Valuable landmarks. The hedonistic model of the value orientations of the individual is based on In each era, its own guidelines are formed

Posted On 01.01.2018

Value orientations influence the fulfillment of a social role by a person, human activity in society. These are society's preferences for something that find expression in various forms and content of human behavior.

Depending on the value orientations, there are personality types :

- traditionalists - focused on duty, order, discipline, law-abiding, desire for self-realization;

- idealists - critically oriented towards norms, authorities, have attitudes towards self-development;

- frustrated type - has low self-esteem, depressed well-being, a feeling of being thrown out of life;

- realists - combine the desire for self-realization with a sense of duty and self-control

- hedonistic materialists - desire pleasure here and now, chase after pleasure;

- modal type - really prevails in a given society;

- the ideal type is the desired personality, harmoniously developed;

- basic type - meets the needs of a particular society.

Plays a decisive role in the self-realization of a person socialization as the most important factor in personal development. Socialization differs from the concept of "development", which means the deployment of immanent (intrinsic) individual properties, from "education", which reflects the purposeful process of personality formation, according to the norms and expectations accepted in society. Socialization covers not only the process, but also the result of the interaction of the individual with the totality of the social influences of the communication environment.

The spectra of socialization are reflected in the activities, communication and self-awareness of the individual:

- in the field of activity, there is an expansion of the types of socialization, a change in its content, an understanding of its spiritual and practical orientation;

- in the field of communication, there is an expansion of social contacts, interactions, deepening of social knowledge, development of communication skills;

- in the sphere of self-consciousness, the formation of the image of one's own "I" as an active subject of socialization, understanding of one's social belonging, role, formation of self-esteem, self-esteem is carried out.

Many scientists, developing the concept of socialization, offered their vision of this difficult problem.

G. Tarde, a French sociologist, laid the foundation of socialization on the principle of imitation, which defines the personal forms of communication "educator - educated" as a basic social interaction.

Z. Freud - in the psychodynamic theory of socialization adheres to the biogenetic, unchanging nature of man, at the same time emphasizes the importance of the influence of the environment, especially parents.

G. Bloomer and D. Mead in the theory of personality are of the opinion that the individual is not the starting point, the priority is social communication, during which the individual qualities of the personality are formed. Socialization, according to this theory, is the process of assimilation by an individual of a system of social roles, with which certain socio-cultural meanings, meanings, symbols are associated.

E. Erickson considers socialization as a response of a person to the crises of his life cycles. The main direction of personality development is social adaptation based on thinking, attention, memory.

Thus, socialization is the process of assimilation by a person of social experience, patterns of behavior, attitudes of society, a social group, a system of connections and relations in which the person is included as a subject of labor, communication and cognition.

As a source of human socialization are:

- primary experience associated with the period of childhood;

- the transfer of culture as a form of activity through social institutions (family, kindergarten, school, labor collective, etc.).

- interactive communication and mutual influence of people in the process of their joint activities;

- processes of self-regulation, correlated with the gradual replacement of external control of individual behavior with internal self-control.

Socialization is different primary and secondary. Primary goes through the direct impact on the person of the immediate environment, parents, family, school. Secondary socialization goes through the indirect influence on a person of social groups, institutions, organizations in the general form of influence.

The elements of the social environment act as general factors of primary and secondary socialization of the individual:

- the roles and statuses that the group and society offer a person for choice;

- values, social norms, knowledge, skills and abilities that a person masters in order to fulfill roles and maintain the acquired status;

- social institutions that create technologies for the production, reproduction and transfer of cultural samples, values ​​and norms;

– real life process: economic, political, social and spiritual.

Sociologists distinguish two models of socialization - the "model of subordination" - socialization under conditions of regulation, selection of information, control, compliance with prescribed standards of behavior, - "model of interest" - the freedom of the individual to choose ways of self-realization.

The following can also be noted as models of socialization:

– harmonic model of socialization manifests itself in the fact that the individual is introduced into social reality through an objective perception of existing relations, institutions of power, the development of respect for the laws, an adequate response to social changes and the fulfillment of his duties and roles.

– hegemonic model of socialization- an individual, going through the process of knowing the world and entering it, perceives more negative phenomena, he is instilled with feelings of disrespect for any social and political structures, phenomena, a disdainful attitude towards other individuals, a sense of his own superiority over others, self-pride, inaccessibility;

– pluralistic model of socialization testifies to the recognition by the individual of equality with others, the recognition of their rights, freedoms, the ability to change political preferences, value orientations;

– conflict model of socialization: an individual is formed in an atmosphere of intolerance, confrontation, confrontation based on interpersonal, intergroup struggle, various conflicts, as a result - conflicts, he perceives the struggle as a natural state.

Often the socialization of the individual is influenced by the environment of the individual. The American scientist A. Heiler developed the concept of "significant other". This is the person whose approval the individual seeks and whose instructions he accepts. Parents, teachers, mentors, popular personalities, participants in games can act as a “significant other”.

