Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech.

speech apparatus- this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two departments: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral section is the whole set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilages, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.

1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhalation;

2nd department- organs of speech are passive - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on the technique of speech;

3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;

The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a jet of air, the second to form a voice, the third is a resonator that gives strength and color to the sound and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, which arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.

The lower jaw drops and rises; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage to the nasal cavity; tongue and lips can take a variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of locks and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which this or that character of the sound is determined.

The tongue is rich in muscles that make it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and arched.

The soft palate, or palatine curtain, ending in a small tongue, lies at the top of the oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, which begins at the upper teeth with alveoli. The palate has the ability to rise and fall and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the palatine curtain is raised. If the palatine curtain is inactive for some reason and is not raised, then the sound turns out to be nasal (nasal), since when the palatine curtain is lowered, sound waves pass mainly through the nasal cavity.

The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-producing) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowels (a, o, u, e, and, s).

The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correctness of resonation and the clarity of the sounds pronounced. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.

The organs of speech are shown in the following figure:

1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea..

Speech apparatus. People do not have special organs of speech, such as, for example, there are digestive organs or circulatory organs. As a result of the long evolution of man, his formation as a social being, certain organs that have the main biological function began to perform the function of speech production. These are organs that provide such physiological processes as respiration, digestion, etc.

In a broad sense, the speech apparatus is understood as all the organs that take part in the process of speech breathing, voice and sound production, and also ensure the emergence of speech (the central nervous system, hearing, vision, speech organs).

In a narrow sense, the speech apparatus refers to organs that are directly involved in the process of speech breathing and voice formation (respiratory organs, larynx and supraglottic cavities (extensible tube)).

The emergence of sound speech. The process of the emergence of sounding speech is as follows: a stream of air moving when exhaling from the lungs passes through the bronchi, trachea, larynx and exits through the pharynx and mouth or nose.

Breathing (ventilation of the lungs) is provided by the contraction of certain muscle groups. First of all, it is the diaphragm, lower abdominal, intercostal muscles. An important role in the process of speech formation is also played by the muscles of the neck, face, shoulder girdle. Preparation for speech activity should include exercises to develop and activate these muscle groups. The most important condition for working on the technique of speech is the ability to relieve muscle tension, “clamps”.

The formation of sound occurs during exhalation due to the work of the organs of speech. Exhalation is provided by the lungs, bronchi, trachea. At the middle level - the larynx - sound is produced. The larynx is a cricoid and thyroid cartilage, on which a muscular film is stretched, the central edges of which are called the vocal cords. The space between the diverging pyramidal cartilages is called the glottis. The glottis can change its shape, which affects the nature of the sound generated during the passage of air through it.

The upper part of the speech apparatus - the extension tube - includes resonators and speech organs (epiglottis, palate, lips, teeth, etc.). Since the voice formed with the help of the vocal cords is weak, inexpressive, unclear, resonators play a special role in speech formation, which, while vibrating, ensure the normal sounding of the human voice, create a certain timbre due to overtones, i.e. give the voice of each person uniqueness.

The most important of the resonators are the oral and nasal cavities, the cranium. They form a system of upper resonators that ensure the flight of the voice. The second group of resonators (lower resonator system) is the chest cavity, which provides the timbre of the voice.

The vibration of any resonator is easy to detect when pronouncing certain sounds (for example, when pronouncing the sound [m], the cranium resonates). Thus, a person is a kind of "musical instrument" that sounds during speech.

The whole variety of sounds of human speech is formed due to the work of the organs included in the extension pipe. Different configurations of the gap that the air overcomes are formed due to changes in the position of the tongue, lips, lower jaw in relation to immovable organs: the hard palate, alveoli, teeth.

Based on the features of the structure and functioning of the speech apparatus, it is possible to determine the main goal of preparing the speech organs for work. This should be a kind of “tuning”, activation of the main muscle groups involved in speech breathing, resonators that provide timbre and sonority of the voice, and finally, mobile (active) speech organs responsible for the distinct pronunciation of sounds (diction).

You should constantly remember about the correct posture, thanks to which the speech apparatus functions better: the head should be kept straight, not stooped, the back is even, the shoulders are straightened, the shoulder blades are slightly reduced. The habit of correct posture contributes to the improvement of appearance.

Relaxation of the speech apparatus. For people whose professional activity is associated with prolonged speaking, no less important than setting up the speech apparatus and its proper operation is the ability to relax the organs of speech, as well as restore the performance of the speech apparatus. Rest and relaxation (relaxation) are provided by special exercises, which are recommended to be performed at the end of classes in speech technique, as well as after prolonged speaking, when fatigue of the speech organs occurs.

In the specialized literature, it is customary to talk about the posture and mask of relaxation, that is, relaxation, relieving muscle tension. The relaxation posture is taken in a sitting position. You should lean forward slightly, bending your back and bowing your head. The legs rest on the entire foot, spaced at right angles to each other, the hands lie on the hips, the hands hang freely. Close your eyes and relax all muscles as much as possible.

In the relaxation pose, separate auto-training formulas should be used to provide more complete relaxation and rest. It is extremely important for the teacher to master the mask of relaxation, that is, the methods of relaxing the muscles of the face.

To this end, in a relaxation pose, one should alternately strain and relax various muscle groups of the face (as if “putting on” masks of anger, surprise, joy, etc.), and then completely relax all the muscles. To do this, with a weak exhalation, pronounce the sound [t] and leave the lower jaw in the lowered position.

Relaxation is one of the elements of the hygiene of speech activity, the general requirement of which is protection from hypothermia and, as a result, from colds. Anything that irritates the mucous membrane should also be avoided. Special hygienic requirements - following a certain method of training the speech apparatus, observing the basic rules when performing exercises in speech technique, reasonable alternation of load and rest.

Components of the vocal apparatus:

- breathing apparatus (breathing mechanism)
- speech apparatus (articulatory)
- larynx with vocal cords and resonators

The mechanism of respiration includes the nasal cavity and pharynx (nasopharynx), trachea, bronchi, right and left lungs.

