of the body's homeostasis parameters persist or even increase), then the state of stress also persists.

Stages of stress

During the development of stress, the stages of anxiety, resistance and exhaustion are distinguished.

ALARM STAGE

The first stage of stress is the general anxiety reaction.

In response to stress factors, the flow of afferent signals increases, changing the activity of the cortical and subcortical nerve centers regulating the vital activity of the body.

In the nerve centers, a program of efferent signals is urgently formed, which is realized with the participation of nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation.

Due to this, at the anxiety stage, the sympathoadrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal systems (they play a key role in the development of stress), as well as the endocrine glands (thyroid, pancreas, etc.) are naturally activated.

These mechanisms, being a non-specific component of the stage of urgent (emergency) adaptation of the general adaptation syndrome, ensure the body's escape from the action of a damaging factor or from extreme conditions of existence; formation of increased resistance to altering influence; the necessary level of functioning of the body even with continued exposure to an emergency agent.

At the anxiety stage, the transport of energy, metabolic and plastic resources to the dominant organs is enhanced. A significantly pronounced or prolonged stage of anxiety can lead to the development of dystrophic changes, malnutrition and necrosis of individual organs and tissues.

STAGE OF INCREASED RESISTANCE

At the second stage of stress, the functioning of organs and their systems, the intensity of metabolism, the levels of hormones and metabolic substrates are normalized. These changes are based on hypertrophy or hyperplasia of the structural elements of tissues and organs that ensure the development of increased body resistance: endocrine glands, heart, liver, hematopoietic organs, and others.

If the cause that caused stress continues to operate, and the above mechanisms become insufficient, the next stage of stress develops - exhaustion.

EXHAUST STAGE

This stage of stress is characterized by a disorder in the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation, the dominance of catabolic processes in tissues and organs, and a violation of their functioning. Ultimately, the overall resistance and adaptability of the organism decreases, and its vital activity is disrupted.

These deviations are caused by a complex of nonspecific pathogenic changes in various organs and tissues of the body.

♦ Excessive activation of phospholipases, lipases and LPOL damages the lipid-containing components of cell membranes and their associated enzymes. As a result, transmembrane and intracellular processes are upset.

♦ High concentration of catecholamines, glucocorticoids, ADH, growth hormone causes excessive mobilization of glucose, lipids and protein compounds in various tissues. This leads to a deficiency of substances, the development of dystrophic processes and even cell necrosis.

Redistribution of blood flow in favor of the dominant systems. In other organs, hypoperfusion is noted, which is accompanied by the development of dystrophies, erosions and ulcers in them.

Reducing the efficiency of the IBN system and the formation of immunodeficiencies with excessively long, severe, and repeated stress.

Types of stress

According to the biological significance, stress can be divided into adaptive and pathogenic.

adaptive stress

If the activation of the functions of organs and their systems in a given individual under the action of a stressor agent prevents homeostasis disturbances, then a state of increased resistance of the organism may form. In such cases, stress has an adaptive value. Under the action of the same emergency factor on the organism in its adapted state, as a rule, no disturbances in vital activity are observed. Moreover, repeated exposure to a stress agent of moderate strength at certain intervals (necessary for the implementation of recovery processes) forms a stable, long-term increased resistance of the organism to this and other influences.

The nonspecific adaptive property of the repeated action of various stress factors of moderate strength (hypoxia, physical activity, cooling, overheating, and others) is used to artificially increase the body's resistance to stress factors and prevent their damaging effects. For the same purpose, courses of so-called non-specific therapeutic procedures are carried out: pyrotherapy, dousing with cool or hot water, various shower options, autohemotherapy, physical activity, periodic exposure to moderate hypobaric hypoxia (in pressure chambers), etc.

Pathogenic stress

Excessively long or frequent repeated exposure to a strong stress agent on the body that is not able to prevent

disruption of homeostasis can lead to significant disorders of life and the development of an extreme (collapse, shock, coma) or even a terminal state.

Antistress mechanisms

In most cases, the development of stress, even significantly pronounced, does not cause damage to organs and disorders of the body's vital functions. Moreover, often the stress itself is quickly eliminated. This means that under the influence of an emergency agent in the body, along with the activation of the mechanism of stress development, factors begin to act that limit its intensity and duration. Their combination is referred to as stress-limiting factors, or anti-stress mechanisms of the body.

MECHANISMS OF REALIZATION OF ANTI-STRESS REACTIONS

Limitation of stress and its pathogenic effects in the body is realized with the participation of a complex of interrelated factors. They are activated at the level of both central regulatory mechanisms and peripheral (executive) organs.

In the brain antistress mechanisms are realized with the participation of GABAergic, dopaminergic, opioidergic, serotonergic neurons and, possibly, neurons of other chemical specifications.

