Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals. Logistics of discipline
1. The concept of physiology as a science
Knowledge of the fundamentals of the biology of farm animals is the basis for the successful development of animal husbandry. A significant increase in the productivity and fertility of animals is impossible without a deep and comprehensive study of the processes occurring in the animal's body. The study of these processes and is engaged in physiology.
Physiology (from the Greek Physis - nature and ... ology) of animals and humans is the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and the regulation of physiological functions. Physiology also studies the patterns of interaction of living organisms with the environment, their behavior in various conditions..
Investigating the mechanisms and regularities of the vital processes of organs and tissues in the body, physiology answers the questions: why, why and how. Knowing the answers, it is possible to plan targeted impacts in order to change certain organs and systems of the body and correct their change or development in the right direction.
Distinguish:
comparative physiology(studies physiological processes in their phylogenetic development in different species of invertebrates and vertebrates).
evolutionary physiology, which studies the origin and evolution of life processes in connection with the general evolution of the organic world.
Age physiology, which studies the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body in the process of ontogenesis - from the fertilization of the egg until the end of life.
environmental physiology, investigating the features of the functioning of various physiological systems and the organism as a whole, depending on living conditions, that is, the physiological basis of adaptations (adaptations) to various environmental factors.
Also, physiology is conditionally divided into normal and pathological.
normal physiology predominantly explores the laws of a healthy organism, its interaction with the environment, the mechanisms of stability and adaptation of functions to the action of various factors.
pathological physiology studies the altered functions of the diseased organism, the processes of compensation, the adaptation of individual physiological functions in various diseases, the mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation. Branch of pathophysiology - clinical physiology, which studies the occurrence and course of functional functions (for example, blood circulation, digestion, GNI) in diseases.
Physiological science can be systematized depending on what is the object of study. So, if it is the nervous system, they talk about the physiology of the central, autonomic nervous system, the physiology of the heart, respiration, kidneys, etc.
2. Connection of physiology with other scientific disciplines
Physiology, as a branch of biology, is closely related to the morphological sciences - anatomy, histology, cytology, because. morphological and physiological phenomena are interdependent. For example, the structure of mechanoreceptors and their location, the structure of a nerve cell and the transmission of excitation. There are thousands of such examples.
The study of metabolism, blood buffer systems is impossible without the involvement of chemistry data (in particular, biochemistry), as well as the humoral regulation of body functions. Knowledge of physics (biophysics) is necessary to understand the essence of the processes of osmosis and diffusion in cells, geodynamics, etc. Physiology is traditionally most closely associated with medicine, which uses its achievements to recognize, prevent and treat various diseases. The physiology of farm animals is directly related to animal husbandry, zootechnics, and veterinary medicine.
3. Methods of physiological research
The study of the functions of a living organism is based both on physiological methods proper and on the methods of physics, chemistry, mathematics, cybernetics, and other sciences. Such an integrated approach makes it possible to study physiological processes at various levels, incl. on the cellular and molecular.
The main methods of physiology are: observation and experiment (experiment), carried out on different animals and in different forms. Physiology is an experimental science. An experiment is the main mechanism for the cognition of physiology, and in order to study physiological processes, it is necessary to create and maintain all the natural conditions for its course. However, any experiment performed on an animal under artificial conditions has no absolute significance, and its results cannot be unconditionally transferred to an animal under natural conditions. The effectiveness of such results is tested in practice.
The main methods of studying physiology:
Extirpation is the removal of an organ or part of it from the body and subsequent monitoring of the consequences of the intervention.
Transplantation is the transfer of an organ to a new location or to another organism.
The imposition of a fistula - the creation of an artificial organ duct into the external environment; catheterization - the introduction of thin tubes (catheters) into blood vessels, gland ducts, hollow organs, which allows obtaining blood samples, secretions, etc. at the right time.
Electrophysiological method - registration of intracellular bioelectric processes of generation of membrane potential and action potential using various devices (electrocardiography - recording of heart biocurrents, electroencephalography - recording of brain biocurrents, etc.).
Depending on the task of the study, there are:
O strict experiment- a short-term experiment performed on an anesthetized or immobilized animal (artificial isolation of organs and tissues, excision and artificial irritation of various organs, removal of various biological information with its subsequent analysis).
- Chronic experience allows you to repeatedly repeat studies on the same object. In a chronic experiment in physiology, various methodological techniques are used: the imposition of fistulas, the removal of the organs under study into a skin flap, heterogeneous anastomoses of nerves, organ transplantation, implantation of electrodes, etc. Finally, in chronic conditions, complex forms of behavior are studied using conditioned reflex techniques or various instrumental methods in combination with stimulation of brain structures and recording of bioelectrical activity.
With the development of technology, it became possible to study the object by taking the physiological characteristics of various organs and systems using biotelemetry. With the introduction of highly sensitive and high-precision electronic equipment instead of mechanical devices, it became possible to study the function of integral organs (electrocardiography, electroencephalography, electromyography, rheography, etc. The use of an electron microscope made it possible to study in detail the structural features of the nervous system, in particular synapses and determine their specificity in various The introduction of ultrasonic research methods, NMR, tomography, significantly expands our understanding of the structure and functions of cells, tissues, organs, physiological systems and the body as a whole.
Clinical and functional tests in animals, also one of the forms of physiological experiment. A special type of physiological research methods is the artificial reproduction of pathological processes in animals (cancer, hypertension, ulcers, etc.).
One of the forms of studying physiological functions is the modeling of physiological processes (bioprostheses, artificial kidney, etc.). With the development of computers, the possibilities of modeling functions have expanded significantly.
Naturally, the arsenal of methods for studying physiological processes is not limited to this. New methods of research in other sciences sooner or later find application in physiology, as happened, for example, with spectroscopy. With the exponential growth of empirical facts and experimental data, the role of such methods of cognition as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction increases.
4. Brief history of the development of physiology
Initial information in the field of physiology was obtained in ancient times on the basis of empirical observations of naturalists, doctors, and especially during anatomical dissections of animal and human corpses. For many centuries, views on the body and its functions were dominated by ideas Hippocrates(5th century BC) and Aristotle (4th century BC). Significant progress in physiology was determined by the widespread introduction of vivisection experiments, which began in ancient Rome. Galen(2nd century BC).
In the Middle Ages, the accumulation of biological knowledge was determined mainly by the demands of medicine. During the Renaissance, the development of physiology contributed to the general progress of the sciences. Physiology, as a science, originates from the work of an English doctor W. Harvey, which by the discovery of the circulation of the blood (1628). Harvey formulated ideas about the large and small circles of blood circulation and about the heart as the engine of blood in the body. He was the first to establish that blood flows from the heart through the arteries and returns to it through the veins. The basis for the discovery of blood circulation was prepared by the study of anatomists A. Veziliya, Spanish scientist M. Serveta(1553), Italian R. Colombo(1551), G. Fallopia and other Italian biologist M. Malpighi(1661), who first described capillaries, proved the correctness of ideas about blood circulation.
The leading achievement of Physiology, which determined its subsequent materialistic orientation, was the discovery in the 1st half of the 17th century by the French scientist R. Descartes and later (18th century) Czech doctor J. Prohaska reflex principle, according to which any activity is a reflection - a reflex - of external influences, carried out through the central nervous system. Descartes assumed that sensory nerves are actuators that stretch when stimulated and open valves on the surface of the brain. Through these valves, “life-giving spirits” exit, which are sent to the muscles and cause them to contract.
The discovery of reflexes dealt the first crushing blow to ecclesiastical idealistic ideas about the mechanisms of behavior of living beings. Subsequently, in the hands of Sechenov, the reflex principle became a weapon of the cultural revolution in the 60s of the last century, and 40 years later, in the hands of Pavlov, it turned out to be a powerful lever that turned the entire development of the problem of the mental by 180 degrees.
