Great emotionality of perception. Methodology for determining the level of development of differentiation of visual perception "Settlement of residents

At the end of the last century, N. N. Lange, based on the results of his own experiments and summarizing from his own original point of view the results of research accumulated by that time in the field of human reaction time, formulated a general law of perception that characterizes the development of impressions (images of perception) when objects act on sense organs. The law says that “the process of any perception consists in an extremely rapid change of a whole series of moments or steps, with each previous step representing a mental state of a less specific, more general nature, and each next one more private and differentiated” (N. N. Lange, 1893 , p. 1).

Later, in Russian psychology, this law was repeatedly confirmed in various studies conducted by various authors, and in the West - without any reference to N. N. Lange, whose work there, apparently, is not known.

It is easy to see that the law of perception of N. N. Lange completely coincides with the basic meaning of the general law of mental development, to which the previous chapters were devoted. And this is no coincidence. N. N. Lange was well acquainted with the works of I. M. Sechenov. The views of I. M. Sechenov, as well as personal contacts with him, had a noticeable influence on the direction of N. N. Lange's research, on his approach to the problem of perception. N. N. Lange also refers to Spencer, who considered the evolutionary development of sensitivity as a process of gradual differentiation and specialization of certain primary, initially undifferentiated, gross sensations. Hence N. N. Lange's understanding of the law of perception as a result of the general biological development of organisms. In the sequence of phases of perception, he wrote, “one must see a parallel to those stages that developed in the process of the general evolution of animals: as the sense organs and nerve centers differentiated, more and more special properties of things were revealed for the consciousness of the animal ...

Just as the embryonic development of man repeats in a few months the stages that the general development of the genus once went through, so individual perception repeats in a few tenths of a second those stages that developed over millions of years in the general “evolution of animals” (ibid., p. 2).

Subsequently, the law of perception was considered as a manifestation of a broader fundamental regularity by other authors. In Soviet psychology, MS Shekhter (1978) noted the similarity of the phases of the microgenesis of perception with the phases that take place in the ontogenesis of the child's perception. A. A. Mitkin formulated the position that the phases of perception that make up the content of N. N. Lange’s law are “the most general genetic law that reflects the features of phylogenetic and individual learning of perceptual systems” (1988, p. 159).

In Werner's theory, which we wrote about in the corresponding chapter VI, the microgenesis of acts of perception acted as one of the spheres of mental development, in which, like in all others, the general universal orthogenetic principle operates.

In this chapter, we will consider the experimental data obtained by different authors, confirming the law of N. N. Lange, as well as expanding its scope to the area of ​​establishing the conceptual affiliation of objects.

Microgenesis of formation of images of perception of complex objects

To study the genesis of perception images and conceptual categorization, standard procedures for varying the duration, intensity, and size of stimulus objects are traditionally used. Verbal descriptions and drawings given by subjects under different exposure conditions are recorded. In addition, in cognitive psychology, for the same purposes, registration of the reaction time of discrimination and choice is widely used, the interpretation of which coincides with that given by N. N. Lange: the shorter the reaction time when distinguishing objects by any signal feature, the earlier this sign becomes the object of perception or is identified with the standard.

In the study by B. F. Lomov (1986, a, b) the duration of exposure of flat figures composed of straight and curved lines, the distance to them and the illumination were varied. Verbal descriptions and drawings were analyzed. The results clearly showed that perception begins with a phase of a global, undivided "spot", in which, in a rough approximation, the position of the figure in the field of view, its general dimensions and proportions are represented. Then follows the reflection phase of the sharpest

differences in the contour and the main, largest parts. Following the large ones, small details are revealed, and the whole process ends with an accurate analytically dissected perception of the form.

A similar sequence of "clarification" of images of perception was revealed by Zander in experiments with an increase in the size of the presented figures (quoted by I. Hoffman, 1986, pp. 24-25).

Analyzing the data obtained by Sander, in relation to one of the figures, Hoffman builds an expressive picture of the gradual differentiation of perception images. The first feature to be found is that, in relation to the figure shown in the figure, can be called "angularity" and which is a global feature of the figure as a whole. This first impression is then refined, and the figure is divided into two large substructures (a square and a triangle), followed by the identification of the internal details of the lower part of the figure, and, finally, an accurate reproduction of the original.

At present, based on the results of a number of similar experiments, as well as experiments carried out using the method of "conflict" interfering stimuli, and experiments with measuring the reaction time when differentiating stimuli according to various features, it is considered firmly established that the recognition of visual stimuli begins with the global characteristics of the figure as a whole. , which are then supplemented with gradually revealed details (B. M. Velichkovsky, 1982; I. Hoffman, 1986). We add that in this process, judging by the data of B. F. Lomov, large details, as a rule, are revealed before small ones.

Werner's laboratory analyzed the responses of adult subjects to tachistoscopic presentation (exposure time 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 s) of Rorschach spots. It was found that the percentage of responses based on an integral, but amorphous and diffuse form, naturally fell with increasing exposure time. At the same time, the percentage of complete responses with a "good form", i.e., dissected and detailed, just as naturally increased.

In all the studies reviewed, the phase dynamics of the formation of perception images was studied in a situation of varying external conditions of perception, starting with the most unfavorable (short exposure time, low illumination, small size, large distance) and ending with the most favorable (long duration, high illumination, etc.). ). In contrast, in the study of L. M. Vecker, another technique was used, aimed at gradually improving the internal conditions of perception by improving the conditions for the process of simulating the image. The method of element-by-element film presentation of parts of the contour was applied with a gradual increase in the projection speed (L. M. Vekker, 1974). results

of this study as a whole coincided with the results of all previous ones, except that the very first initial phase of the process of perception, the open-loop phase, was discovered. The remaining phases generally repeated those described earlier and are presented by the author as follows:

1. Amorphous and variable structure of a closed circuit. 2. Identification of sharp shifts in curvature. 3. Rough reproduction of the general form with some violations of proportions, angles and mixing of details. 4. Adequate reproduction of the form.

The same four phases (as well as the initial phase of an open circuit) were revealed in the study of tactile perception with a consistent improvement in its internal conditions - from tracing the contour along the resting hand, through touch with one index finger, to free palpation.

It is significant that Wecker and his collaborators have shown that the age-related development of images of representations has exactly the same dynamics. In preschoolers and the youngest schoolchildren, representations are characterized by vagueness and uncertainty. Then there is a phase of more specific, but still not quite adequate representations, and only in schoolchildren of grades V-VI do the representations reach full correspondence with their objects. With age, the accuracy of reproduction in representations of the size of the displayed objects also increases. Therefore, the author believes, one can speak of a universal regularity in the formation of sensual images, no matter what aspect of this formation we consider. In all cases, the image “progresses in stages from a general, vague, undivided and only topologically invariant structure to an adequate, maximally individualized, metrically invariant structure” (L. M. Vekker, 1974, p. 288).

Microgenesis of conceptual identification of objects

In the studies of J. Bruner (1977) and M. Potter (1971), the conceptual categorization of objects was studied in difficult conditions of perception - in low light, poor focus, etc. Summarizing their results, J. Bruner came to the conclusion that in the course of conceptual identification, there is a gradual narrowing, a consistent limitation of the categories to which the observed object belongs. MS Shekhter (1981), analyzing this conclusion of J. Bruner, rightly concludes that a more accurate, definite categorization of objects should be associated with finding their new, additional features. In other words, the consistent restriction of categories should involve taking into account an increasing number of features of objects.