In peripheral organs and tissues Pg, adenosine, acetylcholine, factors of antioxidant protection of tissues and organs have a stress-limiting effect. These and other substances prevent or significantly reduce stress intensification of free radical processes, release and activation of lysosome hydrolases, prevent stress-dependent organ ischemia, ulcerative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, and degenerative changes in tissues.

Principles of stress management

Pharmacological correction of stress is based on the principles of optimizing the functions of stress-initiating systems, as well as preventing, reducing or eliminating changes in tissues and organs under conditions of developing stress.

Optimization of the functions of stress-initiating systems organism (sympathetic-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal). When exposed to stress factors, inadequate reactions may develop: excessive or insufficient. To a large extent, the severity of these reactions depends on their emotional perception.

♦ Various classes of tranquilizers are used to prevent inappropriate stress responses. The latter contribute to the elimination of the state of asthenia, irritability, tension, fear.

♦ In order to normalize the state of stress-initiating systems, drugs are used that block their effects when they are excessively activated (adrenolytics, adrenoblockers, "antagonists" of corticosteroids) or potentiate them when these systems are deficient (catecholamines, gluco- and mineralocorticoids).

Process correction, developing in tissues and organs under stress is achieved in two ways.

♦ Activation of central and peripheral anti-stress mechanisms (use of GABA preparations, antioxidants, Pg, adenosine or stimulation of their formation in tissues).

To understand the role of the stress response in the body's adaptation to the action of stressors and the occurrence of stress damage, let's consider 5 main, largely interconnected effects of the stress response, due to which an "urgent" adaptation to environmental factors is formed at the level of systems, organs, cells, and which can turn into damaging effects of stress responses.

First adaptive effect of the stress response consists in mobilizing the function of organs and tissues by activating the most ancient signaling mechanism of cell stimulation, namely, increasing the concentration in the cytoplasm of the universal function mobilizer - calcium, as well as by activating key regulatory enzymes - protein kinases. During a stress reaction, an increase in the concentration of Ca 2 * in the cell and activation of intracellular processes are carried out due to two factors accompanying the stress reaction.

Firstly, under the influence of a stress increase in the level of parathyroid hormone (parathyroid hormone) in the blood, Ca 2 * is released from the bones and its content in the blood increases, which contributes to an increase in the entry of this cation into the cells of the organs responsible for adaptation.

· Secondly, the increased "release" of catecholamines and other hormones ensures their increased interaction with the corresponding cell receptors, resulting in activation of the entry mechanism. Ca 2+ into the cell, increasing its intracellular concentration, potentiating the activation of protein kinases and, as a result, activation of intracellular processes.

Let's consider this in more detail. The excitation impulse coming to the cell causes depolarization of the cell membrane, which leads to the opening of voltage-dependent Ca 2+ channels, the entry of extracellular Ca 2+ into the cell, the release of Ca 2+ from the depot, i.e. from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SPR) and mitochondria, and an increase in the concentration of this cation in the sarcoplasm. Connecting with its intracellular calmodulin (CM) receptor, Ca 2+ activates the KM-dependent protein kinase, which "starts" intracellular processes leading to the mobilization of cell function. At the same time, Ca 2+ is involved in the activation of the genetic apparatus of the cell. Hormones and mediators, acting on the corresponding receptors in the membrane, potentiate the activation of these processes through secondary messengers formed in the cell with the help of enzymes coupled to the receptors. The impact on a-adrenergic receptors activates the enzyme phospholipase C coupled to it, with its help, secondary messengers diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IFz) are formed from the phosphatidylinositol membrane phospholipid. DAG activates protein kinase C (PC-C), IGF stimulates the release of Ca 2+ from the SPR, which potentiates calcium-induced processes. Impact on p-adrenergic receptors, a-adrenergic receptors and vasopressin receptors (V) leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase and the formation of the second messenger cAMP; the latter activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAMP-PK), which potentiates cellular processes, as well as the work of voltage-dependent Ca 2+ channels through which Ca 2+ enters the cell. Glucocorticoids, penetrating the cell, interact with intracellular steroid hormone receptors and activate the genetic apparatus.

Protein kinases play a dual role.

Firstly, they activate the processes responsible for cell function: the release of the corresponding "secret" is stimulated in secretory cells, contraction is enhanced in muscle cells, etc. At the same time, they activate the processes of energy production in mitochondria, as well as in the system of glycolytic formation of ATP. Thus, the function of the cell and organs as a whole is mobilized.

Secondly, protein kinases are involved in the activation of the genetic apparatus of the cell, i.e., the processes occurring in the nucleus, causing the expression of genes for regulatory and structural "proteins, which leads to the formation of the corresponding mRNA, the synthesis of these proteins and the renewal and growth of cell structures, Responsible for adaptation Under repeated actions of a stressor, this ensures the formation of a structural basis for sustainable adaptation to a given stressor.