5. Contribution of domestic and foreign scientists to the development of physiology
In the 18th century Physical and chemical research methods are being actively introduced into physiology. The ideas and methods of mechanics were especially actively used. Yes, the Italian scientist J.A. Borelli even at the end of the 17th century. uses the laws of mechanics to explain the movements of animals, the mechanism of respiratory movements. He also applied the laws of hydraulics to the study of the movement of blood in the vessels. English scientist S. Gales determined the value of blood pressure (1733). French scientist R. Reaumur and Italian naturalist L. Spallanzani studied the chemistry of digestion. Frenchman A. Lavoisier, studying oxidation, tried to approach the understanding of respiration on the basis of chemical laws. Italian scientist L. Galvani discovered "animal" electricity, i.e. bioelectric phenomena in the body.
By the 1st half of the 18th century. refers to the beginning of the development of physiology in Russia. Opened in 1725 The Petersburg Academy of Sciences created the Department of Anatomy and Physiology. Leading it D. Bernoulli, L. Euler, J. Veitbrecht dealt with the biophysics of blood flow.
Important for physiology were studies M.V. Lomonosov, who attached great importance to chemistry in the knowledge of physiological processes. The leading role in the development of physiology in Russia was played by the medical faculty of Moscow University (1755). The teaching of the basics of physiology along with anatomy and other medical specialties was started S.G. Zybelin. In 1798 Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy (now VMA) was founded, where later physiology received significant development.
In the 19th century physiology finally separated from anatomy. Of decisive importance for the development of physiology at that time were the achievements of organic chemistry, the discovery of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the cellular structure of the body, and the creation of a theory of the evolutionary development of the organic world.
Synthesizing urea F. Wöhler(1828) dispelled the vitalistic ideas that prevailed at the beginning of the 19th century. Soon the German scientist Yu. Liebig, and after him, many other scientists synthesized various organic compounds found in the body and studied their structure. These studies marked the beginning of the analysis of chemical compounds involved in the construction of the body and metabolism. Studies of the metabolism and energy in living organisms were developed. Methods of direct so-called. indirect colorimetry, which made it possible to accurately measure the amount of energy contained in various nutrients, as well as released by animals and humans at rest and during work. ( V.V. Pashutin and A.A. Likhachev in Russia, M. Rubner in Germany, F. Benedict, W. Atwater in the USA, etc.).
The physiology of neuromuscular tissue has received significant development. This was facilitated by the developed methods of electrical stimulation and registration of physiological processes. German scientist E. Dubois-Reymond proposed an induction apparatus, and the physiologist K. Ludwig(1847) invented the kymograph, a manometer for recording blood pressure, and a blood clock for recording blood flow velocity. French scientist E. Marey he was the first to use photography to study movements and invented a device for recording movements of the chest (plethysmograph). Italian scientist A. Mosso proposed a device for the study of fatigue (ergograph). The laws of action of direct current were established ( E. Pfluger, B.F. Verigo), the speed of conduction of excitation along the nerve was determined ( G. Helmholtz). Helmholtz laid the foundations for the theory of vision and hearing.
Using the method of telephone listening to an excited nerve, a Russian scientist NOT. Vvedensky made a significant contribution to the understanding of the basic physiological properties of excitable tissues, established the rhythmic nature of nerve impulses. He showed that living tissues change their properties, both under the influence of irritation and in the process of activity itself. Having formulated the doctrine of the optimum and pessimum of irritation, Vvedensky for the first time noted reciprocal relationships in the central nervous system. He was the first to consider the process of inhibition in genetic connection with the process of excitation, he discovered the forms of transition from excitation to inhibition. Studies of electrical phenomena in the body, initiated by Galvani and A.Volta were continued by Dubois-Reymond and L. German in Germany, and in Russia - Vvedensky, Sechenov and V.Ya. Danilevsky. The last two recorded electrical phenomena in the central nervous system for the first time.
Research has begun on the nervous regulation of physiological functions with the help of methods of transection and stimulation of various nerves. German scientist brothers Weber discovered the inhibitory effect of the vagus nerve on the heart. Russian physiologist I.F. Zion- increased heart rate with stimulation of the sympathetic nerve. I.P. Pavlov - the amplifying effect of this nerve on heart contraction. A.N. Walter in Russia and then C. Bernard in France, sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves were discovered. Ludwig and Zion discovered centripetal fibers coming from the heart and aorta, reflexively changing the work of the heart and vascular tone. F.V. Ovsyannikov discovered the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata, and ON THE. Mislavsky studied in detail the previously discovered respiratory center of the medulla oblongata.
In the 19th century there were ideas about the trophic role of the nervous system, that is, about its influence on metabolic processes and nutrition of organs. French scientist F. Magendie in 1824 described pathological changes in tissues after nerve transection. Bernard observed changes in carbohydrate metabolism after an injection into a certain area of the medulla oblongata (“sugar injection”). R. Heidenhain established the influence of sympathetic nerves on the composition of saliva. I.P. Pavlov revealed the trophic action of sympathetic nerves on the heart.
In the 19th century the formation and deepening of the reflex theory of nervous activity continued. The spinal reflexes were studied in detail and the analysis of the reflex arc was carried out. Scottish scientist C. Bell 1811, and also Magendie in 1817. and German scientist I. Muller studied the distribution of centrifugal and centripetal fibers in the spinal roots (Bell-Magendie law). Bell in 1828 suggested that there are afferent influences coming from the muscles during their contraction in the central nervous system. These views were then developed by Russian scientists A. Volkman, A.M. Filomafitsky. The works of Bell and Magendie served as an impetus for the development of research on the localization of functions in the brain and formed the basis for subsequent ideas about the activity of physiological systems on the basis of feedback.
In 1842 French physiologist P. Flurence, exploring the role of various parts of the medulla oblongata and individual nerves in voluntary movements, formulated the concept of the plasticity of the nerve centers and the leading role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of voluntary movements.
Of outstanding importance for the development of physiology were the works of I.M. Sechenov, who discovered in 1862. inhibitory process in the CNS. He showed that stimulation of the brain under certain conditions can cause a special inhibitory process that suppresses excitation. Sechenov also discovered the phenomenon of summation of excitation in the nerve centers. Sechenov's works, which showed that "... all acts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the mode of origin, are reflexes"3, contributed to the establishment of materialistic physiology. Influenced by Sechenov's research S.P. Botkin and Pavlov introduced the concept of nervism into physiology, i.e. ideas about the primary importance of the nervous system in the regulation of physiological functions and processes in a living organism (it arose as an opposition to the concept of humoral regulation). The study of the influence of the nervous system on the functions of the body has become a tradition of Russian physiology.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. With the widespread use of the method of extirpation, a study was begun of the role of various parts of the brain and spinal cord in the regulation of physiological functions. The possibility of direct stimulation of the cerebral cortex was shown by German scientists G. Frichem and E. Gitzig in 1870 A successful removal of the hemispheres carried out F. Goltz in 1891 (Germany). The experimental-surgical technique has been widely developed (works V.A. Basova, L. Thiry, L. Vella, R. Heidenhain, I.P. Pavlova and others). to monitor the functions of internal organs, especially the digestive organs.
I.P. Pavlov established the basic patterns in the work of the main digestive glands, the mechanism of their nervous regulation, the change in the composition of digestive juices depending on the nature of the food and rejected substances. Pavlov's research, noted in 1904. Nobel Prize, made it possible to understand the work of the digestive apparatus as a functionally integral system.
In the 20th century a new stage in the development of physiology began, a characteristic feature of which was the transition from a narrowly analytical understanding of life processes to a synthetic one. The works of I.P. Pavlov and his school on the physiology of higher nervous activity. Pavlov's discovery of the conditioned reflex made it possible, on an objective basis, to begin studying the mental processes underlying the behavior of animals and humans. During a 35-year study of GNI, Pavlov established the main patterns of formation and inhibition of conditioned reflexes, physiology of analyzers, types of the nervous system, revealed features of GNI disturbance in experimental neuroses, developed a cortical theory of sleep and hypnosis, and laid the foundations for the doctrine of two signal systems. Pavlov's works formed a materialistic foundation for the subsequent study of GNI; they provide a natural scientific substantiation of the theory of reflection created by V.I. Lenin.