Modern cognitive psychology has taken another step in this direction. It has been found that, similarly to

In the perception of stimulus-objects, their global and then local properties are first processed, and when comparing sensory influences with sensory features of the representation of concepts in memory, global features are first compared, and then gradually smaller details are included in the process (I. Hoffman, 1986). Therefore, within the framework of a certain hierarchy of concepts, belonging to a concept is most quickly and earliest established in relation to the most abstract sensory concept. This pattern has been confirmed in a number of studies with registration of the time it took to establish that images of different objects belong to previously named sensory concepts of varying degrees of generality. At the same time, if the drawings are presented tachistoscopically for a very short time, it turns out that their assignment to the most general sensory concepts is carried out with the greatest reliability.

Microgenesis of recognition of differences in pitch and loudness of sounds

In the psychological literature on the problems of sensitivity, it was noted long ago that with very slight differences in the pitch of two successively presented sounds, there is a stage when the subjects, having already discovered that the sounds are different, nevertheless cannot say which of them is higher and which is lower (E Titchener, G. Whipple, K. Seashore). To answer the last question, the difference in pitch must be increased. This phenomenon became the subject of a special study in the work of B. M. Teplov and M. N. Borisova (1957). In their interpretation, the phenomenon is based on the presence of two successive thresholds: the threshold of simple and the threshold of differentiated discrimination, when the first is naturally lower than the second. The threshold of simple discrimination is the very first, rough stage of discrimination, at which it is only revealed that the sounds are different, while the nature of the differences is not yet captured. To do this, it is necessary to determine the direction of the differences in pitch, i.e., to give a differentiated assessment of the relationship between sounds, to determine whether the pitch of the second sound is higher or lower compared to the pitch of the first.

Recently, the same two thresholds have been discovered for the conditions for comparing sounds in terms of loudness (K. V. Bardin et al., 1985). The phenomenon of simple discrimination, which took place at the smallest differences, manifested itself in the fact that, when distinguishing between two stimuli close in intensity, the subjects could not determine which of them was louder, but at the same time they clearly felt the dissimilarity of the stimuli, their difference. To determine which of the stimuli is louder, the difference between them in intensity had to be increased.

The presence of a threshold of simple discrimination at first glance may seem rather paradoxical: how is it that the subject knows for sure that the sounds are different, and at the same time, what exactly the difference is, does not know?

But the shade of paradoxicality is completely removed if we take into account that the detection of a difference between stimuli is based on a rough, primary, global assessment of only the fact of difference, and the determination of the direction, the nature of the difference requires reliance on more differentiated signs of relations between stimuli: higher or lower, louder or quieter. B. M. Teplov and M. N. Borisova write on this occasion that the determination of the threshold of differentiated discrimination involves the isolation and differentiation of one of the two directions of changes in the quality of the sounds in question. In terms of cognitive psychology, this means that additional, more local features of the relationship of sounds in pitch or loudness should be identified. Since for this the degree of distinction must be increased, we can speak of two successive phases of distinction: the first, more coarse, primitive and global, and the second, more subtle, dissected and differentiated.

Microgenesis of recognition of a simple sign of visual stimuli (angle of inclination of lines)

In the experiments of M. E. Kissin (1976; M. S. Shekhter, 1981), lines of different inclination were presented tachystoscopically with subsequent masking image - vertical (0 °) and lines deviating from the vertical by 6 °, 12 °, 18 ° , 24° and 30°. The vertical served as a standard, and the subject's task was to determine in each presentation which stimulus was presented - a reference (vertical) or not. The time of recognition and detailed verbal self-reports of the subjects about the presented stimuli were recorded.

The study found two remarkable facts.

The first is that at the smallest exposures, when the subjects first had sufficiently clear and definite object visual images (20-40 ms), among them there were not only images of clear thin lines corresponding to real images, but also images of fuzzy blurry lines. , stripes and even sectors of a circle and ellipses. In other words, when lines are presented, the very first impressions often occupy a larger space in space, are more stretched in width than real lines. The limiting limits of such stretching are not very large, they do not exceed 18°. As the exposure time increases, the frequency of appearance of such “extended” images decreases, and at 70 ms they completely disappear.

However, when the subjects already saw a clear thin line at an exposure time of 20-100 ms, they often could not determine its slope, could not say whether it was a standard or not. But at the same time, in many cases they quite definitely indicated that the stimulus was in a certain range of options, for example, in the range

0-18°, 0-12° or 0-6°. Thus, the slope of a clear line is localized precisely in that zone of space that was perceived as solid at the previous identification phase (a strip, a sector of a circle, etc.).

As the exposure time increased, the range of this expanded "zone of presence" narrowed from 0-18° to 0-12° and 0-6°. This is the second remarkable fact obtained in the work of M. E. Kissin: the degree of slope of the line is first established roughly, approximately, globally generalized, and then more and more accurately; first, large, gross deviations are “cut off” from the standard, and then the slope values ​​that are closer and closer to it. The whole process of microgenesis is carried out in such a way that “at first, a coarser differentiation occurs”, but ... “at any phase there is quite reliable knowledge about the presented stimulus, although not sufficiently specific” (M. S. Shekhter, 1981, p. 65).

The phenomenological data of M.E. Kissin are in good agreement with the results obtained by us in a psychophysiological experiment on the study of the microgenesis of the states of local excitability of different points of the visual analyzer when an object is isolated from the background (N.I. Chuprikova, 1967, 1972).

Microgenesis of the formation of a local focus of increased excitability, corresponding to the projection of an object isolated from the background

In front of the subject was a large square panel, on which 36 small electric lamps were mounted at a distance of 5.5 s from each other, forming 6 horizontal and 6 vertical intersecting rows. Individual lamps of the panel were the objects that, according to the characteristics specified in the instructions, should have stood out against the background of all other lamps.

According to the results of a number of experiments, 300-500-1000 ms after the ignition of the lamps, which are a signal for the release of a lamp against the background of others, the excitability in the projection of the emitted lamps is locally increased compared to the excitability of the projections of other lamps in the panel. (Boundary problems of psychology and physiology, 1961; E. I. Boyko, 1964; N. I. Chuprikova, 1967; Cognitive activity in the system of memory processes, 1989). The purpose of the experiment described below was to trace the formation of this focus of increased excitability over shorter time intervals from the beginning of the object's isolation from the background (N. I. Chuprikova, 1972).

Simultaneous flashes of two lamps of the panel served as signals for the selection of an object from the background. These flashes were composed in such a way that between two lamps that lit up, forming horizontal or vertical lines, there was one lamp that did not light up. The subject had to highlight the location of this unlit lamp and keep it in memory for some time - until the signal for reproduction.

The duration of paired flashes was 100 ms, and their location was constantly changing, so that in each new presentation the subject saw a new pair.

In the experiment, the test method was applied, the local excitability of the analyzer by measuring and comparing the latent periods of reactions to testing flashes applied at different time intervals and to different lamps of the panel in the aftereffect of flashes that gave rise to the first (conditioning) reaction of the subject.

In accordance with the terminology adopted in these studies, the lamps that are subject to mental isolation, positive stimuli and the corresponding brain projections, are called positive points of the analyzer, and all other unlit lamps are indifferent and the projections corresponding to them are indifferent points.