The lungs are made of delicate porous tissue. This delicate tissue is a collection of vesicles (alveoli). The trachea, together with the bronchi, forms the bronchial tree. At the bottom, the trachea passes into the bronchi, at the top - into the larynx.
The lungs hold about five to six liters of air. The usual calm breath is about half a liter of air, and a deep one is one and a half liters.

speech apparatus includes the lower jaw, lips, tongue, teeth.

Larynx is a conical tube. Consists of cartilages: thyroid, arytenoid, carob, cricoid.
The vocal cords are attached to the larynx through cartilage.

Vocal cords are two muscle folds. Unlike other muscles, ligament muscles contract in different directions. Due to this, the ligaments acquire elasticity and elasticity, and can fluctuate not only completely, but also at the edges, in the middle.

Between the cords is the glottis, which looks like a triangle during phonation.
In a healthy state, the ligaments resemble the color of mother-of-pearl, the color of ivory, and when the voice is not in order, the ligaments turn red.
Ligaments are a delicate and fragile part of the vocal apparatus. They must be treated with care so that the voice does not get tired.

In men and women, the length and thickness of the ligaments is different. In low basses, the thickness of the ligaments is about five millimeters, the length is twenty-four to twenty-five millimeters. The length of the vocal cords in high sopranos is fourteen to nineteen millimeters, and the thickness is about two millimeters.

Voice resonators

Resonators located above the larynx - upper (head). This includes the pharynx, mouth, and nose.
Those resonators that are below the larynx - lower (chest). These are the trachea and bronchi.

If we use the resonators correctly, send the sound correctly, then when lower sounds sound, the chest vibrates, and when high sounds sound, the bridge of the nose vibrates.

sound attack

The sound appears at the moment when the air breaks through the closed glottis, and the cords begin to vibrate.

The very first moment after the breath is taken and the sound appears is the attack of the sound.

There are three types of sound attack:
- solid
– soft
- aspirated

Solid attack
Solid attack - complete closure of the ligaments until a sound occurs, and then an energetic breakthrough of the ligaments with air. A solid attack makes it possible to accurately move from sound to sound without any "entrances". To develop accurate intonation, works performed on a solid attack will help - strong-willed, marching, energetic.

soft attack
A soft attack is the closure of the ligaments at the moment the sound occurs. Therefore, a barely noticeable, calm singing appears. On a soft attack, lyrical, melodious works are sung, for example, lullabies. Such works are recommended for performance if the vocalist's sound does not “flow”, does not “stretch”.

Breath attack
Aspiratory attack is sometimes used as a means of artistic expression, as coloring. The sound appears when the ligaments are not completely closed, and then, as if belatedly, the ligaments are completely closed.
In singing, they use hard and soft attack. And only rarely, for example, to convey the intonations of a sigh, crying, they use an aspirated attack.

Knowledge of the structure and functional organization of speech activity allows us to represent the complex mechanism of speech in the norm, analyze speech pathologies and correctly determine the ways of corrective action. Speech is one of the highest mental functions of a person. The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs in which the leading role belongs to the brain. The basis of any higher mental function is complex functional systems located in different areas of the central nervous system, at different levels and united by the unity of the working action.

Speech is the perfect form of communication that only humans possess. In the process of communication, people exchange thoughts, influence each other. Speech communication takes place through language.

Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The words necessary for the expression of thought are selected, connected according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounced by articulation of the speech organs. In order for a person's speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be regular and accurate, automatic, which would be carried out without special efforts. The speaker follows only the train of thought, and not the position of the tongue in the mouth. This happens as a result of the speech mechanism. To understand the mechanism of speech delivery, it is necessary to know the structure of the speech apparatus well. The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive). The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), and nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

Speech develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech. The temporal gyrus is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive. Therefore, we can perceive someone else's speech. For understanding speech, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important. The occipital lobe is the visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech. The subcortical nuclei are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech. The cerebral cortex is connected with the organs of speech by two types of neural pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal path begins in the cerebral cortex. From the periphery to the center, that is, from the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal paths. The centripetal pathway begins in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons, and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. In the nuclei of the trunk, the cranial nerves originate: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal. They innervate the muscles that move the lower jaw, facial muscles, muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate, as well as the muscles of the neck, muscles of the tongue. Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: respiratory, vocal and articulatory. The respiratory section is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from normal. The exhalation is much longer than the inhalation; at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half that of normal breathing. The vocal department is the larynx and the vocal folds located in it. Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables, words.

Organs of speech articulation - organs that provide movement of the oral cavity. Way (articulation) - the position that the organs occupy (take) during movement. The organs of the oral cavity and the oral cavity itself are important for articulation. It is in it that the voice is repeatedly amplified and differentiated into certain sounds, providing the emergence of phonemes. Here, in the oral cavity, sounds of a new quality are formed - noises, from which articulate speech is subsequently formed. The ability to differentiate the voice into certain phonemes occurs because the organs of the oral cavity and the structures that form the oral cavity are in motion. This leads to a change in the size and shape of the oral cavity, to the formation of certain closures that close or narrow the oral cavity. When closing, the air flow is delayed, then with noise it breaks through this shutter. This contributes to the emergence of some certain speech sounds. When narrowing, a rather long noise occurs, which occurs as a result of friction of the air flow against the walls of the narrowed cavity. This produces a different kind of speech sounds.

The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate, and alveoli. In the anatomical relationship, the mouth is divided into two parts: the vestibule of the mouth and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule of the mouth is a slit-like space bounded from the outside by the lips and cheeks, from the inside by the teeth and alveolar processes of the jaws.

Mimic muscles are laid in the thickness of the lips and cheeks; outside they are covered with skin, and from the side of the vestibule of the oral cavity - with a mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips and cheeks passes to the alveolar processes of the jaws, while folds form on the midline - the frenulums of the upper and lower lips. On the alveolar processes of the jaws, the mucous membrane is tightly fused with the periosteum and is called the gum. The oral cavity itself is bounded from above by a hard and soft palate, from below by the diaphragm of the mouth, in front and from the sides by teeth and alveolar processes, and from behind through the pharynx it communicates with the pharynx. The lips are a mobile formation. They are formed by the circular muscle of the mouth, which provides a certain state of the oral cavity (open, closed) and provides the ability to satisfy the need for food (sucking).