A major contribution to the study of the physiology of the central nervous system was made by the English physiologist C. Sherington, who established the principles of integrative activity of the brain: reciprocal inhibition, occlusion, convergence of excitations on individual neurons. Sherington's work enriched the physiology of the CNS with new data on the relationship between the processes of inhibition and excitation, on the nature of muscle tone and its disturbance, and had a fruitful influence on the development of further research. So, the Dutch scientist R. Magnus studied the mechanisms of maintaining a posture in space and its changes during movements. Russian scientist V.M. Bekhterev showed the role of subcortical structures in the formation of emotional and motor reactions in animals and humans, discovered the pathways of the spinal cord and brain, the functions of the visual tubercles, etc. A.A. Ukhtomsky formulated the doctrine of the dominant as the leading principle of the brain; this doctrine significantly supplemented the idea of a rigid determination of reflex acts and their brain centers. Ukhtomsky found that the excitation of the brain caused by the dominant need not only suppresses less significant reflexes, but also leads to the fact that they increase the dominant need.
The physical direction of research has enriched physiology with significant achievements. The use of a string galvanometer by the Dutch scientist V. Einthoven, and then A.F. Samoilov made it possible to register the bioelectric potentials of the heart. With the help of electronic amplifiers, which made it possible to amplify weak biopotentials hundreds of thousands of times, an American scientist G. Gasser, English — E. Adrian and Russian physiologist D.S. Vorontsov registered biopotentials of nerve trunks. Registration of the electrical activity of the brain - electroencephalography - for the first time carried out V.V. Pravdich-Neminsky and continued by the German scientist. G. Berger. M.N. Livanov applied mathematical methods for the analysis of encephalograms. English physiologist A. Hill registered heat generation in the nerve during the passage of a wave of excitation.
In the 20th century studies of the process of nervous excitation by methods of physical chemistry began. V.Yu. Chagovets the ion theory of excitation was proposed, then developed in the works of German scientists Yu. Bernstein, V. Nernst, P.P. Lazarev. In the works of British scientists A. Hodgkin, A. Huxley, B. Katz the membrane theory of excitation has received deep development. The development of the theory of mediators is closely connected with the study of the process of excitation (Austrian pharmacologist O. Levy, Samoilov, I.P. Razenkov, K.M. Bykov, L.S. Stern, E.B. Babsky in Russia, W. Cannon in the USA, B. Mintz in France, etc.). Developing ideas about the integrative activity of the nervous system, the Australian physiologist J. Eccles developed in detail the doctrine of the membrane mechanisms of synaptic transmission.
In the middle of the 20th century American scientist H. Malone and Italian - J. Moruzzi discovered nonspecific activating and inhibitory effects of the reticular formation on various parts of the brain. In connection with these studies, the classical ideas about the nature of the spread of excitation through the central nervous system, about the mechanisms of cortical-subcortical relationships, sleep and wakefulness, anesthesia, emotions and motivations, have changed significantly. By developing these notions, PC. Anokhin formulated the concept of the specific nature of the ascending activating influences of subcortical formations on the cerebral cortex during reactions of various biological qualities. The functions of the limbic system of the brain were studied in detail (by an American P. McLane, Russian physiologist I. Beritashvili and etc.). Its participation in the regulation of vegetative functions, in the formation of emotions and motivations, memory mechanisms ( D. Lindsley, J. Olds, A.W. Waldman, N.P. Bekhterev, P.V. Simonov and etc.). Research on the mechanisms of sleep has received significant development in the works I.P. Pavlova, R. Hess, Moruzzi, Jouvet, F.P. Mayorova, N.A. Rozhansky, Anokhin, N.I. Grashchenkova and etc.
At the beginning of the 20th century there was a new doctrine of the activity of the endocrine glands - endocrinology. The main violations of physiological functions were revealed in case of damage to the endocrine glands. Ideas about the internal environment of the body, a unified neurohumoral regulation, homeostasis, barrier functions of the body are formulated (works Cannon, L.A. Orbeli, Bykova, Stern, G.N. Kassilya and etc.). Research Orbeli and his students A.V. Thin, A.G. Ginetsinsky and others) of the adaptive-trophic function of the sympathetic nervous system and its influence on the skeletal muscles, sensory organs and central nervous system, as well as the school of A.D. Speransky - the influence of the nervous system on the course of pathological processes - Pavlov's idea of the trophic function of the nervous system was developed. Bykov, his students and followers ( A.G. Chernigovskiy, I.A. Bulygin, A.D. Slonim, I.T. Kurtsin, E.Sh. Airapetyants, A.V. Solovyov and others) developed the doctrine of cortical-visceral physiology and pathology. Bykov's research shows the role of conditioned reflexes in the regulation of the functions of internal organs.
In the middle of the 20th century nutritional physiology has made significant progress. Soviet scientist F.M. Ugolev discovered the mechanism of parietal digestion. Energy needs have been identified and nutritional standards for humans and many types of farm animals have been established. The central hypothalamic mechanisms for regulating hunger and satiety were discovered (American researcher J. Brobeck, Indian - B. Anand and many others. etc.).
A new chapter was the doctrine of vitamins, although the need for these substances for normal life was established as early as the 19th century. ON THE. Lunin.
Major advances have been made in studying the functions of the heart (work E. Starling, T. Lewis in the UK, K. Wiggers in the USA, A.I. Smirnova, G.I. Kositsky, F.Z. Meyerson, V.V. Parina in Russia, H. Goering in Germany, etc.), and capillary circulation (the work of the Danish scientist A. Kroga, owl. physiologist A.M. Chernukha and etc.). The mechanism of respiration and transport of gases by blood has been studied (works J. Barcroft, J. Haldane in England, D. Van Slyke in the USA, EAT. Krepsa, Breslav and etc.). labors A. Keshni, A. Richardson and others established patterns of kidney function.
The development of physiology and medicine was influenced by the work of a Canadian pathologist G. Selye, who formulated (1936) the concept of stress as a non-specific adaptive reaction of the body under the action of external and internal stimuli. Since the 1960s, a systematic approach has been increasingly introduced into physiology. The achievement of Soviet physiology is the developed PC. Anokhin the theory of a functional system, according to which various organs of the whole organism are selectively involved in systemic organizations that ensure the achievement of final, adaptive results for the organism. Systemic mechanisms of brain activity are successfully developing M.N. Livanov, A.B. Kogan and others.
6. Tasks of the subject "Physiology and ethology of animals
The study of particular and general mechanisms and patterns of regulation of physiological functions in mammals and birds solves many problems, both in the physiological science itself and in related disciplines, such as zooengineering, veterinary medicine, animal genetics, zoology, etc. In addition to developing theoretical ideas about the functioning of the body and its individual systems, the practical use of this knowledge in the practice of agriculture, incl. in animal husbandry. Relevant and promising are such areas of research that allow you to purposefully improve the breed of animals and birds, their productivity, stress resistance and body resistance to the action of both pathogenic and environmental factors. These are works in the field of digestion, reproduction, animal breeding, ethology, ecology of agricultural animals and birds.
Agricultural animals, as a rule, are not in natural habitat conditions, which affects the functioning of many body systems. The qualitative originality of physiological processes in productive animals lies in the fact that they can be purposefully changed.
Knowledge of physiology is necessary in the study of special disciplines: feeding, animal husbandry, zoohygiene, pathophysiology, pharmacology, clinical diagnostics, obstetrics, therapy, surgery.
The blood system includes: blood circulating through the vessels; organs in which the formation of blood cells and their destruction occurs (bone marrow, spleen, liver, lymph nodes), and the regulatory neuro-humoral apparatus. For the normal functioning of all organs, a constant supply of blood is necessary. The cessation of blood circulation even for a short time (in the brain for only a few minutes) causes irreversible changes. This is due to the fact that blood performs important functions in the body that are necessary for life.