To test the states of excitability that develop at different points of the analyzer in the process of mental selection of non-lighting lamps located between two lit ones, at different time intervals after the presentation of a paired flash (50, 70, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600 ms) a single lamp was lit on the control panel, in response to which the subject always made the same reaction - by pressing "as quickly as possible" on the key with his right hand. At each testing interval, the latent periods of testing reactions from the positive and from the indifferent points of the analyzer were compared. Shorter latent periods of reactions from some points compared with lotent periods of reactions from other points were considered as an indicator of higher local excitability in these points compared to others. The justification for such use of the values ​​of latent periods of reactions is given in a number of works (Boundary problems of psychology and psychophysiology, 1961; E. I. Boyko, 1964, etc., and in the most detailed form in the monograph "Cognitive activity in the system of memory processes", 1989).

In the experiment under consideration, neither the positive nor the indifferent lamps of the panel were lit by the experimenter, and from their side no additional sensory afferentations other than background afferentations came to the visual analyzer. Therefore, all differences in the latent periods of testing reactions could justifiably be attributed solely to differences in excitability of a central nature.

In the experiment, the latent periods of testing reactions were compared from the positive points of the analyzer, corresponding to emitted lamps, and from the indifferent points, which were divided into three groups. The first included items corresponding to the projections of the lamps located closest to the emitted lamps.

These are nearby analyzer points. The second group consisted of projections of lamps of medium distance, and the third - far removed from those emitted.

For brevity, we now omit some details of the selection of stimuli and the organization of the experiment. They are detailed in the work (N. I. Chuprikova, 1972).

The experiment clearly revealed that when the subject begins to pay attention to an unlit lamp located between two flashed ones, then in the visual analyzer, a phase of a broadly generalized increase in excitability first takes place. Gradually, it narrows and is more or less clearly limited to the projection of only the emitted lamp. This process usually takes 250 to 600 ms (depending on individual characteristics and training) from firing a twin flash. The obtained data made it possible to distinguish 5 stages of this process. Each of them took slightly different time for different subjects and with different training.

Some stages were sometimes not detected due to their transience, but in general the course of the process is as follows.

1 stage. At the shortest testing intervals, no difference is found in the latent periods of reactions evoked from different points of the analyzer. The latent periods of testing reactions from positive points and from indifferent points of all three groups are equal. This means that the functional state of the projections of all the lamps is the same, and in the visual analyzer there are still no signs of the object being distinguished from the background.

2 stage. With a slight lengthening of the intervals, the latent periods of testing reactions from positive points continue to remain the same in magnitude as the latent periods of reactions from nearby and medium-distant indifferent points, but they are all shorter than the latent periods of testing reactions from far-distant points. Thus, there are the first signs of differences in the functional state of the projections of different panel lamps. Here, for the first time, a zone of increased excitability is distinguished, which is quite wide and includes both the projections of the lamp to be isolated, and the area of ​​projections of other lamps adjacent to it - nearby and medium-distant.

3 stage. With a further increase in the intervals, the latent periods of testing reactions from positive points are equal to the latent periods of testing reactions from nearby indifferent points, but shorter than the latent periods of reactions not only from distant, but also from medium-distant indifferent points. Consequently, the zone of increased excitability has narrowed and includes, in addition to the projections of positive lamps, projections only of the indifferent ones closest to them.

4 stage. With a further increase in the testing interval, finally, for the first time, such an interval is revealed when the latent periods of testing reactions from positive points become shorter than the latent periods of reactions from nearby indifferent points.

5 stage. If the testing interval increases a little more, then the difference in latent periods noted above becomes statistically significant.

The last two stages indicate the final concentration of the focus of increased excitability in the projections of positive lamps, the completion of the process of separating the object from the background.

As you can see, even such a simple act of perception as the selective selection of a single object from the background based on a certain feature (location between two flashing lamps), judging by the objective indicators of the state of excitability of the visual analyzer, begins with the selection of a fairly wide area of ​​space and is completed gradually by its sequential limitation. And this pattern is fully preserved even with considerable training in the performance of the relevant acts. In our study, in which the task was to follow in detail all the stages of the described process, four subjects worked for 2-2.5 months 8-12 times a month, and in each experiment 60-100 discharges of non-burning lamps were carried out. However, the overall picture has not changed. The only thing that happened here was some acceleration of the entire process, which began to end in two subjects not by 300-400 ms, as at the beginning, but by 250 ms, and some narrowing of the initial area of ​​a broadly generalized increase in excitability (N. I. Chuprikova, 1972).

DIFFERENTIATION OF PERCEPTION AND OPERATIONAL LEVEL OF THINKING IN CHILDREN 4-8 YEARS OLD

H.I. IBRAGIMOV

The importance of the child's mastery of the concept of the conservation of quantity for his intellectual development is now universally recognized. However, the question of the mechanisms of ontogenesis of invariant perception has not yet been finally resolved.

J. Piaget and his followers believe that the emergence of invariant perception depends mainly on internal structural balancing, as a result of which new formations (inventions) arise, which form the basis of intellectual growth. In recent years, adherents of this theory have begun to admit a limited possibility of influencing the development of intelligence,,.

Based on the idea of ​​the leading role of objective activity in the intellectual development of the child, developed by a number of Soviet psychologists ( , , , , ), L.F. Obukhova once again showed the fundamental possibility of purposeful formation of conservation phenomena in conditions of specially organized activity,.

Along with the above approaches to this problem, interest has recently increased in studying the role of perception in the intellectual development of a person within the framework of the information approach. In Western cognitive psychology, such studies are carried out in the light of the ideas of American

psychologists V.R. Garner and T.R. Lockheed on the integral and differentiable properties of objects, according to which age-related development occurs through the differentiation of certain properties. The authors of this theory believe that in this case a purely perceptual development takes place.

Another direction is connected with the idea that the selection of features of objects occurs with the participation of the attention mechanism or a specific feature construction mechanism. In domestic psychology, this direction is being developed by a number of authors, for example, in the works of N.I. Chuprikova, .

If earlier these three approaches seemed mutually exclusive, then recently there have been ways of their convergence in line with single holistic a system for describing cognitive processes, in which perception, thinking and activity are inextricably linked at all levels of analysis, being not three parts, but three sides of a single process of cognition.

This paper presents a description of the synthetic aspect of the age differentiation of perception in children 4-8 years old, which, in contrast to the analytical one, is in good agreement with operational description of the occurrence of the conservation of the amount of matter.

The subjects were 80 pupils of kindergarten No. 744 in Moscow (28 boys and 52 girls) aged 4 to 6 years 11 months and 42 students of the 1st grade of the comprehensive school No. 531 in Moscow (23 boys and 19 girls) aged 7 years 3 months to 8 years 4 months.

METHODOLOGY

The experiment consisted of two parts. First studied the degree differentiation perceptions based on the nature of children's judgments, then - the success of solving the Piaget test for the conservation of the amount of substance.

The experimental procedure was as follows: the subject was presented with two plasticine cylinders of dark brown color, having a length of 5 cm and a diameter of 1.5 cm. Look, are they the same? If the child recognized these figures as the same, the experimenter rolled out one of the plasticine cylinders so that it was about twice as long as the original. After that, the question followed: “Are they the same now or not?” The child answered: “No, they are not the same”, and the experimenter asked the main question: “How are they different?” The subject's response was recorded. If the answer was incomplete, the experimenter asked the child to say what else the “sausages” differed in, giving the child the opportunity to express his judgments to the end. This was the "rolling" test.