Russian scientist V.A. Yadov proposed as an individual's socialization to take into account several dispositional levels, in which various value orientations, needs, goals, interests, attitudes, ranging from the simplest - vital needs - to high social attitudes and higher goals of the individual.

The socialization of the individual includes two phases: social adaptation and internalization.

Interiorization - e then the formation of the internal structure of the personality through the assimilation of its norms, values, and the process of transferring these elements of the external environment into the inner "I". Internalization forms the individuality, the uniqueness of the spiritual world of the individual, the ways of knowing the world.

Sociologist R. Merton, depending on the conditions in which the individual adapts, on the contradictions being resolved, proposed the types of behavior that he implements.

Conformist- loyally accepts the goals and institutional means approved by society.

Innovator- accepts goals approved by society, but tries to achieve them by non-institutional means (including illegal and criminal ones).

Ritualist- formally uses institutional means, not taking into account that they do not correspond to goals that have public support (the ideal type of bureaucrat, an individual who formally follows instructions, but it is not clear for what purposes).

Retreatist(isolated type) - does not accept any goals or means approved by society. Such people are perceived as fleeing from reality (drug addicts, alcoholics).

Rebel(rebel) - tries to create a new value system and achieve goals by new means. These include geniuses, revolutionaries, madmen.

We note, according to scientists, that the lack of meaning in life for the individual is a severe social pathology.

The search for the meaning of life and the desire to realize it, says the Austrian psychiatrist V. Frankl, is an immanent (internal) human quality. He identified three groups of values ​​that can make up the meaning of life:

- the values ​​of creativity (what we give to the world: scientific results, works of art, solid goods);

– values ​​of experience (what we get from the world: love, respect, risk, victory);

- the value of the relationship (what position do we take in relation to fate, if we cannot change it).

Social values ​​in society perform a number of functions. They act like:

1. Desirable, preferable for a given subject (individual, social community, society) state of social ties, the content of ideas, artistic forms.

2. Criteria for assessing real changes.

3. The meaning of purposeful activity.

4. Regulators of social interactions.

5. Internal incentives for activity.

Social values ​​orient a person in the surrounding world, induce, motivate for specific actions. Social values ​​are the beliefs of a group or society about the goals to be achieved and the main ways and means that lead to these goals.

The foundation, the basis of each value system are moral values ​​that express options for the preferred relationships of people, their relationship with each other, with society, and are also permeated with forms of control (shame, conscience, repentance) and, as a rule, carry a distinction between good and evil, duty, responsibility and irresponsibility, honor and dishonor.

Preparation for the exam in the Russian language.

Tutor.

“The USE will be canceled soon,” I have been hearing these words for years now. Yes, the format of the final test causes a lot of controversy. I have already expressed my opinion on this in one of my posts.

Be that as it may, there is no need to wait for a change in the system this academic year, so we have another year of preparation for the exam in this format. Nothing has changed compared to last year.

The task A2 has been slightly modified to distinguish between paronyms - similar in sound, words with different meanings. Previously, in all four sentences, one word was given to analyze the meaning in context:

A2 In which sentence should the word VALUABLE be used instead of the word VALUABLE?

1) All participants of the Olympiad were awarded with VALUABLE gifts.
2) In each era, their own VALUABLE landmarks are formed.
3) In the article you can find VALUABLE information for a geologist.
4) There are many valuable trees in the reserve.

In the 2012 version, all four sentences have different words:

A2 In which answer option is the underlined word used incorrectly?

1) In the obscure, diffused light of the night, MAJESTIC and beautiful vistas opened before us
Petersburg: Neva, embankment, canals, palaces.
2) Iron, chromium, manganese, copper and nickel are COLORFUL substances, components of many
paints based on these minerals.
3) DIPLOMATIC relations between Russia and the USA were established in 1807.
4) The most HUMANE professions on earth are those on which the spiritual life and
human health.

Task A26 (transformation of a subordinate clause into a participial phrase) moved to position A6, taking a logical place among other grammar tasks.

The wording of task C1 (essay) and the text of criterion K2 (commentary) were also clarified. The point here is that the essay should be written "based on the source text." I'll talk about what that means in my next post.

Happy start everyone!

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Personal value orientations

The system of value orientations is the most important characteristic of the personality, an indicator of its formation. It is no coincidence that various aspects of value orientations are the subject of study in philosophy, sociology, psychology, and pedagogy.

The problem of value orientations has a long history of research. John Davis believes that Aristotle already had something to say about the content of this category.

This concept began to be studied most consistently in foreign psychology from the second half of the 19th century. The founder of these studies is G. Spencer, who already in 1862 wrote that in the concept of correct judgments on a controversial issue, much depends on the position of the mind that we maintain while listening and taking part in the dispute.