The main functions of the blood are:
1. Trophic (nutritional) function.
2. Excretory (excretory) function.
3. Respiratory (respiratory) function.
4. Protective function.
5. Temperature control function.
6. Correlative function.
Blood and its derivatives - tissue fluid and lymph - form the internal environment of the body. The functions of the blood are aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of the composition of this environment. Thus, the blood is involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Not all of the blood in the body circulates through the blood vessels. Under normal conditions, a significant part of it is in the so-called depots: in the liver up to 20%, in the spleen about 16%, in the skin up to 10% of the total amount of blood. The ratio between circulating and deposited blood varies depending on the state of the organism. During physical work, nervous excitement, and blood loss, part of the deposited blood reflexively enters the blood vessels.
The amount of blood is different in animals of different species, sex, breed, economic use. The more intense the metabolic processes in the body, the higher the need for oxygen, the more blood the animal has.
The content of blood is heterogeneous. When standing in a test tube, uncoagulated blood (with the addition of sodium citrate), it is divided into two layers: the upper (55-60% of the total volume) - a yellowish liquid - plasma, the lower (40-45% of the volume) - sediment - blood cells (thick layer red color - erythrocytes, above it a thin whitish precipitate - leukocytes and platelets). Therefore, blood consists of a liquid part (plasma) and formed elements suspended in it.
1.1 Blood plasma
Blood plasma is a complex biological environment, closely associated with the tissue fluid of the body. Blood plasma contains 90-92% water and 8-10% solids. The composition of dry matter includes proteins, glucose, lipids (neutral fats, lecithin, cholesterol, etc.), lactic and pyruvic acids, non-protein nitrogenous substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, etc.), various mineral salts (sodium chloride predominates), enzymes, hormones, vitamins, pigments. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also dissolved in the plasma.
1.1.1 Plasma proteins
Proteins make up the bulk of the plasma dry matter. Their total number is 6-8%. There are several dozen different proteins, which are divided into two main groups: albumins and globulins. The ratio between the amount of albumin and globulin in the blood plasma of animals of different species is different, this ratio is called the protein coefficient. It is believed that the erythrocyte sedimentation rate depends on the value of this coefficient. It increases with an increase in the number of globulins.
1.1.2 Non-protein nitrogen compounds
This group includes amino acids, polypeptides, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, ammonia, which also belong to the organic substances of blood plasma. They are called residual nitrogen. In case of impaired renal function, the content of residual nitrogen in the blood plasma increases sharply.
1.1.3 Nitrogen-free organic substances of blood plasma
These include glucose and neutral fats. The amount of glucose in blood plasma varies depending on the type of animal. Its smallest amount is found in the blood plasma of ruminants.
1.1.4 Plasma inorganic substances (salts)
In mammals, they make up about 0.9 g% and are in a dissociated state in the form of cations and anions. Osmotic pressure depends on their content.
1.2 Formed elements of blood.
The formed elements of the blood are divided into three groups: erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. The total volume of formed elements in 100 volumes of blood is called hematocrit indicator.
Erythrocytes.
Red blood cells make up the bulk of blood cells. Erythrocytes of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are large, oval-shaped cells containing a nucleus. Mammalian erythrocytes are much smaller, lack a nucleus, and are shaped like biconcave discs (only in camels and llamas they are oval). The biconcave shape increases the surface of the erythrocytes and promotes rapid and uniform diffusion of oxygen through their membrane.
The erythrocyte consists of a thin mesh stroma, the cells of which are filled with hemoglobin pigment, and a denser membrane. The latter is formed by a layer of lipids enclosed between two monomolecular layers of proteins. The shell has selective permeability. Gases, water, anions OH ‾, Cl‾, HCO 3 ‾, H + ions, glucose, urea easily pass through it, however, it does not pass proteins and is almost impermeable to most cations.
Erythrocytes are very elastic, easily compressed and therefore can pass through narrow capillary vessels, the diameter of which is less than their diameter.
The sizes of erythrocytes of vertebrates fluctuate over a wide range. They have the smallest diameter in mammals, and among them in wild and domestic goats; erythrocytes of the largest diameter are found in amphibians, in particular in Proteus.
The number of red blood cells in the blood is determined under a microscope using counting chambers or special devices - celloscopes. The blood of animals of different species contains an unequal number of red blood cells. An increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood due to their increased formation is called true erythrocytosis. If the number of erythrocytes in the blood increases due to their receipt from the blood depot, they speak of redistributive erythrocytosis.
The totality of erythrocytes in the whole blood of an animal is called erythrone. This is a huge amount. So, the total number of red blood cells in a horse weighing 500 kg reaches 436.5 trillion. Together they form a huge surface, which is of great importance for the effective performance of their functions.
Functions of erythrocytes:
1. The transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
2. Transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
3. Transportation of nutrients - amino acids adsorbed on their surface - from the digestive organs to the cells of the body.
4. Maintaining blood pH at a relatively constant level due to the presence of hemoglobin.
5. Active participation in the processes of immunity: erythrocytes adsorb various poisons on their surface, which are destroyed by cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS).
6. Implementation of the blood coagulation process (hemostasis).
Red blood cells perform their main function - the transport of gases by the blood - due to the presence of hemoglobin in them.
Hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is a complex protein consisting of a protein part (globin) and a non-protein pigment group (heme), interconnected by a histidine bridge. There are four hemes in a hemoglobin molecule. Heme is built from four pyrrole rings and contains diatomic iron. It is the active, or so-called prosthetic, group of hemoglobin and has the ability to donate oxygen molecules. In all animal species, heme has the same structure, while globin differs in amino acid composition.
The main possible compounds of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin, which has added oxygen, is converted to oxyhemoglobin(HbO 2), bright scarlet color, which determines the color of arterial blood. Oxyhemoglobin is formed in the capillaries of the lungs, where oxygen tension is high. In the capillaries of tissues, where there is little oxygen, it breaks down into hemoglobin and oxygen. Hemoglobin that has given up oxygen is called restored or reduced hemoglobin(Hb). It gives the venous blood a cherry color. In both oxyhemoglobin and reduced hemoglobin, the iron atoms are in a reduced state.
The third physiological compound of hemoglobin is carbohemoglobin- connection of hemoglobin with carbon dioxide. Thus, hemoglobin is involved in the transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
Under the action of strong oxidizing agents on hemoglobin (bertolet salt, potassium permanganate, nitrobenzene, aniline, phenacetin, etc.), iron is oxidized and becomes trivalent. In this case, hemoglobin is converted to methemoglobin and turns brown. Being a product of the true oxidation of hemoglobin, the latter firmly retains oxygen and therefore cannot serve as its carrier. Methemoglobin is a pathological compound of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin combines very easily with carbon monoxide to form carboxyhemoglobin(HbCO). The connection is very strong, and hemoglobin blocked with CO cannot be an oxygen carrier.
When hydrochloric acid acts on hemoglobin, hemin (hematin) is formed. In this compound, iron is in the oxidized trivalent form. Brown rhombic crystals are formed, which differ in shape in different species of animals, which is due to species differences in the structure of hemin.
1.3 Determining the amount of hemoglobin
The amount of hemoglobin is determined by the colorimetric method and expressed in gram percent (g%), and then using the International System of Units (SI) conversion factor, which is 10, the amount of hemoglobin is found in grams per liter (g / l). It depends on the type of animal. This is influenced by age, sex, breed, altitude, work, feeding.
The principle of determining the amount of hemoglobin in the blood is based on the fact that hemoglobin with hydrochloric acid forms dark brown hydrochloric acid hematin. The more hemoglobin in the blood, the darker the brown color.
The amount of hemoglobin is determined using a hemometer. This is a rack with two types of test tubes: two side - standard and one - graduated. The kit also includes: a special micropipette that allows you to collect 0.02 ml of blood, an eye dropper and a glass stirring rod.
A 0.1 n solution of hydrochloric acid is added to a graduated test tube with an eye pipette to the lower ring mark. Having pierced a finger, draw 0.02 ml of blood into a micropipette, wipe the tip with a dry swab, lower the pipette into hydrochloric acid and blow out the blood. Leave the tripod for five minutes. After this, hemoglobin is completely converted into hydrochloric acid hematin. Distilled water is added dropwise, the contents are periodically stirred and compared with the standard. As soon as the color equals, the result is measured on a scale, expressed in g% (up to tenths).