The test for the conservation of the amount of a substance is the standard test of J. Piaget. It was presented after the "rolling out" test. The study of one child took an average of 10 minutes. The obtained data were processed as follows. In the individual card of the subject, his statements on test questions were recorded. The full set of statements was considered an answer. The answers of the subjects consisted of one, two or more separate statements (judgments) differing in the feature on the basis of which the comparison was made. Basic words, markers, were singled out from a complete detailed judgment, which served as a unit for further processing. For example, detailed judgments “one sausage is larger and the other is smaller”, “one is larger and the other is not”, etc. we considered them to be of the same type: more-less. Likewise for other signs. Thus, the nature of the response was determined by a quantitative and qualitative combination of a set of judgments: more-smaller, longer-shorter, thicker-thinner. Mixed judgments we attributed to the highest type, for example: longer - less to longer - shorter.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

The distribution of responses of various types according to the "rolling out" test in subjects of different ages is presented in Table. one.

Lack of judgment was observed in only 21.5% of four-year-olds. Most of them made judgments like "one sausage is bigger and the other is smaller." The proportion of such responses decreased with age, and there were practically no such responses in seven-year-old children.

Answers consisting of two consecutive judgments of the type more - less and longer - shorter were the most numerous in five-year-old children, and in other age groups the number of such answers did not exceed 10%.

In five-year-old children, for the first time, answers appear that include comparisons in thickness: more - less and thicker - thinner. The number of such responses increased

with age. It can be assumed that this type of answer is already a comparison on two grounds: but in length and in thickness. This assumption is based on the fact that the first judgment, as a rule, refers to the length, and the second to the thickness of the object. Thus, among five-year-old children out of 18, only one first of all indicated the thickness of the object, and then its length; in six-year-olds, 1 and 9, respectively. Apparently, mastering this type of comparison of objects is a kind of rubicon for the child, passing through which he begins to perceive two signs of differentiation: length and thickness, instead of one integral sign of magnitude.

Table 1

Children's answers to the "rolling out" test in absolute and percentage terms

Age, years	Number of test subjects	Lack of judgment on signs	Response Type
			more less	more- smaller and longer - shorter	more -m smaller and thicker - thinner	longer - to oroche and thicker - thinner
		5 (21,5)	15 (65,2) 9 (25,7) 7 (31,8)	1 (4,3) 9 (25,7) 2 (9,0) 1 (4,7)	5 (14,7) 5 (22,7) 6 (28,5) 6 (28,5)	2 (8,6) 12 (34,2) 8 (36,2) 15 (71,4) 14 (66,6)

The number of answers of the highest type, consisting of two exhaustive judgments: longer - shorter and thicker - thinner, naturally increased with age. Children 7-8 years old gave such answers in 70% of cases.

The number of responses of various types in subjects who completed the Piaget test for maintaining the amount of a substance is presented in Table. 2. As can be seen from the table, the mastery of the concept of conservation of the quantity of a substance in children aged 4-8 closely correlates with the quality and quantity of features by which they can compare objects.

Subjects who were able to compare objects only on the basis of more - less, or on this basis and on the basis of longer - shorter, did not cope with Piaget's test for the conservation of the amount of substance, and the subjects who compared objects on two grounds: by length and thickness, as a rule passed this test.

table 2

Responses to the "rolling out" test of children who coped with the Piaget test

in absolute and percentage terms

Age, years	Number of test subjects	Number of retainers	Lack of judgment on signs	Response Type
				more less	more- smaller and longer - shorter	more -m smaller and thicker - thinner	longer - to oroche and thicker - thinner
		1 (5,8) 9 (29,0) 9 (52,9) 16 (69,5) 16 (76,1)		2(22,2)	1(6.2)	2(22,2) 2(22,2) 2(17,6) 3(18,7)	1(100) 7(77,7) 5(55,5) 14(80,3) 12(75,0)

We compared the data obtained during testing of children aged 7-8 years (students of the 1st grade) with the progress of these children in academic disciplines. The values ​​of correlations according to Student's t-test between different groups of students, divided depending on the type of their responses to the "rolling out" and quantity conservation tests, are presented in Table. 3.

The general pattern is as follows: children whose answers to the “rolling out” test were of the highest type had higher academic performance in all disciplines than children whose answers were incomplete. In mathematics and labor, these differences were statistically significant with a significance level of 0.05. Children who solved the Piaget problem did better in all subjects,

161

than children who have not solved it. In the main subjects, these differences turned out to be statistically significant: in grammar with a significance level of 0.01, in mathematics and labor - 0.05.

Table 3

Correlation of progress of students of different groups according to Student's t-test

Correlation	Academic subjects
	Mathematics	Grammar	Reading	Work	Physical Education	Music	Painting
Rolling test
Significance level	0,274 0,05	2,633	2,769	3,631 0,05	0,888	1,707	2,280
Substance Conservation Test
Significance level	3,060 0,05	5,168 0,01	2,227	3,610 0,05	2,762	2,099	2,010

The data obtained make it possible to describe the age-related development of perception in two aspects: analytical and synthetic.

An analysis of the answers received in the experiment showed that the perception of children aged 4-8 years becomes more differentiated with age. They begin to distinguish more signs. Several levels of dissection of perception have been identified, corresponding to the types of answers obtained in the experiment. Children at level I have only one generalized a sign of magnitude; at the II level, along with the already existing generalized the first linear sign of length appears as a sign of magnitude, then at level III the second linear sign of thickness appears, and finally at level IV, two linear, variable signs (length and thickness) are combined into a new integral form sign. Thus, at the same time, the separation of variable properties from generalized sign of magnitude, and this sign is already used to denote the invariant magnitude of an object in terms of the amount of substance contained in it.

Analysis of the functional aspect of judgments, i.e. according to the type of functions that underlie the selection of a particular feature and, accordingly, are characterized by this feature, allows us to describe the following functional stages in the development of perception.

The stage of direct dependence. The child is able to reflect the phenomena of dependence of objects in the outside world by type, the more - the more that can be described by the function Y 1 = mX 1 , where Y 1 - the set of states of the attribute of the subject; X 2 - set of states of action with the subject; m - coefficient of proportionality.

The inverse stage. There is an ability to reflect the phenomena of the objective world by type, the more - the less, which are described by the function, where Y 2 - the set of states of the attribute of the object; X 2 - set of states of action with the subject; C - coefficient of proportionality. Mastering the function of inverse dependence in addition to the already existing one - direct dependence - is a very important process for a child. At this stage, he is able to understand the reversibility of rolling: if you return the "sausage" to its original position, then the amount of substance will be the same as before, but whether it is the same at the moment, the child does not know. Therefore, at this stage, only 20% of children cope with the test for the preservation of the amount of the substance.

stage of invariance. There is an ability to distinguish changes in the shape of an object caused by rolling from changes caused by the addition or subtraction of material. Knowledge about the nature of the relationship between the properties of the object (the direct dependence function and the inverse dependence function) at this stage are combined, which corresponds to the condition X 1 = X 2, and then a third function arises in the system of two functions:

,

the designations are the same.

If a child perceives a pattern

changes in the properties of the object in connection with the specified function, then this corresponds to the condition x 1 = x 2 - the object is transformed (rolling), and if the function is not registered, then x 1 ¹ x 2 and the object is quantized (addition). The appearance at this stage of the invariance function gives the child a criterion for distinguishing rolling from adding and decreasing material.

Rice. Ontogeny of the invariant perception of the amount of matter

Thus, it can be seen that each stage of the age-related development of perception can be described both from the figurative (analytical) and functional (synthetic) sides, which allows us to proceed to a holistic analytical and synthetic description of the differentiation of perception, shown in the figure. The above description suggests that the emergence of a specific operation leading to the conservation of the amount of a substance is preceded by a series of stages in the child's mastery of simpler functions (in this case, functions of direct and inverse dependence), which, in contrast to intellectual operations, can be directly modeled in his subject-effective practice.