G. Spencer laid the foundation for the concept of motor attitudes. Based on this theory, the scientists Lange, Mustenberg, Ferre began to study not only motor reactions, but also attention, memory, and thinking. The most active experimental studies were carried out in Germany. However, the term "attitude" itself was not used by German scientists, it was replaced by many synonyms.

The term "attitude" was proposed by W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki in the work "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America"
(1918–1920). “Attitude” is translated into Russian as “social attitude” or “attitude” is accepted without translation from English. This term in foreign social psychology is understood as the internal position of a person, the readiness to act in accordance with previous value experience. W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki defined an attitude as "an individual's psychological experience of the value, meaning, meaning of a social object" or as "a state of consciousness of an individual with respect to some social value."

Value, according to these authors, is usually social in nature; is "an object of respect on the part of socialized people." They define social values ​​as any given quantity that has an empirical content available to the members of a social group and a meaning in relation to which it is or can be the object of activity.

In the work of W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki, the social attitude was first designated as the general state of the subject, turned to values.

In the 1920s and 1930s there was a sharp rise in the study of attitude. There are several independent directions in the study of this problem. So, G. Allport in 1935 counted
17 variants of this concept. After analyzing them, he singled out points that are common to all researchers: attitude is understood as a certain state of consciousness and nervous system, expressing readiness for a reaction, organized on the basis of previous experience, providing a guiding and dynamic influence on behavior.

He established the dependence of attitude on previous experience and noted its important regulatory role.

An interesting approach to this problem by T. Parsons
(1902–1979). In his theory of action, he singled out such basic concepts as situation, actor, and orientation. T. Parsons divides the actor's orientations into motivational and value orientations. Knowledge of the content of value orientations makes it possible to explain and predict people's behavior, i.e. exercise social control, which, in turn, according to T. Parsons, will achieve: firstly, the socialization of a person, as a result of which he acquires the orientation necessary for normal life in the social system, and, secondly, to develop processes that would prevent conditions that give rise to deviant behavior. All this will help society to control the behavior of individuals.

Further experimental research revealed three components of attitude:

1) cognitive;

2) affective;

3) behavioral.

The cognitive component is awareness of the object of the attitude. It includes opinions and beliefs that a person holds about certain objects and people, which allow him to judge what is true and what is false. The affective component represents the positive or negative emotions associated with these beliefs, they give the attitude an emotional coloring and orient the action that the person is going to take. The behavioral component represents the reaction of a person, corresponding to his beliefs and experiences.

Based on these components, four functions of attitude were identified:

1) adaptive (adaptive, utilitarian), where the attitude directs the subject to those objects that serve to achieve his goals;

2) the function of knowledge, here the attitude gives simplified instructions regarding the way of behavior in relation to a particular object;

3) the function of expressing value, self-regulation - the attitude acts as a means of releasing the subject from internal tension, expressing oneself as a person;

4) the function of protection, contributing to the resolution of internal conflicts of the individual.

However, many questions on this issue remained unanswered. Particular difficulties were caused by La Pierre's experiment. He found two levels of behavior. At the first level, the observed behavior was expressed as follows.

1.2 Classification of values ​​and value orientations of the individual

La Pierre with two Chinese students traveled to the southern states of the United States and visited 252 hotels, where they were served in hotels and restaurants in accordance with accepted service standards. No difference in service between La Pierre himself and his Chinese students was found.

After completing the journey, La Pierre wrote to those hotels where he met with a normal reception. The second level of behavior was expressed in the fact that, when asked if he could hope for hospitality again if he visited the hotel, accompanied by the same two Chinese students, he was refused service to the “colored”. The divergence in behavior, on the one hand, providing behavior with the help of a positive attitude, and on the other hand, with the help of a negative attitude, has been called "La Pierre's paradox".

Many psychologists have questioned the regulative role of attitudes. And only when the corresponding theoretical concepts and experimental techniques appeared that made it possible to explain the “La Pierre paradox”, interest in this problem again increased in foreign psychology. The experiments of M. Rokeach played a special role in this. In addition to the three-component structure, he singled out "objective" and "situational" social attitudes. The first are attitudes about the objects of action (negative attitude towards the Chinese), and the second - on the way of action (good service to all customers). Another explanation for the “La Pierre paradox” is offered by D. Katz and I. Stotland. Depending on the situation, different aspects of the attitude manifest themselves in different ways: either the cognitive or the affective component. The result will therefore be different.

In domestic psychology, there are several main approaches to the consideration of the concept of "value orientations". B.V. Olshansky studied value orientations in the context of the choice of values: values, in his view, are a kind of "beacons" that allow you to highlight in the flow of information what is most significant in a person's life, both in a positive and negative sense. That is, value is understood as the significance of an object or phenomenon of reality for a person, and value orientations - the choice of certain values. By adhering to the guidelines, a person maintains a certain internal sequence of his behavior.