2. Practical part of the work
2.1 Definition of task options
My two-digit code number assigned at the department is 05. Accordingly, my task options numbers, determined from the table, are 17, 30, 37, 46, 51, 70, 82, 91. It was by these numbers that I took the physiological blood parameters from the second tables.
X =
X = k amount of hemoglobin g/l
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
X = g% hemoglobin
hematocrit, %
2.3 Calculations
1. The volume of each individual erythrocyte (in microns 3)
X = the volume of erythrocytes in 1 liter of blood
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
In problem 17, hematocrit = 39.4%, therefore, in 1 liter of blood, erythrocytes will occupy a volume of 394 ml, erythrocytes contain 6.4 million.
2. The mass of pure hemoglobin in each individual erythrocyte, pg (picograms). 1 picogram (pg) is one trillionth of a gram (1∙10 -12)
X = k amount of hemoglobin g/l
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
In problem 17, the amount of hemoglobin is given as 15.5 g%. To convert it to g / l, it is necessary to calculate according to the formula:
g% 10 = 15.5 10 = 155 g/l
The number of red blood cells 6.4 million / mm 3
3. The concentration of hemoglobin in the cytoplasm of each individual erythrocyte, %
X = g% hemoglobin
hematocrit, %
Having similarly made calculations for the remaining seven tasks, I received the data presented in the table of calculation results.
2.4 Calculation results
| task number | Volume of 1 erythrocyte, µm 3 | Mass of hemoglobin in 1 erythrocyte, pg | The concentration of hemoglobin in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes,% |
|
| | Basic physiological constants of farm animals (blood). List of used literature1. A.N. Golikov. Physiology of farm animals. Moscow, Agropromizdat, 1991. 2. N.A. Shishkinskaya. Dictionary of biological terms and concepts. Saratov, Lyceum, 2005. 3. A.M. Skopichev. Physiology and ethology of animals. Moscow, Nauka, 1995. TutoringNeed help learning a topic?
Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you. |
Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation. FGOU VPO Far Eastern State Agrarian University. Department of Physiology and Noncommunicable Diseases. Calculation and graphic task on the physiology of farm animals No. 1
Option number 5
Contents 1. Theoretical substantiation of the work 1.1 Blood plasma 1.1.1 Blood plasma proteins 1.1.2 Non-protein nitrogen-containing compounds 1.1.3 Nitrogen-free organic substances of blood plasma 1.1.4 Plasma inorganic substances (salts) 1.2 Blood cells Erythrocytes 1.3 Determining the amount of hemoglobin 2. Practical part of the work 2.1 Definition of problem variants 2.2 Formulas required for calculations 2.3 Calculations 2.4 Calculation results 2.5 Conclusion on the calculations made Appendix List of references
1. Theoretical substantiation of the work
The blood system includes: blood circulating through the vessels; organs in which the formation of blood cells and their destruction occurs (bone marrow, spleen, liver, lymph nodes), and the regulatory neuro-humoral apparatus. For the normal functioning of all organs, a constant supply of blood is necessary. The cessation of blood circulation even for a short time (in the brain for only a few minutes) causes irreversible changes. This is due to the fact that blood performs important functions in the body that are necessary for life.
The main functions of the blood are:
1. Trophic (nutritional) function.
2. Excretory (excretory) function.
3. Respiratory (respiratory) function.
4. Protective function.
5. Temperature control function.
6. Correlative function.
Blood and its derivatives - tissue fluid and lymph - form the internal environment of the body. The functions of the blood are aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of the composition of this environment. Thus, the blood is involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Not all of the blood in the body circulates through the blood vessels. Under normal conditions, a significant part of it is in the so-called depots: in the liver up to 20%, in the spleen about 16%, in the skin up to 10% of the total amount of blood. The ratio between circulating and deposited blood varies depending on the state of the organism. During physical work, nervous excitement, and blood loss, part of the deposited blood reflexively enters the blood vessels.
The amount of blood is different in animals of different species, sex, breed, economic use. The more intense the metabolic processes in the body, the higher the need for oxygen, the more blood the animal has.
The content of blood is heterogeneous. When standing in a test tube, uncoagulated blood (with the addition of sodium citrate), it is divided into two layers: the upper (55-60% of the total volume) - a yellowish liquid - plasma, the lower (40-45% of the volume) - sediment - blood cells (thick layer red color - erythrocytes, above it a thin whitish precipitate - leukocytes and platelets). Therefore, blood consists of a liquid part (plasma) and formed elements suspended in it.
1.1 Blood plasma
Blood plasma is a complex biological environment, closely associated with the tissue fluid of the body. Blood plasma contains 90-92% water and 8-10% solids. The composition of dry matter includes proteins, glucose, lipids (neutral fats, lecithin, cholesterol, etc.), lactic and pyruvic acids, non-protein nitrogenous substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, etc.), various mineral salts (sodium chloride predominates), enzymes, hormones, vitamins, pigments. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also dissolved in the plasma.
1.1.1 Plasma proteins
Proteins make up the bulk of the plasma dry matter. Their total number is 6-8%. There are several dozen different proteins, which are divided into two main groups: albumins and globulins. The ratio between the amount of albumin and globulin in the blood plasma of animals of different species is different, this ratio is called the protein coefficient. It is believed that the erythrocyte sedimentation rate depends on the value of this coefficient. It increases with an increase in the number of globulins.
1.1.2 Non-protein nitrogen compounds
This group includes amino acids, polypeptides, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, ammonia, which also belong to the organic substances of blood plasma. They are called residual nitrogen. In case of impaired renal function, the content of residual nitrogen in the blood plasma increases sharply.
1.1.3 Nitrogen-free organic substances of blood plasma
These include glucose and neutral fats. The amount of glucose in blood plasma varies depending on the type of animal. Its smallest amount is found in the blood plasma of ruminants.
1.1.4 Plasma inorganic substances (salts)
In mammals, they make up about 0.9 g% and are in a dissociated state in the form of cations and anions. Osmotic pressure depends on their content.
1.2 Formed elements of blood.
The formed elements of the blood are divided into three groups: erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. The total volume of formed elements in 100 volumes of blood is called hematocrit.
Erythrocytes.
Red blood cells make up the bulk of blood cells. Erythrocytes of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are large, oval-shaped cells containing a nucleus. Mammalian erythrocytes are much smaller, lack a nucleus, and are shaped like biconcave discs (only in camels and llamas they are oval). The biconcave shape increases the surface of the erythrocytes and promotes rapid and uniform diffusion of oxygen through their membrane.
The erythrocyte consists of a thin mesh stroma, the cells of which are filled with hemoglobin pigment, and a denser membrane. The latter is formed by a layer of lipids enclosed between two monomolecular layers of proteins. The shell has selective permeability. Gases, water, anions OH ‾, Cl‾, HCO 3 ‾, H + ions, glucose, urea easily pass through it, however, it does not pass proteins and is almost impermeable to most cations.
Erythrocytes are very elastic, easily compressed and therefore can pass through narrow capillary vessels, the diameter of which is less than their diameter.
The sizes of erythrocytes of vertebrates fluctuate over a wide range. They have the smallest diameter in mammals, and among them in wild and domestic goats; erythrocytes of the largest diameter are found in amphibians, in particular in Proteus.
The number of red blood cells in the blood is determined under a microscope using counting chambers or special devices - celloscopes. The blood of animals of different species contains an unequal number of red blood cells. An increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood due to their increased formation is called true erythrocytosis. If the number of erythrocytes in the blood increases due to their receipt from the blood depot, they speak of redistributive erythrocytosis.
The totality of erythrocytes in the whole blood of an animal is called an erythron. This is a huge amount. So, the total number of red blood cells in a horse weighing 500 kg reaches 436.5 trillion. Together they form a huge surface, which is of great importance for the effective performance of their functions.
Functions of erythrocytes:
1. The transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
2. Transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
3. Transportation of nutrients - amino acids adsorbed on their surface - from the digestive organs to the cells of the body.