The lips have several more muscles in their composition - these are the square muscle of the lower lip, the chin muscle, the incisor muscle, the triangular, the square muscle of the upper lip, the zygomatic muscle (canine), the muscles that lift the upper lip and the corner of the mouth. These muscles provide mobility of the circular muscle - they are attached at one end to the bone of the face of the skull, and at the other end they are woven into the circular muscle of the mouth in a certain place. Without forming the basis of the lips, they provide the mobility of the lips in different directions. Lips are a special shutter of a certain group of sounds, they actively participate in the articulation of other sounds, which correspond to one or another mode of language. The outlines of the lips also provide articulation. The lips contribute to changing the size and shape of the vestibule of the mouth, thereby influencing the resonance of the entire oral cavity. Of great importance in speech activity is the cervical muscle (muscle of trumpeters). Being a fairly powerful formation that closes the oral cavity on the sides, it plays a sufficient role in the articulation of sounds. It forms a certain way together with the circular muscle of the mouth for pronouncing certain sounds, changes the size and shape of the oral cavity, providing a change in resonance during articulation.

The cheeks are a muscular formation. The buccal muscle is covered on the outside with skin, and on the inside with a mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the inside of the entire oral cavity, with the exception of the teeth. The group of chewing muscles should also be attributed to the system of muscles that change the shape of the mouth opening. These include the chewing muscle, temporal muscle, internal and external pterygoid muscles. The masseter and temporalis muscles elevate the lower jaw.

The pterygoid muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward. When these muscles contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed at the same time) and partly due to contraction of the neck muscles. The muscles of the lips and cheeks are controlled by the facial nerve. The chewing muscles receive commands from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve. The hard palate also belongs to the organs of articulation.

The hard palate is a bony wall that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In its anterior part, the hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part, by the horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate. In its form, the hard palate is a vault convex upwards. The size of the palatine vault varies greatly from person to person.

In cross section, it can be higher and narrower or flatter and wider, and in the longitudinal direction, the vault of the palate can be domed, gently sloping or steep. The hard palate is the passive component of the lingo-palatal shutter. The configuration of the hard palate is marked by diversity. There is a certain classification of the hard palate. In horizontal section, three forms of the sky are distinguished: an oval shape, a blunt oval, and a pointed oval oval. For speech articulation, the curvature of the palatine vault in the sagittal direction is especially significant. With various forms of the arch, there are certain methods for the formation of various ways.

The soft palate is a formation that serves as a continuation of the hard palate formed by the bones. The soft palate is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called the velum of the palate. When the palatine muscles are relaxed, the palatine curtain hangs freely down, and when they contract, it rises up and back. In the middle of the palatine curtain there is an elongated process - the uvula. The soft palate is located on the border of the oral cavity and pharynx and serves as a second reed seal. In its structure, the soft palate is an elastic muscular plate, which is very mobile and, under certain conditions, can close the entrance to the nasopharynx, rising up and back and opening it. This regulates the amount and direction of the airflow from the larynx, directing this flow either through the nasal cavity or through the oral cavity, while the voice sounds differently. When the soft palate is lowered, air enters the nasal cavity, the voice sounds muffled. When the soft palate is raised, it comes into contact with the walls of the pharynx and ensures that sound production from the nasal cavity is turned off, only the oral cavity, pharyngeal cavity and upper part of the larynx resonate.

The tongue is a massive muscular organ. With closed jaws, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is movable, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. Distinguish between the tip and front edge of the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue and the back of the tongue. The back of the tongue is conditionally divided into three parts: anterior, middle and posterior. This division is purely functional, and there are no anatomical boundaries between these three parts. Most of the muscles that make up the mass of the tongue have a longitudinal direction - from the root of the tongue to its tip. The fibrous septum of the tongue runs along the entire tongue in the midline. It is fused with the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue.

The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group start from the bone skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. The muscles of the other group are attached with both ends to different parts of the mucous membrane. The contraction of the muscles of the first group ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole, while the contraction of the muscles of the second group changes the shape and position of the individual parts of the tongue. The first group of muscles of the tongue includes the genio-lingual muscle, the hyoid-lingual muscle, and the awl-lingual muscle. The second group of muscles of the tongue includes the upper longitudinal muscle of the tongue, located under the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue, the lower longitudinal muscle of the tongue, which is a long narrow bundle located under the mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, the transverse muscle of the tongue, consisting of several bundles, which, starting at septum of the tongue, pass through a mass of longitudinal fibers and attach to the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the lateral edge of the tongue. The intricately intertwined system of the muscles of the tongue and the variety of points of their attachment provide the ability to widely change the shape, position and tension of the tongue, which plays an important role in the process of pronouncing speech sounds, as well as in the processes of chewing and swallowing.

The floor of the oral cavity is formed by a muscular-membranous wall running from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone. The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold in the midline - the frenulum of the tongue. The hyoid bone plays an active role in the process of tongue motility. It is located in the midline of the neck, just below and behind the chin. This bone serves as a site of attachment not only for the skeletal muscles of the tongue, but also for the muscles that form the diaphragm or lower wall of the oral cavity. The hyoid bone, together with muscle formations, provide a change in the oral cavity in its shape and size, which means they take part in the resonator function.

The loudness and distinctness of speech sounds are created thanks to the resonators that are located in the entire extension tube. The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity. In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals, the pharyngeal and oral cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - an extension tube, which, due to its structure, can change in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed, and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance.

As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are amplified, others are muffled. There is a specific speech timbre of sounds. For example, when pronouncing the sound “a”, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and stretches. And when pronouncing the sound “and”, on the contrary, the oral cavity contracts, and the pharynx expands. One larynx does not create a specific speech sound, it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral, nasal). The extension pipe, in the formation of speech sounds, performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds that are located in the larynx). Noise vibrators are the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the junctions between these organs pierced by a jet of air.