Consider the value orientation as an orientation to the values ​​existing in society and other researchers. So, I.S. Kohn writes: "Orientations aimed at some social values ​​are called value orientations." Such an interpretation of value orientations does not reveal their essence. You can focus on a wide range of values, while only conscious values ​​that have entered the internal structure of the personality become value orientations.

Some scientists correlate the concept of value orientations with the concept of orientation. So, B.G. Ananiev characterizes value orientations as "focus on certain values." Orientation characterizes a personality through its social and moral value and manifests itself in interests, worldviews, and beliefs. K.D. Shafranskaya, T.G. Sukhanov proceed from the equivalence of the concepts of value orientations and orientation. Comparison of value orientations with individual typological characteristics of the personality gave grounds for these authors to talk about the syndrome of value orientations, which includes the main personality traits that characterize the type of orientation. However, value orientations are not reducible to orientation. The concept of personality orientation is broader, generic. The system of value orientations forms the content side of the orientation of the personality. Through the orientation of the personality, value orientations find their real expression.

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Thus, we can conclude that the concepts of "identity", "cognitive complexity" and "temporal perspective" are inseparable unity and determine the semantic attitude of a person to the surrounding reality. At the same time, this attitude should be considered in the context of a specific life situation. Any change in the situation can change the nature of the relationship between the constituent components of this relationship.

Based on the above aspects of the organization of the system of personal meanings, we will try to describe its level structure (see Appendix 1).

The first level in such a system is the level of biologically conditioned meanings. They arise on the basis of sensations and determine the functioning of the body and its reactions to the physical impact of the surrounding reality. Here, the meanings are presented as unconscious mediators of the biological adaptation of the organism to environmental changes. Undoubtedly, this level of meanings cannot be called personal, since these meanings are not determined by a person or a person, but by the very nature of the life of all living things. In addition, in this case it is impossible to speak about any level of cognitive complexity, since the structure of consciousness has not yet been formed and there are no constructs. As a result, it is impossible to talk about the time perspective. The reactions of the body to the stimuli of the surrounding reality proceed only “now”, they do not have conscious experience and goals under them. If they are realized, then this happens "later", at a higher level, and their awareness, rather, has the character of interpretation than comprehension. We must agree with B.S. Bratus, referring biologically determined meanings to the prepersonal level. Rather, they are presuppositions, building material, on the basis of which a sense of reality arises. A.N. Leontiev defined biological meaning as “meaning in itself”, the main characteristic of which is non-constancy. This is the initial stage of development: "... the main change, a leap in development is the transformation of instinctive meaning into conscious meaning - the transformation of instinctive activity into conscious activity" . However, already here the meanings determine the primary separation of "I" and "not I". Thus, the level of biological meanings largely determines the primary interpretation of sensations and is the basis for the emergence of needs, drives, and motives.

At the second level, the meanings are individual in nature and reflect the need sphere of the individual. These are still poorly conscious formations that express the relation of the motive to the goal. The goals motivating this attitude are desires, elements of the objective world and the limitations of the social environment.

Relationships to the elements of reality are built on certain knowledge, which are in the nature of representations, and the elements of reality themselves appear in consciousness in a nominative form. The meanings of this level are characterized by low cognitive complexity. Constructs are represented either by rigid stereotypical concepts, clichés based on the semantic connection of two (maximum three) meanings, or by conceptual confusion. By virtue of the foregoing, meanings are exclusively situational in nature, since they reflect the satisfaction of needs. The time frames are determined by the context of the situation, the meanings are localized either in the "present" or in the "recent past". This also determines the main function of the meanings of this level - the adaptation of the individual to the surrounding conditions of social reality. However, due to the accumulated knowledge about objective reality and subjective needs, as well as ways to satisfy them, semantic connections are gradually generalized and acquire the character of meanings. In certain situations, the relationship between the individual and reality acquires the character of significance, which allows a person to differentiate himself from the surrounding reality and feel himself the subject of these relations.

The third level is actually personal meanings. These are stable personal formations that mediate all human life. At this level, meanings act as value orientations of the individual, the main function of which is to integrate the individual into the new conditions of social life. Unlike adaptation, by which we understand the process of adaptation aimed at maintaining human life in certain conditions, integration involves the active, conscious maintenance of a certain tension for the creative realization of one's capabilities in conditions of social interaction. Integration presupposes a fairly high level of self-concept formation, a meaningful attitude towards one's abilities and social roles, other people and the world as a whole. The time perspective includes at this level long-term planning based on a meaningful attitude towards personal experience and objective reality. Accordingly, personal constructs should be systemic in nature, implying the ability to generalize based on the distinction between the process and the result of activity. This level of cognitive complexity presupposes the presence of receptive constructs and the ability to "metaphorically" comprehend, allowing creative and flexible approach to solving life problems.