4. Maintaining blood pH at a relatively constant level due to the presence of hemoglobin.
5. Active participation in the processes of immunity: erythrocytes adsorb various poisons on their surface, which are destroyed by cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS).
6. Implementation of the blood coagulation process (hemostasis).
Red blood cells perform their main function - the transport of gases by the blood - due to the presence of hemoglobin in them.
Hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is a complex protein consisting of a protein part (globin) and a non-protein pigment group (heme), interconnected by a histidine bridge. There are four hemes in a hemoglobin molecule. Heme is built from four pyrrole rings and contains diatomic iron. It is the active, or so-called prosthetic, group of hemoglobin and has the ability to donate oxygen molecules. In all animal species, heme has the same structure, while globin differs in amino acid composition.
The main possible compounds of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin, which has attached oxygen, turns into oxyhemoglobin (HbO 2), a bright scarlet color, which determines the color of arterial blood. Oxyhemoglobin is formed in the capillaries of the lungs, where oxygen tension is high. In the capillaries of tissues, where there is little oxygen, it breaks down into hemoglobin and oxygen. Hemoglobin that has given up oxygen is called reduced or reduced hemoglobin (Hb). It gives the venous blood a cherry color. In both oxyhemoglobin and reduced hemoglobin, the iron atoms are in a reduced state.
The third physiological compound of hemoglobin is carbohemoglobin, a compound of hemoglobin with carbon dioxide. Thus, hemoglobin is involved in the transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
Under the action of strong oxidizing agents on hemoglobin (bertolet salt, potassium permanganate, nitrobenzene, aniline, phenacetin, etc.), iron is oxidized and becomes trivalent. In this case, hemoglobin is converted to methemoglobin and acquires a brown color. Being a product of the true oxidation of hemoglobin, the latter firmly retains oxygen and therefore cannot serve as its carrier. Methemoglobin is a pathological compound of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin combines very easily with carbon monoxide to form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO). The connection is very strong, and hemoglobin blocked with CO cannot be an oxygen carrier.
When hydrochloric acid acts on hemoglobin, hemin (hematin) is formed. In this compound, iron is in the oxidized trivalent form. Brown rhombic crystals are formed, which differ in shape in different species of animals, which is due to species differences in the structure of hemin.
1.3 Determining the amount of hemoglobin
The amount of hemoglobin is determined by the colorimetric method and expressed in gram percent (g%), and then using the International System of Units (SI) conversion factor, which is 10, the amount of hemoglobin is found in grams per liter (g / l). It depends on the type of animal. This is influenced by age, sex, breed, altitude, work, feeding.
The principle of determining the amount of hemoglobin in the blood is based on the fact that hemoglobin with hydrochloric acid forms dark brown hydrochloric acid hematin. The more hemoglobin in the blood, the darker the brown color.
The amount of hemoglobin is determined using a hemometer. This is a rack with two types of test tubes: two side - standard and one - graduated. The kit also includes: a special micropipette that allows you to collect 0.02 ml of blood, an eye dropper and a glass stirring rod.
A 0.1 n solution of hydrochloric acid is added to a graduated test tube with an eye pipette to the lower ring mark. Having pierced a finger, draw 0.02 ml of blood into a micropipette, wipe the tip with a dry swab, lower the pipette into hydrochloric acid and blow out the blood. Leave the tripod for five minutes. After this, hemoglobin is completely converted into hydrochloric acid hematin. Distilled water is added dropwise, the contents are periodically stirred and compared with the standard. As soon as the color equals, the result is measured on a scale, expressed in g% (up to tenths).
Dressed in special protective suits for people, for chickens - bright toys that need to be pecked. Aggression is also redirected if the irritant is quite real, but scary. For farm animals, such a terrible object is a person (a shepherd with a whip or a cattleman with a shovel). In this case, the redirected aggression serves at the same time as a demonstration to the enemy: “Look what I ...
In animal husbandry in order to increase the number of livestock and increase its productivity, as well as veterinary medicine and medicine for the treatment of various diseases of the endocrine system. consider in detail the problem of iodine deficiency diseases in humans and animals in Russia, in particular in the Orenburg region, the causes and ways to solve the problem, the main approaches to predicting, diagnosing and treating iodine deficiency ...
Forms of infertility, because it does not replace either feed, or premises, or a number of other elements of the agro-veterinary-organizational complex of measures for the prevention of infertility. The theory and practice of artificial insemination of farm animals are composed of six sections: 1) the doctrine of sperm; 2) methods of obtaining sperm; 3) evaluation and dilution of semen; 4) methods of preserving sperm outside the body; 5) ...
Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals. The structure of the skeletons of farm animals.
Farm animals include horses, cattle and small cattle (cows, sheep, goats), pigs, poultry (chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese), to some extent rabbits and nutria, deer and sled dogs are of great importance in the north, in the south - donkeys, buffaloes, yaks. They also breed other animals. All of them are vertebrates.
According to zoological classification, vertebrates are divided into six classes; moreover, some representatives of the class of birds and mammals belong to the domestic ones. All poultry are keeled and are divided into the order of chicken and anseriformes. All domestic mammals belong to three orders - predatory (cats and dogs), rodents (rabbits and nutria) and ungulates, which, in turn, are divided into suborders of odd-toed (horses, donkeys) and artiodactyls (bulls, rams, goats, deer, camels and pigs).
Odd-toed animals, in the course of their historical development, have lost their paw, on which
they relied earlier, and now they lean only on the third finger, at the end of which there was a skin formation called a horn shoe or, more simply, a hoof. Animals like horses are called one-hoofed because they have one solid hoof. Artiodactyl animals rely on two fingers that have become hooves (the third and fourth). According to the method of digestion of feed, they are divided into non-ruminant, or scarless (pigs), and ruminant, or Ruminal (bulls, rams, goats, deer and camels). Domestic predatory animals include a cat (family of cats) and a dog (family of dogs). These animals have adapted to eating meat, and therefore they are often called meat-eating. Domestic rodents include rabbits and nutria. All of these farm animals have a number of characteristics inherent in mammals: hairy skin, a four-chambered heart, developed lungs that provide terrestrial respiration, the birth of live cubs and feeding them with mother's milk.
The class of birds differs from the class of mammals in that in the former the body is covered with feathers, the forelimbs are transformed into wings, the oral cavity has no teeth, and the front of the head is transformed into a beak. Unlike mammals (except monotremes), birds lay fertilized eggs, from which cubs hatch during incubation or incubation, therefore birds are often called ovoviviparous. Birds have only one excretory organ - the cloaca, through which they excrete feces, urine, eggs and sperm.
In order to understand the processes occurring in the body of a healthy animal, and to be able to understand the changes that occur with certain diseases, knowledge of anatomy and physiology is necessary. Anatomy in veterinary medicine is understood as a science that studies the structure of an animal body, the relationship and location of its individual parts. Physiology is a science that studies the life processes (functions) that take place / both in the whole organism and in individual parts.
A necessary condition for the existence of an animal organism is metabolism - a continuously ongoing process of decay of the constituent parts of the body, accompanied by a recovery process with the help of an influx of food from the external environment. For normal metabolism and energy production, a living organism must accept and assimilate food, that is, constantly eat; absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, i.e. constantly breathe;
remove waste substances (urine, feces, sweat) into the environment, i.e., excrete. In a certain period of growth and development, a living organism acquires the ability to reproduce. He is constantly able to respond to various stimuli. The last ability of the organism is defined as excitability, or sensitivity, and is the difference between living matter and dead matter. Metabolism and energy conversion in a living organism are inseparable from each other. New substances and energy in the body are not created from nothing and do not disappear without a trace, they only undergo changes and transformations, and in this respect the animal body is subject to the general law of conservation of matter and energy.
The body of an animal is built from the smallest living particles - cells. Certain groups of cells, changing their shape and structure, unite into isolated clusters that have adapted to perform certain functions. Such groups of cells, as a rule, have specific qualities and are called tissues. There are four types of tissues in the animal body: epithelial, connective (intermediate), muscular and nervous.