With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants are formed. With the simultaneous activation of the tone vibrator (oscillations of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorous consonants are formed. The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form a voice, the third is a resonator, which gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, resulting from the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus. In order for the pronunciation of words to be carried out in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program.

The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech-motor analyzer. In the respiratory, phonator and resonator systems. Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result certain speech sounds appear and oral (or expressive) speech is formed. Let us briefly summarize the functions of the various components of the speech apparatus in the articulation of sounds. The peculiarity of the extension tube of the human vocal apparatus is that it not only amplifies the voice and gives it an individual color (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.

Some parts of the extension pipe (nasal cavity, hard palate, posterior pharyngeal wall) are motionless and are called passive organs of pronunciation. Other parts (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) are mobile and are called active pronunciation organs. When the lower jaw moves, the mouth opens or closes.

Various movements of the tongue and lips change the shape of the oral cavity, form bonds or cracks in different places of the oral cavity. The soft palate, rising and pressing against the back wall of the pharynx, closes the entrance to the nose, descending - opens it. The activity of the active organs of pronunciation, which is called articulation, ensures the formation of speech sounds, i.e., phonemes. The acoustic features of speech sounds, which make it possible to distinguish them from each other by ear, are due to the peculiarities of their articulation. Consider the features of the articulation of vowels. A feature common to all vowels that distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonants is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound that arises in the larynx in the extension tube is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The sound of a voice, as was said, consists of a fundamental tone and a whole series of additional tones - overtones.

In the extension pipe, not only the fundamental tone is enhanced, but also the overtones, and not all overtones are amplified equally: depending on the shape of the resonating cavities, mainly the oral cavity and partly the pharynx, some frequency areas are amplified more, others less, and some frequencies and are not enhanced at all. These enhanced frequency regions, or formants, characterize the acoustic features of various vowels. Each vowel corresponds to a special location of the active pronunciation organs - tongue, lips, soft palate. Due to this, the same sound that arose in the larynx acquires in the extension pipe, mainly in the oral cavity, the color characteristic of a particular vowel.

The fact that the features of the sound of vowels do not depend on the sound that arose in the larynx, but only on the vibrations of the air in the correspondingly established oral cavity, can be verified by simple experiments. If you give the oral cavity the form that it takes when pronouncing one or another vowel, for example, “a”, “o”, or “u”, and at this time let a stream of air from the furs past the mouth or flick a finger on the cheek, then you can clearly hear a peculiar sound, quite distinctly reminiscent of the corresponding vowel sound. The shape of the mouth and pharynx, characteristic of each vowel, depends mainly on the position of the tongue and lips. The movements of the tongue back and forth, its greater or lesser elevation to a certain part of the sky change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form a resonator opening and lengthen the resonating cavity.

The articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account: 1) the participation or non-participation of the lips; 2) degree of tongue elevation; and 3) location of tongue elevation. A distinctive feature of the articulation of consonants is that when they are formed, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled air stream in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic features of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its occurrence. In some cases, the organs of pronunciation form a complete closure, which is torn with force by a stream of exhaled air.

At the moment of this break (or explosion), noise is produced. This is how stop, or explosive, consonants are formed. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation only approaches the passive one, so that a narrow gap is formed between them. In these cases, the noise occurs as a result of the friction of the air jet against the edges of the slot. This is how fricative consonants are formed. If the organs of pronunciation, which have formed a complete closure, do not open instantly, by means of an explosion, but by passing the closure into a gap, then a complex articulation arises with a stop beginning and a slotted end. Such articulation is typical for the formation of stop-slit (fused) consonants, or affricates. The air jet, overcoming the resistance of the pronunciation organ blocking its path, can bring it into a state of vibration (trembling), resulting in a kind of intermittent sound. This is how trembling consonants, or vibrants, are formed. If there is complete closure in one place of the extension tube (for example, between the lips or between the tongue and teeth), in another place (for example, on the sides of the tongue or behind the lowered soft palate), there may be a free passage for the air jet.

In these cases, almost no noise occurs, but the sound of the voice acquires a characteristic timbre and is noticeably muffled. The consonants formed with such articulation are called stop-passing. Depending on where the air stream is directed - into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity, the stop-passing consonants are divided into nasal and oral. The features of the characteristic noise for consonants depend not only on the method of its formation, but also on the place of occurrence. Both explosion noise and friction noise can occur at different locations in the extension pipe. In some cases, the active organ of pronunciation, forming a bow or gap, is the lower lip, and the resulting consonants are called labial. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation is the language, and then the consonants are called lingual. When most consonants are formed, the main method of articulation (bow, narrowing, vibration) can be supplemented by additional articulation in the form of raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate, or the so-called palatalization, the acoustic result of palatalization of consonants is their softening.

The classification of consonants is based on the following features: 1) the participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) the absence or presence of palatalization, in other words, hardness or softness. Consonants formed with the help of voice and with mild noise are called sonorants. Sonorant consonants are opposed to all other consonants, which are called noisy. Unlike sonorants, they are formed with the participation of sufficiently strong and clearly distinguishable noises. Noisy consonants are divided into two groups. One group is consonants formed without the participation of the voice, with the help of noise alone. They are called deaf. When they are pronounced, the glottis is opened, the vocal cords do not oscillate.

Another group is consonants formed with the help of noise and accompanied by a voice. They are called voiced. Most noisy consonants are pairs of voiceless and voiced. According to the method of articulation, i.e. According to the way the barrier is formed between the active and passive organs of pronunciation, the consonants are divided into five groups. Noisy consonants form three groups. The first is stop, or explosive. The second is slotted (protoric), or fricative. The third is occlusive-slotted (fused), or affricates. Sonorant consonants are divided into two groups according to the method of articulation: stop-passing and trembling, or vibrants. According to the place of articulation, consonants are primarily divided into two groups depending on the active pronunciation organ involved in their formation, namely, labial and lingual. The labial consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the passive organ relative to which the lower lip articulates: labial and labial-dental.