7. Gelman R. Conservation acquisition: A problem of learning to attend to relevant attributes // J. Exp. Child Psychol. 1969. No. 7. P. 167-187.

15. Siegler R.S.. Mechanisms of cognitive growth: Variation and selection // Sternberg R.S. (ed.) Mechanisms of cognitive development. N. Y., 1984. P. 141-162.

ReceivedineditorialFebruary 25, 1987.

A review of foreign and domestic studies shows that cognitive-style features are manifested in the characteristics of the image of other people and oneself, thereby affecting the individual's behavior in the field of communication. However, most of the works devoted to the study of this influence are fragmentary in nature, in which the relationship between one parameter of cognitive style and a separate characteristic of social perception is analyzed. Further development of this problem, from our point of view, involves a comprehensive study of the relationship of cognitive style with the characteristics of social perception. At the same time, the main thing is the search for psychological mechanisms leading to their formation.

Based on this understanding of the task of studying cognitive style, first of all, it is necessary to consider in what aspects of the perception of other people and oneself the degree of analyticity of the perception of the surrounding world as a common denominator of the considered parameters of cognitive style can manifest itself. It should be clarified that in our work the terms "perception of other people and oneself" and "social perception" are used in a broad sense, i.e. they denote not only (and not so much) the actual perceptual reflection, but also other cognitive processes (thinking, memory, attention), on the basis of which the idea of ​​the personality of another person is built. This is due to the peculiarities of the cognitive style, which, being a cross-cutting characteristic, permeates all levels of reflection and does not allow it to be attributed to a specific mental process. We have described two characteristics of social perception that most clearly reflect the degree of analyticity of perception (91). The first one was called interpersonal differentiation. It was understood as the predisposition of the individual to emphasize the similarity or difference between people, incl. between themselves and those around them. Persons with great interpersonal differentiation see few similarities between themselves and other people and evaluate others less stereotypically. There is much evidence that people differ quite significantly in this regard (120; 128; 124).

One of the factors that determine the value of identification in assessing oneself and other people is the cognitive style, in particular, the parameters field dependence - field independence and cognitive complexity - simplicity. Differentiation in the perception of oneself and other people by field-independent people can be considered as a manifestation of one of the components of psychological differentiation - a sense of separate identity. Differences in the differentiation of social perception among field-dependent and field-independent people most clearly show the degree of detail in their portrayal of people. In different age groups, a completely obvious trend can be traced: field independents surpass their field dependent peers in clarity, detail, and articulation of human images (133). Cognitively complex individuals, compared with cognitively simple individuals, also make clearer differences in the perception of other people and consider them little like themselves (123; 156; 109). The second characteristic of social perception, reflecting the analyticity of perception - intrapersonal differentiation - includes two aspects: differentiation of different personality traits and differentiation of changing the same personality trait cross-situationally, i.e. sensitivity to a change in the degree of expression of a particular characteristic in a given person in different situations. The degree of differentiation of different personality characteristics can be expressed in the degree of subjective connection between them in the perception of oneself and other people. If a person believes that all greedy people are evil, or vice versa, that all evil people are greedy, this means that he does not actually distinguish between such personal characteristics.

Consequently, the more coincidences an individual has between the assessments of different qualities of one person, the less his intrapersonal differentiation. Therefore, a measure of intrapersonal differentiation can be the variability of assessments of the same person according to different qualities. R. Gardner and R. Sean suggested that the subject evaluate himself by 80 properties, using a 100-point scale (0 - "not typical for me at all", 100 - "very typical for me"). Some subjects used only round numbers (10, 70, 90), and these numbers coincided when evaluating different qualities. Others tried to evaluate the qualities as accurately as possible (for example, 53, 79, 81), and the number of matches they had was minimal. The authors compared the variability of estimates with the conceptual differentiation, determined by the number of groups in the classification of objects. The results showed that the greater the conceptual differentiation, the greater the variability of self-assessment in terms of different qualities (139).

In the study by V.S. Magun, a correlation analysis was carried out to determine the relationships between various individual characteristics measured using objective methods. Then the subjects were asked to evaluate the degree of manifestation of these characteristics in themselves and their comrades who participated in the experiment, and determined the relationship between subjective assessments. It turned out that in the second case the correlations were closer and more direct than in the first case. According to V.S. Magun, this fact testifies to the tendency of people to exaggerate the degree of connection between various personal properties (53). However, there are significant individual differences in the differentiation of different characteristics, and one of the factors that determine these differences is cognitive-style features.

The second aspect of intrapersonal differentiation - sensitivity to a change in the degree of expression of the same characteristic in a given person in different situations - manifests itself in the well-known phenomenon of individual differences in the stability of self-assessment and other people. A high degree of analyticity, corresponding to a large intrapersonal differentiation, in this case appears in the form of a low stability in assessing oneself and other people.

There are relatively few experimental data on the relationship between the stability of self-esteem (or the evaluation of other people) and the cognitive-stylistic characteristics of a person. We have information only about the comparison of field dependence - field independence and stability of self-esteem, which are controversial. S. Rudin and R. Stagner (179) suggested that the subject imagine and evaluate himself in four different situations using semantic differential scales. The degree of variability in describing oneself from situation to situation served as an indicator of the instability of the self-concept. When comparing these data with the field dependence indicator, it was found that field independent ones give a more stable description of themselves. This result is in accordance with G. Witkin's ideas that the stability of the self-concept is one of the consequences of the sense of separate identity mentioned earlier.

However, there is also an opposite point of view on the connection between field dependence and the stability of self-esteem. Thus, V. Clayes and co-workers suggested that after the first year of study, field-independent students, compared to field-dependent students, will experience a greater change in self-esteem in terms of such qualities as extraversion, friendliness, emotional instability, and general culture. This hypothesis was confirmed in a sample of Belgian students, which included 36 boys and 37 girls. However, as an indicator of the stability of self-esteem, the authors used the difference between an individual's self-esteem at the end of the academic year and the parent's score given to him when entering a university (118). But this is rather an indicator of the independence of students' judgments from the opinion of their parents than the stability of their self-esteem, and therefore it is not surprising that field-independent students differed more from their parents in their assessment of themselves.

It should be noted that intra- and interpersonal differentiation are closely interrelated. It is quite obvious that the more characteristics an individual uses in evaluating other people, the more he sees differences between them. This pattern has been well demonstrated in studies of cognitive complexity (101; 111; 123). In particular, D. Adams-Weber writes that the poorer the system of personality constructs with which an individual evaluates himself and other people (i.e., the less cognitive complexity), the greater the amount of self-identification with close people, as well as between them. yourself. "The more an individual generalizes his idea of ​​himself when categorizing his acquaintances according to a given set of variables, the less he is able to differentiate a new acquaintance from himself in terms of these same variables" (101, p. 88).

It is also easy to trace the relationship between the number of identified personality characteristics and the stability of the assessment. Here it is appropriate to refer to a similar connection - between the level of generalization of an image and its stability. Indeed, the less the image of an object is saturated with details and specific features, the more stable it is and the less susceptible to the destructive influence of all kinds of interference. It can be assumed that a similar pattern is inherent in the social-perceptual image, although, of course, the relationship between the stability of the self-image and its detail is more complex and indirect.

First, it must be borne in mind that the number of qualities reflected in the perception of a communication partner and those that a person operates when assessing him in an everyday situation is not the same. In this regard, R.L. Krichevsky (43) suggests that identification is carried out not by any qualities, but by those that are of particular significance and value for the individual.