Epithelial tissue covers all border formations in the body, such as skin, mucous and serous membranes, excretory ducts of glands, glands of external and internal secretion. Connective tissue is divided into supply and support. Feeding, or trophic, tissues include blood and lymph.
The main purpose of the supporting tissue is to bind the constituent parts of the body into a single whole and to form the skeleton of the body.
Muscular or muscular tissue is capable of contraction and relaxation under the influence of various stimuli. According to the structure and function performed, three types of muscle tissue are distinguished: skeletal and cardiac muscles, which have a striated striation, as well as smooth muscle tissue, capable of involuntary contractions and found mainly in internal organs (digestive, respiratory, blood vessels and in the genitourinary system). ).
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells - neursins (neurons). The totality of organs formed by the nervous tissue that control all physiological functions and metabolism and carry out the connection of the organism with the external environment is called the nervous system in biology. The perception of changes in the internal and external environment and the transmission of responses to the executive bodies are carried out by special organs of the nervous system.
An organ is a part of the body that has a certain external shape, built from several naturally combined tissues and performing some narrowly specific function. Enough examples can be given: the eye, kidney, liver, tongue, etc. Separate organs that perform together any one specific function form systems or apparatuses in the body. For example, skin, sweat and sebaceous glands, hooves and
hair forms a system of organs of the general cover; bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons, joints and bursae form a system of organs of movement; the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra form the urinary system, etc.
Although, for the purposes of rational study, separate organs and systems are distinguished in the animal body, nevertheless, every organism should be considered as a single whole. The unity and integrity of the body is determined by the regulation of all vital functions, which is carried out by the nervous and humoral (chemical) pathways. The latter path is carried out through the blood and lymph, i.e. through the body fluids, which receive many of the chemicals that are formed in the process of metabolism.
The skeleton of the body of any animal is a skeleton, consisting of many bones connected to each other both movably - through joints and ligaments, and motionless - through sutures. The appearance of the animal is mainly determined by the structure of the skeleton (Fig. 1-4), although the general plan of the structure of all domestic animals is the same. Many bones of the skeleton are levers, set in motion by muscle contraction. Some bones are involved in the formation of cavities in which the most important organs are located. So, for example, the skull is a bone box to house the brain; the chest cavity, formed by the difficult part of the spine, ribs and sternum, is the location of the heart, lungs and large vessels; The pelvic cavity houses the reproductive and excretory organs. The skeleton is not only the skeleton of the body of an animal. Many bones included in the skeleton, especially tubular ones, have red bone marrow, which performs a hematopoietic function and produces blood cells (erythrocytes and leukocytes).
horse skeleton: 1 - incisor bone; 2 - nasal bone; 3 - frontal bone; 4 - upper jaw; 5-lower jaw; 6 - atlas; 7 - the second cervical vertebra, or epistrophy; 8 - fourth cervical vertebra; 9 - the seventh cervical vertebra; 10 - the first thoracic vertebra; 11 - the last thoracic vertebra; 12 - the first lumbar vertebra; 13 - the last lumbar vertebra; 14 - sacrum; 15 - tail vertebrae; 16 - scapula; 17 - humerus; 18 - sternum; 19-bones of the forearm (beam, wedge and ulna); 20 - bones of the wrist; 21 - bones of the metacarpus; 22 - phalanges of the finger; 23 - sesame bones; 24 - costal cartilages; 25 - ribs; 26 - ilium of the pelvis; 27 - pubic bones of the pelvis; 28 - ischial bones of the pelvis; 29 - femur; 30 - bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula); 31 - tarsal bones; 32-tarsal bone; 33 - phalanx of the finger.
pig skeleton: 1 - nasal bone; 2 - frontal bone; 3 - occipital bone; 4 - atlas; 5 - crest of the second cervical vertebra; 6 - the first thoracic vertebra (its spinous process); 7 - scapula; 8 - fourteenth thoracic vertebra; 9 - the first and 10 - the seventh lumbar vertebrae; 11 - sacrum; 12 - tail vertebrae; 13 - lower jaw; 14 - jugular process; 15 - transverse costal process of the sixth vertebra; 16 - humerus; 17 - bones of the forearm; 18 - wrist; 19 - metacarpus; 20 - phalanges of fingers; 21 - sternum; 22 - ribs; 23 - ilium of the pelvis; 24 - femur; 25 - ischium; 26 - tibia; 27 - fibula; 28 - tarsus; 29 - metatarsus; 30 - phalanges of fingers.
dog skeleton: 1 - cartilaginous skeleton of the nose; 2 - incisor bone; 3 - upper jaw; 4 - frontal bone; 5 - parietal bone; 6 - occipital bone; 7 - zygomatic bone; 8 - lower jaw; 9 - temporal bone; 10 - atlas; 11-second and 12 - fourth cervical vertebrae; /13 - scapula; 14 - handle of the sternum; 15 - humerus; 16 - radius; 17 - ulna; 18 - wrist skeleton; 19 - skeleton of the metacarpus; 20 - skeleton of fingers; 21 - sternum; 22 - the first thoracic vertebra; 23 - thirteenth thoracic vertebra; 24 - the first lumbar vertebra; 25 - seventh lumbar vertebra; 26 - sacrum; 27 - ribs; 28 - ilium of the pelvis; 29 - pubic bone of the pelvis; 30 - ischium of the pelvis; 31 - femur; 32 - kneecap; 33 - fibula; 34 - tibia; 35, 36, 37 - tarsus, metatarsus and fingers.
The blood system includes: blood circulating through the vessels; organs in which the formation of blood cells and their destruction occurs (bone marrow, spleen, liver, lymph nodes), and the regulatory neuro-humoral apparatus. For the normal functioning of all organs, a constant supply of blood is necessary. The cessation of blood circulation even for a short time (in the brain for only a few minutes) causes irreversible changes. This is due to the fact that blood performs important functions in the body that are necessary for life.
The main functions of the blood are:
1. Trophic (nutritional) function.
2. Excretory (excretory) function.
3. Respiratory (respiratory) function.
4. Protective function.
5. Temperature control function.
6. Correlative function.
Blood and its derivatives - tissue fluid and lymph - form the internal environment of the body. The functions of the blood are aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of the composition of this environment. Thus, the blood is involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Not all of the blood in the body circulates through the blood vessels. Under normal conditions, a significant part of it is in the so-called depots: in the liver up to 20%, in the spleen about 16%, in the skin up to 10% of the total amount of blood. The ratio between circulating and deposited blood varies depending on the state of the organism. During physical work, nervous excitement, and blood loss, part of the deposited blood reflexively enters the blood vessels.
The amount of blood is different in animals of different species, sex, breed, economic use. The more intense the metabolic processes in the body, the higher the need for oxygen, the more blood the animal has.
The content of blood is heterogeneous. When standing in a test tube, uncoagulated blood (with the addition of sodium citrate), it is divided into two layers: the upper (55-60% of the total volume) - a yellowish liquid - plasma, the lower (40-45% of the volume) - sediment - blood cells (thick layer red color - erythrocytes, above it a thin whitish precipitate - leukocytes and platelets). Therefore, blood consists of a liquid part (plasma) and formed elements suspended in it.
1.1 Blood plasma
Blood plasma is a complex biological environment, closely associated with the tissue fluid of the body. Blood plasma contains 90-92% water and 8-10% solids. The composition of dry matter includes proteins, glucose, lipids (neutral fats, lecithin, cholesterol, etc.), lactic and pyruvic acids, non-protein nitrogenous substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, etc.), various mineral salts (sodium chloride predominates), enzymes, hormones, vitamins, pigments. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also dissolved in the plasma.
1.1.1 Plasma proteins
Proteins make up the bulk of the plasma dry matter. Their total number is 6-8%. There are several dozen different proteins, which are divided into two main groups: albumins and globulins. The ratio between the amount of albumin and globulin in the blood plasma of animals of different species is different, this ratio is called the protein coefficient. It is believed that the erythrocyte sedimentation rate depends on the value of this coefficient. It increases with an increase in the number of globulins.
1.1.2 Non-protein nitrogen compounds
This group includes amino acids, polypeptides, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, ammonia, which also belong to the organic substances of blood plasma. They are called residual nitrogen. In case of impaired renal function, the content of residual nitrogen in the blood plasma increases sharply.