However, with an excessively strong and/or prolonged stress reaction, when the content of Ca 2+ and Na + in the cell increases excessively, an increasing excess of Ca 2+ can lead to cell damage. In relation to the heart, this situation causes a cardiotoxic effect: the so-called "calcium triad" of damage to cellular structures by excess calcium is realized, which consists of irreversible contracture damage to myofibrils, impaired function of calcium-overloaded mitochondria, and activation of myofibrillar proteases and mitochondrial phospholipases. All this can lead to dysfunction of cardiomyocytes and even to their death and the development of focal myocardial necrosis.

The second adaptive effect of the stress response is that "stress" hormones - catecholamines, vasopressin, etc. - directly or indirectly through the appropriate receptors activate lipases, phospholipases and increase the intensity of free radical lipid oxidation (FRO). This is realized by increasing the calcium content in the cell and activating calcium-dependent calmodulin protein kinases, as well as by increasing the activity of DAG and cAMP-dependent protein kinases PC-C and cAMP-PC. As a result, the content of free fatty acids, FRO products, and phospholipids increases in the cell. This lipotropic effect of the stress response changes the structural organization, phospholipid and fatty acid composition of the lipid bilayer of membranes and thereby changes the lipid environment of membrane-bound functional proteins, i.e. enzymes, receptors. As a result of the migration of phospholipids and the formation of lysophospholipids with detergent properties, the viscosity decreases and the "fluidity" of the membrane increases.

The activation of FRO in the heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and other organs has been proven during a stress reaction or administration of catecholamines.

The adaptive value of the lipotropic effect of the stress response is obviously large, since this effect can quickly optimize the activity of all membrane-bound proteins, and hence the function of cells and the organ as a whole, and thus contribute to the urgent adaptation of the organism to the action of environmental factors. However, with an excessively long and intense stress reaction, the enhancement of precisely this effect, i.e. excessive activation of phospholipases, lipases, and FROs can lead to membrane damage and acquire a key role in transforming the adaptive effect of the stress response into a damaging one.

In this case, free fatty acids, which accumulate as a result of excessive hydrolysis of triglycerides by lipases and during the hydrolysis of phospholipids by phospholipases, as well as lysophospholipids resulting from the hydrolysis of phospholipids, become damaging factors. As a result, the structure of the membrane bilayer changes. At high concentrations, such compounds form micelles that "break" the membrane and violate its integrity. As a result, the permeability of cell membranes for ions and especially for Ca 2+ increases.

FRO activation products also become damaging factors for the lipotropic effect during an intense or protracted stress reaction. With the progression of FRO, an increasing number of unsaturated phospholipids are oxidized and the proportion of saturated phospholipids in the microenvironment of functional proteins increases in membranes. This leads to a decrease in the fluidity of the membrane and the mobility of the peptide chains of these proteins. The phenomenon of "freezing" of these proteins into a more "rigid" lipid matrix occurs and, as a result, the activity of the proteins decreases or is completely blocked.

Thus, excessive enhancement of the lipotropic effect of the stress response, i.e. its “lipid triad” (activation of lipases and phospholipases, activation of FROs and an increase in free fatty acids) can lead to “damage to biomembranes, which plays a key role in the inactivation of ion channels, receptors and ion pumps. As a result, the adaptive lipotropic effect of the stress response can turn into a damaging effect.

The third adaptive effect of the stress response is in the mobilization of energy and structural resources of the body, which is expressed in an increase in the concentration of glucose, fatty acids, nucleic acids, amino acids in the blood; as well as in the mobilization of the circulatory function of respiration. This effect leads to an increase in the availability of oxidation substrates, initial products of biosynthesis and oxygen for organs whose work is increased. At the same time, glucagon is released under stress somewhat later than catecholamines and, as it were, duplicates and reinforces the effect of catecholamines. This is of particular importance in conditions where the effect of catecholamines is not fully realized due to desensitization of p-adrenergic receptors caused by an excess of catecholamines. In this case, the activation of adenylate cyclase is carried out through glucagon receptors (Tkachuk, 1987v.). Another source of glucose is the activation of protein hydrolysis and an increase in the pool of free amino acids, as well as the activation of gluconeogenesis in the liver and skeletal muscles, arising under the influence of glucocorticoids and, to a certain extent, parathyroid hormone. At the same time, glucocortioids, acting on their receptors at the level of the cell nucleus, stimulate the synthesis of key enzymes of gluconeogenesis, glucose-6-phosphatase, phosphoethanolpy-ruvate carboxykinase "and" others "(G6likbvG1988"). The result of activation of gluconeogenesis is the transamination of amino acids and the formation of of glucose.It is important that both hormonal mechanisms of glucose mobilization during the stress response ensure the timely supply of glucose to such vital organs as the brain and heart.In the stress response associated with acute exercise, the stress response arising under the influence of glucocorticoids in skeletal in muscles, activation of the glucose-adenine cycle, which ensures the formation of glucose from amino acids directly in muscle tissue.