The fourth level of the system of personal meanings reflects the life-meaning relationships of a person. It is no longer a complex of individual relationships to oneself, others, the world. This is a holistic perception by a person of his life as a significance. Cognitive complexity at this level is characterized by increasing conceptualization, tolerance for contradictions and uncertainty, and objectivity. Time perspective covers a wide range of past, present and future events. Personal meanings at this level perform the function of generalization and operationalization of the meanings of the lower levels and act as life-meaning orientations of the personality. Accordingly, personal constructs in which personal meanings are manifested have a wide range and a clear structural subordination. A person's attitude towards himself, his self-concept is determined by the identity of himself as a subject of life, for which a person accepts and bears responsibility.

Normally, under the influence of specific (sometimes very harsh) circumstances of the situation, a person is faced with the need to change their values ​​and meanings. Actualizing in consciousness his experience (the past), the meaning of the present (elements and phenomena of reality) and the future (near or distant goals), a person realizes a semantic attitude to reality, experiencing a certain state. Such a series of actual semantic states, experienced temporarily and bearing the status of developmental phases, performs the function of generalizing the individual meanings of various levels of the individual semantic system into the highest - life-meaning level, which, in turn, is expressed to a certain extent by the meaningfulness of all life.

If an individual, for no matter what reasons, is not able to deploy and expand the temporal perspective of the personal meanings of the system, his fixed, immovable semantic state acquires the status of a personal property and changes the rest of the psychological content. The tightening of personal constructs leads to an undifferentiated, diffuse identity status, which, in turn, can be expressed in the accentuation of personality traits (most likely, in the first place) and in the formation of borderline and pathological conditions and syndromes. Back in 1964, J. Crumbo and L. Maholik identified three groups of subjects: those not related to noogenic neurosis, related to it, and “patients”.

Thus, just like a personality, the system of personal meanings is in continuous dynamics. In certain life situations, a person can function at various levels of this system. The meanings of the lower levels do not disappear when a person moves to a higher level of development, they are generalized into more complex semantic formations and are included in a more complex semantic system of relations, synchronizing time loci and expanding the boundaries of subjective reality, which ensures the development of both the system itself and the personality generally. Accordingly, when considering one or another level of an individual semantic system, it must be remembered that the causality of a reaction, action, deed, or life activity cannot be outside or inside a psychological event. It covers the interaction of a person and reality as a whole, including the context of the situation.

1.3 Formation of value-semantic orientations of the individual

The psychological basis of the value-semantic orientations of the individual is a diverse structure of needs, motives, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs, worldviews involved in creating the orientation of the individual, expressing the socially determined relationship of the individual to reality.

According to most authors, value-semantic orientations, determining the central position of the individual, influence the direction and content of social activity, the general approach to the world around and oneself, give meaning and direction to a person’s activity, determine his behavior and actions. A person strives to find meaning and feels frustration or an existential vacuum if this desire remains unfulfilled.

The value-semantic orientations of the individual are formed and developed in the process of socialization.

At various stages of socialization, their development is ambiguous and is determined by factors of family and institutionalized upbringing and education, professional activities, socio-historical conditions, and in the case of abnormal development of the personality, psychotherapy (purposeful psychological impact) can act as such a factor.

The psychological mechanisms for the formation and development of value-semantic orientations are the individual psychological features of the course of mental processes and, above all, thinking, memory, emotions and will, existing in the form of internalization, identification and internalization of social values.

Value-semantic orientations have a dynamic character. If their existence is not supported by man, if they are not created, implemented and updated, then they are gradually lost. Acceptance and development of values ​​is a long and lengthy process. Awareness of values ​​generates value ideas, and on the basis of value ideas, value orientations are created, which, in turn, represent a conscious part of the system of personal meanings.

Chapter II. Characteristics of the value orientations of young people

To consider the problems of youth, it is necessary to imagine what youth is, how it differs from other social groups.

The controversy between scientists about the definition of youth, the criteria for separating it into an independent group, and age limits have a long history. Scientists share different approaches to the subject of study - from the standpoint of sociology, psychology, physiology, demography, as well as the classification traditions that have been formed in various scientific schools. Ideological factors play a significant role, as young people are at the forefront of the political struggle.

In domestic social science, for a long time, young people were not considered as an independent socio-demographic group: the allocation of such a group did not fit into the existing ideas about the class structure of society, and contradicted the official ideological doctrine of its socio-political unity. It is one thing to talk about youth as an integral part of the working class, the collective farm peasantry, the Soviet intelligentsia, and another to recognize its social characteristics as a kind of integrity. This was seen as the opposition of youth to other social groups.

One of the first definitions of the concept of "youth" was given in 1968 by V.T. Lisovsky: “Young people are a generation of people passing through the stage of socialization, assimilating, and at an older age already assimilating, educational, professional, cultural and other social functions; depending on specific historical conditions, the age criteria for young people can range from 16 to 30 years.