1.1.3 Nitrogen-free organic substances of blood plasma
These include glucose and neutral fats. The amount of glucose in blood plasma varies depending on the type of animal. Its smallest amount is found in the blood plasma of ruminants.
1.1.4 Plasma inorganic substances (salts)
In mammals, they make up about 0.9 g% and are in a dissociated state in the form of cations and anions. Osmotic pressure depends on their content.
1.2 Formed elements of blood.
The formed elements of the blood are divided into three groups: erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. The total volume of formed elements in 100 volumes of blood is called hematocrit indicator.
Erythrocytes.
Red blood cells make up the bulk of blood cells. Erythrocytes of fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are large, oval-shaped cells containing a nucleus. Mammalian erythrocytes are much smaller, lack a nucleus, and are shaped like biconcave discs (only in camels and llamas they are oval). The biconcave shape increases the surface of the erythrocytes and promotes rapid and uniform diffusion of oxygen through their membrane.
The erythrocyte consists of a thin mesh stroma, the cells of which are filled with hemoglobin pigment, and a denser membrane. The latter is formed by a layer of lipids enclosed between two monomolecular layers of proteins. The shell has selective permeability. Gases, water, anions OH ‾, Cl‾, HCO 3 ‾, H + ions, glucose, urea easily pass through it, however, it does not pass proteins and is almost impermeable to most cations.
Erythrocytes are very elastic, easily compressed and therefore can pass through narrow capillary vessels, the diameter of which is less than their diameter.
The sizes of erythrocytes of vertebrates fluctuate over a wide range. They have the smallest diameter in mammals, and among them in wild and domestic goats; erythrocytes of the largest diameter are found in amphibians, in particular in Proteus.
The number of red blood cells in the blood is determined under a microscope using counting chambers or special devices - celloscopes. The blood of animals of different species contains an unequal number of red blood cells. An increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood due to their increased formation is called true erythrocytosis. If the number of erythrocytes in the blood increases due to their receipt from the blood depot, they speak of redistributive erythrocytosis.
The totality of erythrocytes in the whole blood of an animal is called erythrone. This is a huge amount. So, the total number of red blood cells in a horse weighing 500 kg reaches 436.5 trillion. Together they form a huge surface, which is of great importance for the effective performance of their functions.
Functions of erythrocytes:
1. The transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
2. Transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
3. Transportation of nutrients - amino acids adsorbed on their surface - from the digestive organs to the cells of the body.
4. Maintaining blood pH at a relatively constant level due to the presence of hemoglobin.
5. Active participation in the processes of immunity: erythrocytes adsorb various poisons on their surface, which are destroyed by cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS).
6. Implementation of the blood coagulation process (hemostasis).
Red blood cells perform their main function - the transport of gases by the blood - due to the presence of hemoglobin in them.
Hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is a complex protein consisting of a protein part (globin) and a non-protein pigment group (heme), interconnected by a histidine bridge. There are four hemes in a hemoglobin molecule. Heme is built from four pyrrole rings and contains diatomic iron. It is the active, or so-called prosthetic, group of hemoglobin and has the ability to donate oxygen molecules. In all animal species, heme has the same structure, while globin differs in amino acid composition.
The main possible compounds of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin, which has added oxygen, is converted to oxyhemoglobin(HbO 2), bright scarlet color, which determines the color of arterial blood. Oxyhemoglobin is formed in the capillaries of the lungs, where oxygen tension is high. In the capillaries of tissues, where there is little oxygen, it breaks down into hemoglobin and oxygen. Hemoglobin that has given up oxygen is called restored or reduced hemoglobin(Hb). It gives the venous blood a cherry color. In both oxyhemoglobin and reduced hemoglobin, the iron atoms are in a reduced state.
The third physiological compound of hemoglobin is carbohemoglobin- connection of hemoglobin with carbon dioxide. Thus, hemoglobin is involved in the transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
Under the action of strong oxidizing agents on hemoglobin (bertolet salt, potassium permanganate, nitrobenzene, aniline, phenacetin, etc.), iron is oxidized and becomes trivalent. In this case, hemoglobin is converted to methemoglobin and turns brown. Being a product of the true oxidation of hemoglobin, the latter firmly retains oxygen and therefore cannot serve as its carrier. Methemoglobin is a pathological compound of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin combines very easily with carbon monoxide to form carboxyhemoglobin(HbCO). The connection is very strong, and hemoglobin blocked with CO cannot be an oxygen carrier.
When hydrochloric acid acts on hemoglobin, hemin (hematin) is formed. In this compound, iron is in the oxidized trivalent form. Brown rhombic crystals are formed, which differ in shape in different species of animals, which is due to species differences in the structure of hemin.
1.3 Determining the amount of hemoglobin
The amount of hemoglobin is determined by the colorimetric method and expressed in gram percent (g%), and then using the International System of Units (SI) conversion factor, which is 10, the amount of hemoglobin is found in grams per liter (g / l). It depends on the type of animal. This is influenced by age, sex, breed, altitude, work, feeding.
The principle of determining the amount of hemoglobin in the blood is based on the fact that hemoglobin with hydrochloric acid forms dark brown hydrochloric acid hematin. The more hemoglobin in the blood, the darker the brown color.
The amount of hemoglobin is determined using a hemometer. This is a rack with two types of test tubes: two side - standard and one - graduated. The kit also includes: a special micropipette that allows you to collect 0.02 ml of blood, an eye dropper and a glass stirring rod.
A 0.1 n solution of hydrochloric acid is added to a graduated test tube with an eye pipette to the lower ring mark. Having pierced a finger, draw 0.02 ml of blood into a micropipette, wipe the tip with a dry swab, lower the pipette into hydrochloric acid and blow out the blood. Leave the tripod for five minutes. After this, hemoglobin is completely converted into hydrochloric acid hematin. Distilled water is added dropwise, the contents are periodically stirred and compared with the standard. As soon as the color equals, the result is measured on a scale, expressed in g% (up to tenths).
2. Practical part of the work
2.1 Definition of task options
My two-digit code number assigned at the department is 05. Accordingly, my task options numbers, determined from the table, are 17, 30, 37, 46, 51, 70, 82, 91. It was by these numbers that I took the physiological blood parameters from the second tables.
X =
X = k amount of hemoglobin g/l
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
X = g% hemoglobin
hematocrit, %
2.3 Calculations
1. The volume of each individual erythrocyte (in microns 3)
X = the volume of erythrocytes in 1 liter of blood
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
In problem 17, hematocrit = 39.4%, therefore, in 1 liter of blood, erythrocytes will occupy a volume of 394 ml, erythrocytes contain 6.4 million.
2. The mass of pure hemoglobin in each individual erythrocyte, pg (picograms). 1 picogram (pg) is one trillionth of a gram (1∙10 -12)
X = k amount of hemoglobin g/l
million erythrocytes in 1 mm 3 of blood
In problem 17, the amount of hemoglobin is given as 15.5 g%. To convert it to g / l, it is necessary to calculate according to the formula:
g% 10 = 15.5 10 = 155 g/l
The number of red blood cells 6.4 million / mm 3
3. The concentration of hemoglobin in the cytoplasm of each individual erythrocyte, %
hematocrit, %
Having similarly made calculations for the remaining seven tasks, I received the data presented in the table of calculation results.
2.4 Calculation results
|
task number |
Volume of 1 erythrocyte, µm 3 |
Mass of hemoglobin in 1 erythrocyte, pg |
The concentration of hemoglobin in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes,% |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Basic physiological constants of farm animals (blood).
List of used literature1. A.N. Golikov. Physiology of farm animals. Moscow, Agropromizdat, 1991. 2. N.A. Shishkinskaya. Dictionary of biological terms and concepts. Saratov, Lyceum, 2005. 3. A.M. Skopichev. Physiology and ethology of animals. Moscow, Nauka, 1995. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Information material "young reader's corner"
Doctor who are far to destroy
Where to buy sulfuric acid?