In the mobilization of fat depots under stress, catecholamines and glucagon play the main role, which indirectly activate lipases and lipoprotein lipases in adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and the heart through the adenylate cyclase system. In the hydrolysis of blood triglycerides, apparently, parathyroid hormone and vasopressin play a role, the secretion of which increases during stress, as mentioned above. The pool of fatty acids thus formed is utilized in the heart and skeletal muscles. In general, the mobilization of energy and structural resources is quite pronounced during the stress reaction and provides an "urgent" adaptation of the body to a stressful situation, i.e. is an adaptive factor. However, under conditions of a prolonged intense stress reaction, when there is no formation of "structural traces of adaptation", in other words, there is no increase in the power of the energy supply system, intensive mobilization of resources ceases to be an adaptive factor and leads to progressive depletion of the organism.

The fourth adaptive effect of the stress response can be designated as "directed transfer of energy and structural resources to a functional system that implements a given adaptive response." One of the important factors of this selective redistribution of resources is the well-known, local in its form "working hyperemia" in the organs of the system responsible for adaptation, which is simultaneously accompanied by vasoconstriction of "inactive" organs. Indeed, during a stress reaction caused by acute physical activity, the fraction of the minute volume of blood flowing through skeletal muscles increases by 4-5 times, and in the digestive organs and kidneys, on the contrary, this indicator decreases by 5-7 times compared to the state of rest. . It is known that under stress, an increase in coronary blood flow develops, which provides an increased function of the heart. The main role in the implementation of this effect of the stress response belongs to catecholamines, vasolressin and angiotensin, as well as substance P. The key local factor in "working hyperemia" is nitric oxide (N0) produced by the vascular endothelium. "Working hyperemia" provides an increased supply of oxygen and substrates to the working organ by vasodilation in this organ

Obviously, the redistribution of the body's resources under stress, aimed at predominantly providing the organs and tissues responsible for adaptation, regardless of its mechanism, is an important adaptive phenomenon. At the same time, with an excessively pronounced stress reaction, it can be accompanied by ischemic dysfunction and even damage to other organs that are not directly involved in this adaptive reaction. For example, ischemic ulcers of the gastrointestinal tract that occur in athletes during heavy prolonged emotional and physical stress.

Fifth adaptive effect of the stress response consists in the fact that with a single sufficiently strong stress effect, after the well-known "catabolic phase" of the stress reaction considered above (the third adaptive effect), a much longer "anabolic phase" is realized. It is manifested by a generalized activation of the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins in various organs. This activation ensures the restoration of structures damaged in the catabolic phase and is the basis for the formation of structural "traces" and the development of stable adaptation to various environmental factors. This adaptive effect is based on hormonal activation of the formation of second messengers of interferon and DAG, an increase in the level of calcium in the cell, as well as the effect of glucocorticoids on the cell. In addition to mobilizing the function of the cell and its energy supply, this process has an "output" to the genetic apparatus of the cell, which leads to the activation of protein synthesis. In addition, it has been shown that in the process of unfolding the stress response, the secretion of somatotropic hormone (growth hormone), insulin, thyroxine, “inhibited” at the beginning of the reaction, is activated, which potentiate protein synthesis and can play a role in the development of the anabolic phase of the stress response and activation of cell growth. structures, which accounted for the greatest load during stress mobilization of cell function. However, it should be borne in mind that the excessive activation of this adaptive effect, apparently; can lead to unregulated cell growth.

In general, it can be concluded that with a prolonged intense stress reaction, all the considered main adaptive effects are transformed into damaging ones, and this is how they can become the basis of stress diseases.

The effectiveness of the adaptive response to stress and the likelihood of stress damage and disease are largely determined, in addition to the intensity and duration of the stressor, by the state of the stress system: its basal (initial) activity and reactivity, i.e., the degree of activation under stress, which are genetically determined , but may change in the course of individual life.

Chronically increased basal activity of the stress system and/or its excessive activation during stress are accompanied by high blood pressure, dysfunction of the digestive organs, and immune suppression. In this case, cardiovascular and other diseases can develop. Decreased basal activity of the stress system and/or its inadequate activation under stress are also unfavorable. They lead to a decrease in the body's ability to adapt to the environment, to solve life problems, to the development of depressive and other pathological conditions.