Lingual consonants, depending on the passive organ in relation to which the language articulates, are divided into five groups: lingual-dental, lingual-alveolar, lingual-anteropalatal, lingual-mid palatal, lingual-posterior palatal. Palatalized consonants (that is, consonants formed using the additional articulation described above, which consists in raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate) are called soft, in contrast to non-palatalized, or hard consonants. Most consonants are hard and soft pairs.

Topic 5. Module 6. Peripheral and central parts of the speech apparatus.

Speech as a special means of communication. The main sections of the speech apparatus: peripheral and central. Organization, regulation and control of speech activity. Sensory and motor speech.

Basic concepts: Wernicke's center, Broca's center, communicative function of speech, articulatory organs of speech, sensory speech (impressive), motor speech (expressive).

Speech as a special means of communication.

The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which peripheral and central speech apparatuses are distinguished.

The composition of the peripheral speech apparatus includes the executive organs of voice formation and pronunciation, as well as the sensory and motor nerves related to them. The central speech apparatus is located in the brain and consists of cortical centers, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves.

The following presentation is mainly devoted to a description of the normal structure and functions, as well as the most important disorders of the peripheral speech apparatus. As for the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the central speech apparatus, their detailed presentation is included in the task of the course of neuropathology and partly speech therapy. In this regard, only brief anatomical and physiological information concerning the central mechanisms of speech will be covered here.

Knowledge of anatomical and physiological mechanisms is necessary in order to study the complex mechanisms of human speech activity. Information about the structure of the speech sensory system allows a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and correctly determines the ways of speech correction.

Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions. It is formed on the basis of the integrative activity of the brain. Integrative activity is the unification of all structures involved in the speech act to implement the speech function. The leading function in the formation and implementation of speech activity is performed by the brain. At the level of the brain there are two speech centers: the sensory center of speech (Wernicke's center) and the motor center of speech (Broca's center). The theory of isolated speech centers arose at the beginning of the 20th century. This theory did not consider the complex system of interactions of brain structures aimed at the formation and implementation of speech activity. I.P. Pavlov proposed a more complex conceptually new direction of this theory. He proved that the speech function of the cortex is not only complex, but also changeable, that is, capable of restructuring. This theory is called "dynamic localization"

The modern idea of ​​the organization of speech activity is presented in the theory of "dynamic localization of functional systems". The developers of this theory are P. K. Anokhin, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria and other scientists. They established that the basis of any higher mental function is not the interaction of individual centers, but the interaction of complex functional systems. A functional system is a complex of brain structures and processes occurring in them, united functionally in order to achieve a specific adaptive result.

Speech is the most advanced form of communication compared to other forms of communication. Thanks to speech, not only the exchange of information between people takes place, speech underlies the development of abstract-logical thinking. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express the thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounces the phrase, thanks to the friendly interaction of the organs of articulation. The speaker follows only the flow of thought, and not the positions of the organs of articulation. This is ensured by the automation of the movements of the organs of articulation. They are carried out without special arbitrary efforts and control.

In physiological terms, speech is a complex motor act, carried out according to the mechanism of conditioned reflex activity. It is formed on the basis of kinesthetic stimuli emanating from the speech muscles, including the muscles of the larynx and respiratory muscles. I.P. Pavlov, speaking of the second signal system as a word, pronounced, audible and visible, pointed out that the physiological basis, or basal component, of the second signal system is kinesthetic, motor stimuli that enter the cerebral cortex from the speech organs.

The sound expressiveness of speech is controlled with the help of an auditory analyzer, the normal activity of which plays a very important role in the development of speech in a child. Mastery of speech occurs in the process of interaction of the child with the environment, in particular with the speech environment, which is a source of imitation for the child. In this case, the child uses not only a sound, but also a visual analyzer, imitating the corresponding movements of the lips, tongue, etc. The kinesthetic stimuli that arise in this case enter the corresponding area of ​​​​the cerebral cortex. A conditioned reflex connection is established and consolidated between the three analyzers (motor, auditory and visual), which ensures the further development of normal speech activity.

Observations on the development of speech in blind children show that the role of the visual analyzer in the formation of speech is of secondary importance, since speech in such children, although it has some peculiarities, develops generally normally and, as a rule, without special outside interference.

Thus, the development of speech is connected mainly with the activity of auditory and motor analyzers.

The main sections of the speech apparatus: peripheral and central.

General scheme of the structure of the speech sensory system.

The general scheme of the structure of the speech sensory system includes three sections: peripheral, conductive and central sections.

Peripheral apparatus(executive) includes three departments: respiratory, voice, articulation. Its main function is reproducing.

The respiratory section consists of the chest and lungs. Speech activity is closely related to respiratory function. Speech is carried out in the exhalation phase. The air jet performs both a voice-forming and an articulatory function. At the moment of speech, the exhalation is longer than the inhalation, since it is on the exhalation that the process of speaking takes place. At the moment of speech, a person makes fewer respiratory movements than during normal physiological breathing. At the moment of speech, the number of inhaled and exhaled air increases by about 3 times. Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Exhalation at the moment of pronouncing the phrase is carried out with the participation of the respiratory muscles of the abdominal wall and intercostal muscles. Due to this, the depth and duration of the exhalation appear, and because of this, a strong air stream is formed, which is necessary for sound pronunciation.

The vocal apparatus includes the larynx and vocal folds. The larynx is a tube that consists of cartilage and soft tissues. From above, the larynx passes into the pharynx, and from below into the trachea. On the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It serves as a valve for swallowing movements. The epiglottis descends and prevents food and saliva from entering the larynx.

In men, the larynx is larger and the vocal cords are longer. The length of the vocal cords in men is approximately 20-24 mm, and in women - 18-20 mm. In children before puberty, the length of the vocal cords in boys and girls does not differ. The larynx is small and does not grow evenly in different periods: it grows noticeably at 5-7 years old, at 12-13 years old in girls and at 13-15 years old in boys. In girls it increases by one third, in boys by two thirds, in boys it is designated - Adam's apple.