Secondly, depending on the nature of the relationship between the subject and the object of assessment, as well as on situational factors, both the completeness and composition of the qualities selected for assessment can change significantly. A.A. Bodalev distinguishes two plans of information that we have regarding other people: a) general information information, which "... is accumulated and stored for a long time, is used in a general assessment of the actual and potential capabilities of this person and affects the development of a general approach to him"; b) current operational-regulatory information "... about the behavior, state and capabilities of a person, obtained by interacting with him at the moment in very specific conditions in the joint solution of a specific problem and used immediately" (11, p. 8).

Of course, these plans are closely interconnected and between them there is an interchange of information about a given person. As for the cognitive style, it seems to us that the degree of its manifestation in each of the plans will depend on the amount of I-involvement in the process of evaluating another person. The degree of manifestation of the individual characteristics of a person in a particular behavioral act or activity is directly due to her involvement in what she is doing. The stronger the motivation of activity, the more individuality is manifested.

So, we can assume that the cognitive style manifests itself in the sphere of social perception in the form of a kind of syndrome consisting of the differentiation of qualities used in evaluating oneself and other people, emphasizing either differences or similarities between people and the stability of the assessments given to them.

What are the extreme types corresponding to maximum syntheticity and maximum analyticity of perception in the sphere of social perception?

An individual who is at the pole of syntheticity is characterized by a high degree of stability in assessing himself and others and identifying himself with others, as well as one person with another. When evaluating people, he uses a small number of characteristics. All this as a whole leads to a greater stereotyping of the perception of other individuals. The advantages of such behavior consist in the wide transfer of one's communication experience from situation to situation, in the reduction of the orienting component and a kind of economy of forces expended on the process of interaction with others. This aspect of stereotyping is very accurately noted by Ya.L. Kolominsky, who writes that "just as the algorithms of mental activity "save" a person's thinking, socio-psychological standards and stereotypes "save" a person, facilitating, and sometimes automating its most important function - the function of choice. Objectively different objects and phenomena included in a certain standard (stereotype) act for the individual as subjectively equivalent, and the attitude (or behavior towards them) is equally probable" (40, p. 160). Based on this, we can expect that the very behavior of "synthetics" in comparison with "analysts" will be more stereotyped.

It is necessary to clarify that we consider stereotyping not as a negative phenomenon, consisting in a distorted reflection of the characteristics of a certain group of people, but as one of the mechanisms of social perception that helps a person to orient himself in the diversity of the characters of people with whom he interacts. This is how most of our psychologists understand the stereotype (45; 48; 73; 100). B.A. Eremeev notes that "stereotyping is a general property of the activity of a living thing, reflecting regularity in the world. Stereotyping is manifested in the stability of relationships between differentiated features and qualities of an object for a subject" (27, pp. 203-204). In Western psychology, the "rehabilitation" of the stereotype has also recently been observed. It begins to be considered as a generalized representation of a group of people (not necessarily distorted or incorrect), which serves as the basis for predicting their behavior and can be described in terms of probability theory (161; 152).

Returning to the analysis of the behavioral characteristics of a person with a synthetic type of perception, it should be noted that the negative aspects of perception stereotyping are the inability of the individual to recognize changes in the situation, relationships, people in time and the increased "inertia" of their own relations with other people.

"Analysts", on the contrary, are well aware of all kinds of changes due to their increased differentiation, but this leads to another kind of difficulty in communication. They single out a large number of features for evaluating themselves and other people as relevant. In addition, the assessment is subject to constant changes in connection with new incoming information. All this significantly complicates orientation and decision-making in the process of interpersonal interaction.

The differences between "synthetics" and "analysts" are directly related to the concept of "zone of activity uncertainty" introduced by V. S. Merlin (58). The existence of such a zone is due to the fact that any mental reflection of an influencing stimulus is influenced not only by an objective stimulus, but also by the adoption of a decision regarding this stimulus. It is in this component - making a decision - that the key to many individual psychological differences is contained. According to Yu.N. Kulyutkin and G.S. Sukhobskaya, “the process of making decisions by a person is the most critical moment of voluntary activity. and executive actions" (47, p. 37). As VS Merlin suggests, "the zone of uncertainty in decision-making is determined by a large disproportion between the variety of sensory inputs and the limitedness of efferent outputs" (58, p. 22). In terms of the differentiation of the perception of the surrounding world, this means that the more features the object image contains at the sensory input (for analysts), the greater the "scissors" between the diversity of the input and the limitedness of the output and, consequently, the greater the zone of uncertainty. In addition, the scientist connects the zone of uncertainty with the degree of mismatch and inconsistency of the properties of the subject, noting that "the less the mismatch of the properties of the subject and the more uniform the conditions of the objective situation, the smaller the zone of uncertainty" (58, p. 22). The more activity is automated and stereotyped, the smaller the area of ​​uncertainty becomes, but never approaches zero.

The connection between the features of the orientation activity of an individual and his cognitive style is far from accidental. Researchers are increasingly turning to it in the process of searching for the origins of cognitive-style differences. In R. Gardner, this is manifested in his interest in the peculiarities of the attention of individuals with different cognitive styles. He explains: “Our latest research is related to the study of attention, not only because we felt that attention is the central or dominant variable in cognitive functioning, but also because attention and control of attention represent a point of contact between the individual and external or internal reality. "(138, p.154). The scientist interprets the parameter of field dependence - field independence as a feature of attention selectivity, which manifests itself in the selection of relevant features while ignoring the rest of the visual field (137; 138).

In the work of G. Novitskaya-Gavetskaya (170), a broad comparison was made between the dichotomies of field dependence - field independence according to G. Vitkin, introversion - extraversion according to G. Eysenck and types of higher nervous activity according to I.P. Pavlov, depending on the predominance of the first or second signaling system . In addition, she studied the relationship between these individual characteristics and the characteristics of the orientation program. Unlike the operational program of D. Miller, Yu. Galanter and K. Pribram, which describes specific operations and their sequence, its orientation program consists of "models of relevant features of the general class of stimuli", with which the perceived object is compared. On the basis of empirical data, the author comes to the conclusion that field independents and introverts actively use the orientation program, while extroverts and field dependents use it very little. Moreover, she suggests that the amount of manipulation of the internal orientation program can be the basis of the commonality between the field dependence parameter - field independence and extraversion - introversion (170). The data presented are consistent with the results of numerous studies of the individual style of activity, indicating that individuals with a weak nervous system (this is the basis for introversion) have an extended phase of orientation, while in individuals with a strong nervous system it is curtailed. Yu.N. Kulyutkin and G.S. Sukhobskaya note that when performing intellectual tasks, introverts more often demonstrate a cautious decision-making strategy, and extroverts - an impulsive one (46). It is logical to assume the existence

the relationship between the degree of differentiation in evaluating objects and orienting activity, since the orienting reaction is primarily a response to novelty. Consequently, the greater the differentiation of the perception of objects, the greater the number of them perceived as new, i.e. causing an orienting reaction.

This mechanism is also related to the relationship between anxiety and cognitive style. The emergence of a state of anxiety is associated with a situation of uncertainty, which has been confirmed in a number of experiments (185; 186). On the other hand, anxiety is considered as a state of activation of the organism, which causes an increase in the orientation reaction.