HEDONISTIC CONSUMPTION

Later, a more complete definition was given by I.S. Kohn: “Young people are a socio-demographic group, distinguished on the basis of a combination of age characteristics, social status, and socio-psychological properties determined by both. Youth as a certain phase, a stage of the life cycle is biologically universal, but its specific age limits, the social status associated with it and socio-psychological characteristics are of a socio-historical nature and depend on the social system, culture and patterns of socialization inherent in a given society.

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Value Orientations
VALUE ORIENTATIONS - a component of personality orientation. These are material and spiritual values ​​shared and internally accepted by it, a predisposition to perceive the conditions of life and activity in their subjective significance. Value orientations serve as reference points for making decisions and regulating behavior. The subjective preference for certain values ​​is the beginning of determining the hierarchy of value orientations: family, wealth, creativity, career, honor, conscience, health, intimate relationships, caring for others, etc. Consistency of value orientations is an indicator of personality stability. Changes are taking place in the system of value orientations of each person, there is its own dynamics and development. The determinants of the value orientations of the individual are the conditions of life, activities, as well as inclinations, abilities, interests, needs of a person.

List of random tags:
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Activity - ACTIVITY - a motivated process of using certain means to achieve a goal. The Russian psychologist M. Ya. Basov (1892-1931) was the first to single out activity as a special category that cannot be reduced to any other forms of life. Along with goals and motives, the structure of activity includes methods and techniques. The features of the activity are determined by the content of the goals, the subject to which it is directed, the means and methods by which it is carried out, and the results.

Value orientations are the most important component of personality structure

The most important activities are play, learning, work. The types of professional activity are diverse: the activities of a teacher, engineer, doctor, architect, writer, artist, composer, agronomist, officer, etc. The psychological content of professional activity includes developed, taking into account its requirements, mental processes, states, education and personality traits. The most important condition for successful activity is a creative approach, its implementation with knowledge of the matter and perspective
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Paphos - Paphos (Greek pathos - suffering) is an ancient concept denoting suffering, to which the own actions of a person led by a strong passion, i.e. - resolution of passion in suffering. In the teachings of Aristotle, pathos was considered as one of the basic concepts of aesthetics: death or another tragic event that happens to the hero of a work causes compassion or fear in the viewer, which are then resolved in a cathartic experience. The basis of patho- is formed from the term "pathos".
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Child psychology - CHILD PSYCHOLOGY - a branch of psychological science that studies the conditions and driving forces for the development of the psyche at the stage of childhood, the patterns of functioning and changes in cognitive, volitional and emotional processes, the features of the formation of a child as a person. Child psychology also studies the characteristics of various types of children's activities (games, learning, labor), the formation of age and individual characteristics of children. Child psychology is closely related to educational psychology, pedagogy, biology, physiology, medicine, and family psychotherapy. In child psychology, methods of quantitative assessments, various equipment, information models, experimental teaching in kindergartens, etc. are used. Child psychology develops standardized methods of psychological diagnostics that allow you to establish the level of development of mental processes and properties characteristic of each age stage

Example 1

In which sentence should the word VALUABLE be used instead of
VALUABLE?

1) All participants of the Olympiad were awarded with VALUABLE gifts.
2) In each era, their own VALUABLE landmarks are formed.
3) In the article you can find VALUABLE information for a geologist.
4) There are many valuable trees in the reserve.

Preparation plan

Violation of lexical compatibility is a common speech error. It manifests itself in the wrong choice of words for a particular context. To know what words a given paronym is "friends" with, one must clearly understand the nuances of its meaning. It is problematic to prepare for this question by learning a certain list (the list would be too long). It is not necessary to read it all - select only those words whose nuances of meaning you do not understand. This is not only useful, but also entertaining reading. MANDATORY PROGRAM MINIMUM - to study a short dictionary of paronyms on the site Rus-Exam.ru.

Of course, you can’t look at the exam in the dictionary. But you have probably heard the words offered to you in the test before. If you remember the features of their semantic compatibility, then it's in the bag. If not, you will have to resort to some manipulations. Usually one of three treatments will suffice. Let's consider them with an example.

Instruments

01 Try it without looking at the sentences from the example, come up with a "small" context yourself(at the phrase level) for each word. What can be said to be valuable? Advice, frame (i.e. employee), gift, prize. What words go together with the word "valuable"? Perhaps only two: landmarks and settings. Now let's look at an example. In sentence (2) we see "landmarks". We will substitute the word "value" there.

Most likely, knowing the possible context, you can easily cope with the task. But additional considerations may be needed:

02 How can modify the context? The word "valuable" clearly has a quantitative message. It can be used with words denoting quantity, such as "very valuable". Now look at an example. It is easy to see that the word "very" cannot be substituted in sentences (2) and (4). What are "very valuable landmarks"? Some nonsense! What can be valuable in them? You can't say "very valuable papers" either, but for a different reason. The phrase "securities" (shares, bonds, etc.) is so stable that nothing can be inserted into it, and if the word "valuable" is removed, the meaning will be completely distorted. So everything is in order with the "securities", and the error is contained in option (2).