In young children, the larynx is funnel-shaped, with age it acquires a cylindrical shape, as in adults. The vocal cords practically cover the larynx, leaving a small gap - the glottis. During normal breathing, the gap takes the form of an isosceles triangle. During phonation, the vocal cords close. The jet of exhaled air pushes them apart somewhat. Due to their elasticity, the vocal cords return to their original position, continued pressure pushes the vocal cords apart again. This mechanism continues as long as phonation occurs. This process is called vocal cord oscillation. The oscillation of the vocal cords occurs in the transverse direction, i.e. inwards and outwards. When whispering, the vocal cords are almost completely closed, only in the back there is a gap through which air passes when inhaling.

The articulation department is formed by the organs of articulation: tongue, lips, jaws, hard and soft palate, alveoli (see Profile of the organs of articulation).

Of the listed organs of articulation, the tongue, lips, lower jaw, soft palate are movable organs of articulation, and all the rest are not movable.

Language - participates in the formation of all, except for the lips. The organs of articulation, when approaching each other, form gaps or bonds. As a result of such rapprochements, phonemes are pronounced.

The loudness and distinctness of speech is formed due to resonators. The resonators are located in the extension pipe. The extension tube is formed by the pharynx, oral and nasal cavities. In humans, unlike animals, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity, therefore, only the oral and nasal cavities are distinguished. The extension pipe, due to its structure, can change in volume and shape: the oral cavity is expanded, the pharynx is narrowed, the pharynx is expanded, the oral cavity is narrowed. These changes create the phenomenon of resonance. Changing the extension pipe leads to a change in the volume and clarity of the sound.

The extension pipe in the formation of speech sounds performs two functions: a resonator and a noise vibrator. The function of the sound vibrator is performed by the vocal cords. Noise vibrators are also gaps between the lips, between the tongue and lips, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth. Bows interrupted by a jet of air, as well as cracks, form noises, therefore they are referred to as noise vibrators.

With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants are formed. And when you turn on the tone vibrator, sonorous and sonorous sounds are formed.

The nasal cavity is involved in the formation of sounds: m, n, m`, n`.

It must be emphasized that the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus (respiratory) serves to supply air, the second section (voice) serves to form a voice, and the third (articulatory) - to create a resonance phenomenon that ensures the loudness and distinctness of the sounds of our speech.

So, in order for the utterance of the word to occur, a program must be implemented. At the first stage, teams are selected at the KGM level to organize speech movements, i.e., articulation programs are formed. At the second stage, articulation programs are implemented in the executive part of the speech-motor analyzer, the respiratory, phonator and resonator systems are connected. Commands and speech movements are carried out with high accuracy, so certain sounds appear, a system of sounds, oral speech is formed.

Control over the execution of commands and the work of the speech-motor analyzer is carried out through kinesthetic sensations and with the help of auditory perception. Kinesthetic control prevents an error and introduces a correction before the sound is pronounced. Hearing control is realized at the moment of sounding the sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person can correct a mistake in speech, correct it and pronounce a word or speech statement correctly.

conductor department represented by pathways. There are two types of neural pathways: centripetal pathways (conduct information from muscles, tendons and ligaments to the central nervous system) and centrifugal pathways (conduct information from the central nervous system to muscles, tendons and ligaments).

Centripetal (sensory) nerve pathways begin with proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are located in muscles, tendons, and on the articular surfaces of the moving organs of articulation. Baroreceptors are located in the pharynx and are excited by changes in pressure in it. When we speak, proprioceptors and baroreceptors are irritated. The stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse and the nerve impulse reaches the speech zones of the cerebral cortex along the centripetal pathways.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways begin at the level of the cerebral cortex and reach the muscles of the peripheral speech apparatus. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated by cranial nerves: trigeminal V, facial VII, glossopharyngeal IX, vagus X, accessory XI, hypoglossal XII.

The trigeminal nerve (V pair of cranial nerves) innervates the muscles of the lower jaw. The facial nerve (VII pair of cranial nerves) innervates the mimic muscles of the face, the movement of the circular muscle of the mouth and moves the lips, puffing and retracting the cheeks. The glossopharyngeal (IX pair of cranial nerves) and vagus (X pair of cranial nerves) innervate the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, pharynx, and soft palate. In addition, the vagus nerve is involved in the processes of respiration and the regulation of cardiovascular activity, and the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensory nerve of the tongue. Accessory (XI pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the muscles of the neck. Hypoglossal (XII pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the tongue, promotes the implementation of various movements of the tongue, creates its amplitude.

Central department represented by speech zones at the level of the cerebral cortex. The beginning of the study of speech zones was laid by Brock in 1861. He described disorders of articulatory motility in the defeat of the lower parts of the precentral gyrus of the frontal region. Later, this area was called the motor center of Broca's speech, which is responsible for the movement of the organs of articulation.

In 1873, Wernicke describes a violation of speech understanding when the posterior sections of the superior and middle temporal gyri are affected. This area is defined as the sensory center of speech, responsible for recognizing the sounds of native speech by ear and understanding speech.

At the present stage of consideration of speech activity, it is customary to talk not about motor and sensory speech, but about impressive and expressive speech.

It is believed that both right-handed and left-handed people have the center of speech located in the left hemisphere. This statement was formulated after observing the operated patients. Speech disorders are observed in 70% of right-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 0.4% of right-handers operated on the right hemisphere. Speech dysfunction is observed in 38% of left-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 9% of left-handers operated on the right hemisphere.

The development of speech centers in the right hemisphere is possible only if the left-sided speech areas were damaged in early childhood. The formation of speech centers in the right hemisphere acts as a compensation for impaired functions.

Written speech and the process of reading are components of speech activity. These centers are located in the parieto-occipital region of the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.

The subcortical region of the cerebral cortex is involved in the formation of speech utterance. The subcortical nuclei of the strio-pallidar system are responsible for the rhythm, tempo, and expressiveness of speech utterance.

It should be noted that the implementation of speech activity is possible only under the condition of the integrative activity of all structural formations of the brain and the processes occurring in them, the interaction of all departments of the implementation of the speech function: peripheral, conductive and central.