Thus, a closed chain of connections arises between uncertainty, anxiety, peculiarities of orientation and the degree of differentiation in the perception and evaluation of objects. The uncertainty of the situation causes a state of anxiety, which contributes to the strengthening of the orienting reaction, leading, in turn, to differentiation in the perception and evaluation of objects and, ultimately, again to an increase in uncertainty. This is the mechanism of the relationship between the state of anxiety and the degree of differentiation of perception in a particular situation. However, it can be assumed that as a result of repeated repetition, the connections are strengthened and lead to the formation of a stable syndrome of increased orienting activity, high anxiety and high analyticity of the perception of objects.

Until now, we have considered the degree of differentiation in the perception of the surrounding world as something frozen and unchanging, thereby simplifying the real picture. In fact, the analyticity of perception can be different for the same person, depending on environmental factors and the state of the individual himself. I.M. Paley put forward a hypothesis about the existence of a hierarchically organized system of evaluation and measurement scales, according to which each person has a rather large set of scales of different scales used in different situations depending on external and internal factors (61).

The differences between the systems of scales are not so much in their number, but in the size of the range between the most fractional and the most generalized scales, as well as in the ease of transition from one of them to another. A shift to one of the poles of the analytic-synthetic axis and the impossibility of moving to the opposite pole equally lead to inadequacy and distortion in the evaluation and measurement activity, the specificity of which in relation to each of the poles was analyzed above. The most efficient behavior is possible only if there is a system of scales of various scales and high mobility of movement along them. However, the transition in evaluation and measurement activities from a low level of generalization to a high one requires significant energy costs.

The creator of the theory of personal constructors, J. J. Kelly, connects the creative potential of the individual with the ability to move from great differentiation to great synthesis of the perception of objects. He defines greater differentiation as relaxation. This is such a state of the system, in which the bonds between its elements (constructs) are weakened, and therefore their mutual regroupings are possible. Syntheticity corresponds to the state of connectedness, in which the connections between the elements are fixed and the system becomes rigidly fixed. A creative person must have "an important ability to move from relaxation to the connectedness of the system" and vice versa, and this "pulsation" of the system itself is nothing but a creative cycle (147, p. 529). As a basis for the transition from analyticity to syntheticity and vice versa, the laws of the mental act and, first of all, those that are associated with the processes of analysis and synthesis act. The dialectical unity of these processes as the essence of thinking was demonstrated in the concept of S.L. Rubinshtein (74).

An analysis of the psychological meaning of differences in the degree of differentiation of evaluative and measuring activity and their manifestation in the sphere of communication allows us to make a number of assumptions about the manifestation of cognitive style in the sphere of communication.

Under the influence of a number of external and internal factors, a predisposition to categorization of objects at a certain level of generalization is formed, which forms the basis of a person's cognitive style. With regard to the sphere of social perception, this predisposition manifests itself in intra- and interpersonal differentiation. The latter means emphasizing or smoothing out differences in the perception and evaluation of other people, as well as in comparing oneself with others. If we proceed from the hypothesis of V.N. Parfenov about the regulatory role of mutual impressions of communicating people, then this moment is decisive for building the tactics of an individual's behavior in the sphere of interpersonal interaction. In his opinion, "needs, motives and attitudes determine only the strategy of behavior, and the tactics of the behavior of communicating people is regulated by their mutual understanding, i.e., images and ideas about each other and about themselves" (62, p. 130).

If an individual perceives and evaluates himself as similar to those around him, his perception of other people proceeds at a highly generalized level and is subject to stereotyping, self-esteem and evaluation of other people are stable, the transfer of experience of interpersonal interaction from situation to situation is high, which ultimately leads to ease of establishing contacts and breadth of communication.

On the contrary, if an individual perceives and evaluates himself as little like other people, it causes an increase in reflection, an increase in anxiety, an increase in the differentiation of perception and assessment of one's own and someone else's personality. In terms of interpersonal contacts, this manifests itself in the instability of assessments of oneself and other people, the inability to separate the relevant features of the person being evaluated from the irrelevant, secondary ones, weak generalization of the features of situations of the same type, and insufficient use of past communication experience. These traits lead to the limitation of communication "analysts" with other people.

An experiment is devoted to testing some aspects of this hypothetical model, the course and results of which are described in the next paragraph.

Improving the perception and understanding of our own feelings is not difficult, since in everyday life we ​​have an endless number of opportunities for training. As already mentioned, we involuntarily evaluate all the events that occur. Thus, all our experiences and actions, in principle, are an experimental field that allows us to become aware of our own emotional assessment.

body signals

Antonio Damasio describes feelings as a kind of "message of the body about its state", a snapshot that informs us about how our body perceives what is happening with it and around it. With the help of emotions, our body shows us both long-term trends (moods) and its spontaneous reaction to experiences. Feelings are, as it were, an internal surveillance camera, the information of which becomes available to us only when we request it, or in emergency cases. To use it, you need to switch your perception from external factors to an internal state. You can train this redirection of attention in a variety of ways. Here are just some tips.

stop

In order to perceive your own feelings, you need to direct your attention inward, to the sensations of your body. Take a moment away from the outside world and focus on self-perception. This process is similar to the mental counting process. So, if you want to multiply in your mind "27 and 13", you will briefly disconnect from the perception of the outside world, carefully count and then switch your attention again. Similarly, the perception of feelings occurs: you switch your attention from the external world to the internal, concentrate on the perception of the sensations of this moment. For training, first use situations in which you are alone. Then you can practice shifting attention without interference.

Exercise: Switching attention outward/inward

• Disconnect for a moment from reading this book and concentrate on your inner state. Try to answer the questions: How am I doing now? How do I feel? First of all, pay attention to your physical well-being, such as body tension, breathing, feelings of lightness / heaviness, energy. If you look inside yourself in this way and find that you feel good, your satisfaction will only increase. If the result of the check does not suit you, try to understand what is wrong. Perhaps you are missing something? Is something interfering?

Do this exercise calmly in a variety of situations: at home on the couch, before leaving the office in the evening, in the grocery line, in bed in the morning, after exercising in the shower, after talking with a client/colleague, listening to music, after it didn't turn out the way you imagined.

At first, the analysis of the internal state may not work out: you will be indecisive and will not be able to draw clear conclusions or be unable to describe how you feel at the moment. But don't give up! The more often you do this exercise, the more accurately and quickly you will know the reaction of your body to the circumstances in which you are.

By practicing alone for a while, you can increase the level of difficulty of the task and begin to switch attention while in society.

Exercise: Switching Attention in a Meeting

Choose a situation in which you are among people, but at the same time you should not remain tense for a long time (as happens, for example, in a conversation with a colleague). For example, go within yourself for a short time in a protracted meeting and ask yourself the following questions: How do I feel right now? How do I feel now here with these people? Do I feel restless or bored? What is it connected with? Do I feel interested or willing to take part in all this? Do I feel insecure? If yes, why?

There is ridiculous love, terrible love, treacherous love, fake love, corrupt love, divine love, unearthly love, crazy love, unrequited love, all-forgiving love, love of God…

But whatever it is, love- an invariable reason for numerous discussion studies, often presented as a mathematically verified process of the relationship of individuals outside the emotional context. Contrast and contradiction of the essences and phenomena of our crazy world.

Try to look at the most exciting love forum in the Internet.

For the first time, an original way to punish your offender or offender has appeared! - Hang it on the unique Board of Shame! board of shame at your service!