03 If the first two approaches did not dispel doubts, you can try understand the semantic range of a word, regardless of the context. "Valuable" refers to the price (literally or figuratively), and valuable - to the values. At the same time, it should be noted that we are not talking about specific values ​​at all (gold, real estate, etc.), but about an abstract attitude of a person, his life priorities: what is most important for him - a career, material wealth, patriotism, power, family and etc. Having understood these nuances, we again can easily see that it is in option (2) that we are talking about values, and not about price.

Reasoning pattern

So, in your hands are three main tools. Sometimes it is also useful to try to substitute synonyms. There is no universal scheme here. But you always need to "dance" from a specific word: in what context it can be used, what associations it evokes, how limited its compatibility, whether the meaning is concrete or abstract, what are the nuances of the meaning(quantitative, qualitative characteristics). But the main thing, I repeat, is the search for a suitable context.

Often tutors in such matters require the student to give an example of reasoning. This case is very useful, but with one small amendment. You absolutely do not need to build some kind of scientific narrative. You must either very briefly explain the difference between the two paronyms, or simply offer a variant of the context for each of them at the level of a phrase or a short sentence. Don't get overwhelmed with details. When considering the example described above, it is enough that the following pops up in your mind on the exam. "More valuable" is good, "more valuable" is not good. "Valuable" is about quantity. "Value" is some kind of abstraction. Possible context: "value orientations". Everything!

What to look out for

· Although in the above option a couple of words (paronyms) are given in the task, in the real task there may be a different wording. You may simply be asked to find in which of the four sentences the underlined word is inappropriate. In this case, we are not talking about paronyms, but the essence is the same - an assessment of the legitimacy of the lexical compatibility of a given word in the context.

Example 2

In which sentence is the underlined word used incorrectly?

1) A real teacher should strive to ENGAGE all his students.
2) The plan drawn up by the project manager has undergone major changes in the course of work.
3) A huge selection of discs was presented in the Music Salon.
4) At the book fair, everyone will have the opportunity to meet with their favorite authors.

Such a formulation of the question should not confuse you: you just need to forget about all sorts of paronyms and evaluate compatibility separately for each sentence. It is hoped that one of the proposals resonates with you. In this case, the error is so gross that it is hard not to notice it: "SELECTING disks" should be replaced with "SELECTING disks". But the answer may not be so obvious, so let's consider other points of the question.

Proposition (1) sounds a little strange. But remember that your task is not to evaluate the stylistic beauty of the text, but only the legitimacy of a particular phrase. In this sense, the expression "cover attention" is quite survivable. But you just need to know about the presence of such an expression as "to undergo changes". And finally, a serious trap is contained in sentence (4). Opportunity GRANTED or PRESENTED? If you are not sure, try to reason. Please note that when choosing words, you need to use the same grammatical form as in the sentence (in this case, the passive voice). By doing this, we will reduce the range of values, for example, we will cut off the value represent = imagine. What or who can be REPRESENTED? Speaker (to introduce someone to the audience), report, officer (introduced for an award). What can be provided? Opportunity, chance, plane. What is a synonym for the word "provide"? The word "give". Therefore, in sentence (4), the word "provided" is used correctly.

· Sometimes the nuances of the meaning of a word depend on the ending. In this sense, the question of lexical compatibility sometimes intersects with the question of stress (different endings can lead to different stresses). Remember that, unlike question A1, where you were asked to evaluate the possibility of a particular stress, in this case you must evaluate the correctness of the use of this word in the context. Don't let yourself be confused.

For example, let's take the following sentence: "In July, the entire class went to a LANGUAGE camp for three weeks." This option must be recognized as erroneous. Why? After all, the word "linguistic" exists! The problem is that "linguistic" refers to language as an organ. If we are talking about language as a means of human communication, then it is necessary to use the word LANGUAGE.

Practice

From the above reasoning, you realized that in the analysis it is necessary to proceed from the characteristics of a particular word. Let's try to use the same flexible approach in training exercises. Go to your workbook and do the assignments. In Ex. 1 if there is an error in the sentence, it is necessary to replace one of the words with a similar one in form, but different in meaning. In Ex. 2 it is proposed to make lexical pairs (A + B).

Hard case

There are lexical pairs in which, according to teachers and tutors, students most often make mistakes.

a) Make sure you understand well the differences between the following words.
b) If in doubt, look it up in a dictionary.
in) Then try to put each word into context on your own (for example, come up with a short sentence).
+ Pay attention to the spelling (difficulties are underlined).

ISCU With NY - ISKU SST VENNY
ETC E endure - endure - OL And be patient
ETC E POST - INTRODUCE
ADDRESSER - ADDRESSER

The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Read the text and do tasks 1-3.