Anatomical and physiological features of the palatopharyngeal apparatus

The sky - delimits the oral cavity and nose and pharynx.

The hard palate is the bone base, the alveolar processes are in front and on the sides, and the soft palate is behind.

The height and configuration of the hard palate affects resonance.

The soft palate is a muscular formation. The front part is motionless, the middle part is actively involved in the formation of speech, the back part is involved in swallowing. As you ascend, the soft palate lengthens.

When breathing, the soft palate is lowered and partially covers the opening between the pharynx and the oral cavity.

When swallowing, the soft palate stretches and approaches the back wall of the pharynx and contacts, while other muscles contract.

In the process of speech, repetitions are very fast muscle contractions: the soft palate approaches the back wall in an upward and backward direction.

The closing and opening times of the nasopharynx range from 0.01 sec to 1 sec. The degree of elevation depends on the fluency of speech, and on phonetics.

The maximum raising of the palate is observed when pronouncing the sound -a-, and the minimum with the sound -i-.

When blowing, swallowing and whistling, the soft palate also rises and closes the nasopharynx.

The connection between the soft palate and the larynx: a change in the soft palate leads to a change in the vocal cords (tonus of the larynx - the rise of the soft palate).

The cortical end of the auditory analyzer is located in both temporal lobes, and the cortical section of the motor analyzer is located in the anterior central gyrus of the brain, also in both hemispheres, and the cortical representation of the muscles that provide movement of the speech organs (jaws, lips, tongue, soft palate, larynx) is located in the lower sections of these convolutions.

For normal speech activity, the left (in left-handers - right) hemisphere of the brain is of particular importance. In the posterior section of the left superior temporal gyrus, the auditory speech center is located, usually called sensory (sensitive) speech center, and in the posterior section of the second and third frontal gyri of the left hemisphere is located motor(motor) speech center(Fig. 40).

Damage or diseases of the sensory center of speech lead to a violation of the sound analysis of speech. Arises sensory aphasia, at which it becomes impossible to distinguish by ear the elements of speech (phonemes and

words), and hence the understanding of speech, although the acuity of hearing and the ability to distinguish non-speech sounds remain normal.

Damage or diseases of the motor center of speech lead to a violation of the analysis and synthesis of kinesthetic (motor) stimuli that occur when pronouncing speech sounds. Coming motor aphasia, in which it becomes impossible to pronounce words and phrases, although the movements of the speech organs that are not associated with speech activity (movements of the tongue and lips, opening and closing the mouth, chewing, swallowing, etc.) are not disturbed.

Task for independent work:(1 hour)

1. Self-acquaintance with the content of the lecture.

2. Clarification of concepts from the dictionary.

3. Make a drawing of the lateral side of the left hemisphere and mark the motor and sensory centers of speech.

Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).

The composition of the peripheral speech apparatus includes: organs of the oral cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, chest and diaphragm. The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).

Breathe-helping machine

The respiratory apparatus is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. The main purpose of the respiratory apparatus is the implementation of gas exchange, that is, the delivery of oxygen to the body and the removal of carbon dioxide, and it also performs both voice-forming and articulatory functions.

The movement of the chest wall during inhalation is carried out due to the action of the so-called inspiratory muscles. Some of them expand the chest, mainly to the sides and forward (external intercostal muscles and rib lifters), others downward (diaphragm), others upward (muscles attached at one end to the upper ribs and collarbones, and at the other to the base of the skull ).

Diaphragm - a flat muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, has a domed shape; when you inhale, it goes down and becomes flatter, which allows the lungs to expand, and when you exhale, it rises again (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2.

The position of the chest, anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm:

• ****** during a quiet exhalation; --- during inhalation with costal breathing;
• ------- during inspiration during diaphragmatic breathing; ...... during inhalation and during clavicular breathing.

In addition to the main respiratory muscles, there are also auxiliary ones (for example, the muscles of the shoulder girdle and neck). The participation of auxiliary muscles in the act of breathing usually indicates that the main muscles cannot provide the necessary air supply (during running, heavy physical exertion).

The processes of vital and speech breathing are significantly different from each other.

The process of vital breathing proceeds rhythmically, in the same sequence: inhalation-exhalation - stop, inhalation-exhalation - stop. Inhalation is the most active part of the whole process. Immediately after it, relaxation of the respiratory muscles occurs, their return to a state of rest, in which they remain until a new breath. In an adult healthy person, 16-18 complete respiratory movements occur per minute. The time spent on inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same (4:5); inhalation occurs through the nose, exhalation - through the mouth. The amount of air exhaled at a time is approximately 500 cm3, but the lungs are never completely freed from air, there is always the so-called residual air. The rhythmic change of breathing phases occurs involuntarily, reflexively, outside our consciousness.

Features of speech breathing are related to the fact that speech breathing is included in the process of speech, serves it, is the basis of voice formation, the formation of speech sounds, and speech melody.

Breathing in speech is associated with its diverse flow and alternation of speech links: syllables, their groups and syntagmas, which, depending on the content, can be long and short. Thus, the moments of inhalation (speech pause), the amount of air taken in, the intensity of its expenditure cannot follow one after another in a uniform rhythmic sequence.

In speech breathing, exhalation is the most important and active link in the whole process, it is much longer than inhalation - 1:20 or even 1:30; the sequence of phases changes as follows: inhalation - stop - exhalation. Inhalation will occur mainly through the mouth (the path of inhaled air through the mouth is shorter and wider than through the nose, so it is faster and less noticeable). In addition, when inhaling through the mouth, the veil of the palate remains raised, which corresponds to its position during the pronunciation of most speech sounds.

The whole breathing process becomes more voluntary. During the stop, air is held in the chest, and then a gradual controlled exhalation occurs. Not only the duration of the exhalation is important, but also its smoothness and lightness. In order for this or that movement to be smooth, elastic, it is necessary that both agonists (in this case, inhalers, which remain tense at the end of inspiration) and antagonists, i.e., muscles acting in the opposite direction, take part in this movement (in this case, exhalers). The described phenomenon is called the support of breathing.