Classes that promote differentiated perception of color (on the example of the older age group)

Plan

Introduction

1. The value of color perception in human life

2. Features of color perception by preschool children

3. The level of color perception in children of this age group

4. Conditions for the formation of color perception in preschool children

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Color as an object of study has always attracted scientists, psychologists, art critics, and naturalists. It is one of the most powerful means of expressiveness of painters. A well-developed sense of color helps to better feel the beauty of the surrounding world, the harmony of colors, and to feel spiritual comfort.

The task of the kindergarten teacher is to acquaint preschoolers with "sensory standards" in the field of color in the learning process, to teach them to use them as systems of sensory measurements or standards for analyzing the environment.

Since ancient times, people have attached special importance to color. It was believed to have magical powers, as each color elicits a specific reaction. Color can please and cause irritation, anxiety, feelings of melancholy or sadness. In other words, color has an emotional impact on people. Some colors calm the nervous system, others, on the contrary, irritate. Green, blue, blue have a calming effect, and purple, red, orange, yellow colors have an exciting effect.
Japanese teachers determined that color perception makes it possible to most widely develop the child's senses, his natural taste (thinking, creativity), which in turn affects the overall development of a person.

German art historians came to the conclusion that color is a means of directly reflecting the world of experiences and emotions of a child. So Fitu S. believes that the task of a child-oriented art education lesson should be to develop the child's color sensations, through the skillful use of visualization in color science.

In our country, the problem of children's perception of color was given great attention by such famous teachers and psychologists as L.A. Wenger, I.D. Venev, G.G. Grigoriev, Z.M. Istomin, V.S. Mukhina, E.G. Pilyugina, N.P. Sakulina, A.M. Fonarev and others. They came to the conclusion that the use of color and "sensory standards" in the classroom of fine arts is of great importance not only for the development of color discrimination, but also for the formation of abstract - figurative thinking.

The fact of the impact of color on the emotional state is evidenced by the reactions of a preschool child to objects of various colors. So the scientific data obtained in the studies of recent decades (L.A. Venger, I.D. Venev, Z.M. Istomina, E.G. Pilyugina, A.M. Fonarev, etc.) showed that children from the first weeks and months of life are able to distinguish objects of different colors. As early as four years old, children perceive color in book illustrations and in their drawings as a means of decoration.

The provision on the use of color as an exponent of the emotional attitude of the child to the depicted, put forward by E.A. Flerina, is confirmed by the research of V.A. Ezineeva, A.V. Kompantseva, V.S. Mukhina; In the studies of the famous teacher V.S. Mukhina noted that when depicting pleasant events, children prefer warm tones, and unpleasant ones - cold. As the child assimilates the visual experience, his knowledge of the world around him, the color in the children's drawing becomes more realistic (studies by V.S. Mukhina, N.P. Sakulina, E.A. Flerina, etc.).

In the practice of the kindergarten, the mastery of color by children is organized in order to solve two interdependent tasks. On the one hand, the formation of a sense of color is an integral part of sensory education aimed at developing in children the ability to navigate in the world around them. On the other hand, by mastering the reference system of properties and attributes of objects (including generally accepted color standards) directly in visual activity, children learn to reflect these properties and attributes in a drawing appropriately.

At the same time, the assimilation of color standards (as well as forms) has a twofold effect on the development of the child's perception. As noted by V.S. Mukhin, standards determine, on the one hand, the nature of the development of perception: the child learns to classify objects according to their properties. However, on the other hand, in the perception of the child, the canonized normativity of colors and other qualities that characterize the object is fixed, and with direct perception, this object correlates with the mastered standard, while its individual characteristics may not be fixed. V.S. Mukhina considers it necessary to expand the canonized normativity (reference) of perception in the context of children learning "artistic languages" when teaching drawing. This, in her opinion, will enrich the perception and at the same time free the child from the simplified stereotypical normativity, will provide an opportunity to receive aesthetic pleasure from the beauty of a particular object or phenomenon.

1. The value of color perception in human life

The human eye is able to distinguish not only black and white gradations of chiaroscuro in a drawing, but also a variety of colors. When we open our eyes, we immediately find ourselves in a world full of color. Color accompanies a person everywhere, exerting a psychophysiological effect on him and causing various sensations - warmth or cold, cheerfulness or despondency, joy or anxiety, etc. For example, people quickly come to a cheerful state with a unique play of color shades created by a sunbeam breaking through the thickness of lead autumn clouds. The foundations for understanding color should be laid in people from childhood, if we consider the meaning of color as a phenomenon of spiritual culture and the need for its application in a wide variety of fields and branches of science and material production.

Color began to psychologically influence our distant ancestors. The use of bright coloring of objects, places of worship, clothes and faces had a certain spiritual meaning. In the ancient world, emperors wore purple clothes, and this color was only their privilege. Later, people continued to give different characteristics to the color. For example, in Europe, white was considered pure, joyful, reasonable, and yellow was the color of clouded joy, attention, blue - a thick shadow, severity, maturity, and black - bitterness, old age, uncertainty. Red was seen by Europeans as the color of sensitivity, youth and humanity.

In order to know what colors and how to use each person in everyday life, in raising children, one must understand how color affects the human condition. According to numerous studies, color qualitatively and comprehensively affects the psychophysiological state of a person, including changes in the composition of the blood, the dynamics of tissue healing, the tone of muscle contractions, the function of the cardiovascular system, perception (pain, temperature, time, space, size, weight), mental status (emotional state, activation, mental stress). At the same time, color affects specifically both when perceived through vision and when it illuminates parts of the human body. A person unconsciously often uses color as a means of mental self-regulation. People with different characters and in different mental states see the world literally in different colors, moreover, balanced people perceive the world as brighter and more colorful.

Now in every country there are designers and color psychologists, color therapists and color architects. Coloristics is the science of color perception. Its founder is the great German poet I.V. Goethe. He wrote the fundamental work "Teaching about colors".

The main idea of ​​coloristics is that color affects a person psychologically and psychophysiologically. Looking closely at some color for several minutes, a person can feel not only a change in his well-being and mood; body temperature, respiratory rate and heart rhythm may change. But each person reacts to the same color in their own way. To study the character and emotional states of a person, M. Luscher and H. Frilling invent color tests in the middle of the last century. Max Luscher creates a color method for diagnosing a person's condition, the so-called "Luscher test". 23 colors were chosen by him from 4500 colors, and the selection criterion was the maximum approximation to natural colors. This test reveals problems from 6 to 7 years of age. In this case, the child simply chooses the most liked or most unpleasant colors from those offered.

Thus, determining the influence of a particular color or composition of colors on a person’s well-being and condition, psychologists came to the following conclusion: if a person chooses red, this characterizes excitability, impulsiveness, passion, while different shades of green calm, tune in to business, work fret. Blue, blue colors are also “cold”, that is, balancing, directing to reflection, and not experiences.

Using such knowledge, we can consciously approach the formation of the color scheme that surrounds our children. In our difficult time, we can surround children with the harmony of color in clothes, toys, and in the design of a children's room. If all dirty, unnaturally bright, blood-red, brown, black and gray colors are removed from everyday life, this will already contribute to the protection of children, the development of balance, calmness, thoughtfulness in them, and direct them to beauty.

Similar works:

Thesis >>

Sounds characterize insufficient level differentiated perception phonemes. This feature ... words (grass, book, wing, flowers etc.); 5) two-syllable words with ... were carried out on classes for sound correction contributed development of phonemic...

Thesis >>

And thin differentiated articulatory work... grass, book, wing, flowers etc.); disyllabic ... At the same time these lessons contribute development of auditory attention ... aimed at the formation of phonemic perception proposed by R.I. Lalayeva, ...