The duration of speech exhalation is arbitrarily regulated and depends on the content and complexity of the speech expression that the speaker is going to implement. But the arbitrariness of speech exhalation is determined by the age of the speaker: young children cannot exercise this control, so their speech is divided into short segments. Preschool children do not fully regulate the duration of speech exhalation, therefore, the complication of their speech, increased demands from adults can lead to impaired speech breathing.

The child first uses the skills of vital breathing in speech, and only in the process of speech development, under the influence of the speech of others, does he develop speech breathing. In cases of early speech pathology, breathing often remains at the level of life. The respiratory section includes the chest with lungs, bronchi and trachea.

Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to one more, the main one - gas exchange). Breathing at the time of speech is significantly different from normal when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.

It is clear that for a longer exhalation, a larger supply of air is also needed. Therefore, at the time of speech, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (approximately 3 times). Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the moment of speech is carried out with the active participation of the expiratory muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth and, in addition, increases the pressure of the air jet, without which sonorous speech is impossible.

The vocal department consists of the larynx (Fig. 3). The larynx borders the pharynx at the top, and the trachea at the bottom and is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. The entire anterior and most of the posterior surface of the larynx is formed by the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. They are interconnected by ligaments and muscles. The larynx is attached by means of various muscles from above to the pharynx and hyoid bone and from below to the sternum. The hyoid bone, in turn, is attached by muscles below to the larynx and to the sternum, and above to the lower jaw and temporal bone of the skull. Thus, movements of the larynx, pharynx, mandible, and tongue can influence the position of each of these organs.

The opening leading to the larynx from the pharyngeal cavity is called the entrance to the larynx. It is formed in front by the epiglottis, behind by arytenoid cartilages, and from the sides by arytenoid-epiglottic folds (muscles).

Rice. 3.

1 - epiglottis; 2 - skull-epiglottic fold; 3 - thyroid cartilage; 4 - false vocal cord; 5 - blinking ventricle; 6 - true vocal cord; 7 - cricoid cartilage; 8 - trachea.

The epiglottis is made up of cartilaginous tissue in the form of a leaf. Its front surface is facing the tongue, and the back - to the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending backwards and downwards during swallowing, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.

Inside the larynx, at some distance from the entrance to it, is the glottis, formed by the vocal cords. The vocal cords are at the level of the base of the arytenoid cartilages. They are formed by a thick shield-arytenoid muscle, diverging on both sides of the lumen of the larynx (in the horizontal direction). With their mass, the vocal cords almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis (Fig. 4a). When inhaling, the glottis expands and takes the form of a triangle (Fig. 4b), facing forward with its apex and backward with its base. When exhaling, the gap narrows.

Outside of the vocal cords, slightly above them, in the same direction are the so-called false vocal cords, which are two folds of the mucous membrane covering the submucosal tissue and a small muscle bundle. Normally, the false vocal cords take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not approach each other.

Rice. 4.

a - during sounding: 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal cords are close; 3 - the glottis is closed; b - with calm breathing: 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal cords diverge at an angle; 3 - the glottis is open for free air flow.

The vocal cords have a special muscular structure, different from the structure of other muscles. Due to the special structure of the muscles, the vocal cords can oscillate both with their entire mass, and with one part, for example, half, third, edges, etc. While part of the vocal muscle vibrates, the rest of the muscle mass can be in a state of complete rest . Those muscle fibers of the vocal cords that go in an oblique direction compress a certain section of the vocal muscle and cause only one or another segment of it to vibrate (they play the role of silencers). The activity of all these internal laryngeal muscles provides the origin of sound.

External laryngeal muscles surround the larynx and hold it at a certain level, which is extremely necessary, since the air exhaled from the lungs with one force or another tends to raise the larynx upward, and without fixing the larynx in a low position, voice formation becomes impossible. Fixation of the larynx is possible due to the tension of the oppositely acting muscles that attach it to the hyoid and sternum bones. Its low position depends on the position of the lower jaw, the tongue and the degree of tension of the muscles of the pharynx and pharynx: a) with an insufficiently lowered lower jaw, the hyoid bone, and with it the larynx, rise upward; b) hunched over and moved away from the front teeth, the tongue also pulls the hyoid bone and larynx upward due to the muscle connecting the tongue to the hyoid bone; c) raising the larynx is also facilitated by excessive tension of the palatopharyngeal muscle.

In children before the onset of puberty (i.e., puberty), there are no differences in the size and structure of the larynx between boys and girls.

In general, in children the larynx is small and grows unevenly in different periods. Its noticeable growth occurs at the age of 5-7 years, and then - during the puberty: in girls at 12-13 years old, in boys at 13-15 years old. At this time, the size of the larynx increases in girls by one third, and in boys by two thirds, the vocal folds lengthen; in boys, the Adam's apple begins to appear.

In young children, the shape of the larynx is funnel-shaped. As the child grows, the shape of the larynx gradually approaches the cylindrical.

The mechanism of voice formation is implemented as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are in a closed state (Fig. 5). The jet of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. By virtue of their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e., median position, so that, as a result of the continuing pressure of the exhaled air stream, they move apart again to the sides, etc. Closing and opening continue until the pressure of the voice-forming expiratory jet stops. Thus, during phonation, vocal folds vibrate. These vibrations are made in the transverse, and not in the longitudinal direction, i.e., the vocal folds move inward and outward, and not up and down.

Rice. 5.

A - when breathing; B - during phonation; B - when whispering

When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there is a gap in the form of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate, but the friction of the air jet against the edges of a small triangular slit causes noise, which is perceived by us in the form of a whisper.

The voice has power, height and timbre. The strength of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (range) of the vibrations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e., the force of exhalation. The resonator cavities of the extension tube (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers, also have a significant effect on the strength of the voice.

The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, affect the individual "color" of the voice, or timbre. It is thanks to the timbre that we distinguish people by voice.

The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, which in turn depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker and less tense they are, the lower the sound of the voice.