(1) The debate about when and why bird flights originated is still ongoing. (2) Some scientists believe that the whole thing is in the ice age: the advancing glacier drove the birds out of their usual habitats, and when the glacier retreated, the descendants of the fugitives returned home. (3) ______ after all, almost none of the migratory birds builds nests and does not breed chicks in wintering areas.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. Almost none of the migratory birds builds nests and breeds chicks in wintering areas.

2. Some scientists believe that birds return home when the glacier retreats.

3. The cause of bird flights was the ice age: when the glacier advanced, the birds flew away, and when it retreated, they returned to their usual habitats.

4. Scientists are still arguing about when and why bird flights arose.

5. The ice age, which drove birds out of their usual habitats, caused bird flights.

2

Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

1. Indeed,

2. Fortunately,

4. At the same time

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word RECEIVE. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the second (2) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

RETRACT And TH, -upl Yu, -at write; owls

1. Having stepped, move away, move back, to the side. O. from the door. O. one step. The forests receded to the north (trans.).

2. Move back under the pressure of the advancing enemy. O. with fights. O. before difficulties (transl.).

3. from what. Give up your intentions, plans. He will not back down from his own. I won't back down until I get my way.

4. from what. Stop sticking to something. O. from your opinion. O. from custom.

5. from what. Shift attention from the main to the secondary. O. from the topic.

6. (1st person and 2nd person not used), trans. In some combinations: become weaker, approach the end. The disease has receded. The fire receded. The element receded.

7. from what. Make a retreat. O. a little from the edge of the sheet.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.

religions

kitchen

plum

5

In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

1. As a child, she was a very TRUSTING child.

2. Each era has its own VALUABLE landmarks

3. He has always been a very PRACTICAL person.

4. Today my sister WAS wearing a festive dress.

5. CONFIDENT tone of conversation.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

RINSES laundry

according to the TABLE

few calories

TWO wonderful pianists

Little Pony

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS	SUGGESTIONS
A) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members	1) A. S. Pushkin wrote that he was not born to amuse kings.
B) violation of the construction of a sentence with participial turnover	2) Maria Skłodowska-Curie is the only woman to win the Nobel Prize twice.
C) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial turnover	3) Even in the most difficult times, A. Akhmatova believed that "And yet they will recognize my voice, And yet they will believe it again."
D) incorrect sentence construction with indirect speech	4) In the novels of M. Sholokhov there is no lie, pretending to be another truth.
E) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition	5) Having got closer, the hunters saw that the bear was not killed, but only wounded.
	6) The barred rounded windows of the monastery and the old gilded dome seemed familiar to me.
	7) According to the letters of his contemporaries, in his youth, Leo Tolstoy preferred to travel on horseback.
	8) Going up to the second floor, I saw a long corridor and a wooden door
	9) Enjoying a delicious dinner, our conversation proceeded serenely.

Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.

8

Determine the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

forbidding

b ... zirovatsya

ignition

k...ntingent

9

Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.

s ... spend the night, week ... cook

pr ... coastal, pr ... given

and ... cook, in ... food

ex...increase, ex...passion

n ... road builder, not ... sightly

10

strict ... howl

lucky...

kind...nky

enamel...

overcome...

11

Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

opening ... May

indescribable ... my

worry...worry

haunted...my

12

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which is written I.

Now n (1) mountains, n (2) sky, n (3) earth - n (4) of which n (5) was visible.

13

Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are spelled ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

1. (IN) SUBSEQUENCE we repeatedly recalled how Fedor bravely passed (FOR) THAT rocky ledge.

2. It was (FOR) STILL hot on the street, (FOR) THAT, the issue of the delivery of drinking water turned out to be the most urgent.

3. (NOT) DESPITE feeling unwell, Sergey managed to finish the work (B) WITHIN a week.

4. TO (WOULD) get to the pass, I had to walk so long that many (FOR) FREQUENTly thought of returning to the camp.

5. In the yard SO (SAME), as a year ago, kids played and strict grandmothers made sure that order was observed.

14

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which one N is written.

On the yacht - the company (1) brand "K. Faberge", and on a silver (2) rim, put on crystal, engraved (3) about its name "Vera".

15

Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. Prickly thorns of a wild rose can be found near Moscow and in Siberia in Central Asia and the Far East.

2. Quiet and silent in the winter forest and snowy forest glades

3. Grass flowers shine and bask and joyfully reach for the gentle sun.

4. All day we walked through the forests, made our way through thickets of birches and aspens, breathed the rotten smell of grass and roots.

5. The world is filled with the smell of a pine tree, the sun and the singing of a lark.

16

For two weeks now (1) a puppy that has recently appeared with us (2) is mastering the world (3) at the same time probing (4) the boundaries of what is permitted.

17

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.

Some contemporaries were outraged by the use of A.S. Pushkin of popular words in such contexts, where (1) according to critics (2) it was necessary to use the words "high". However (3) Pushkin resolutely rejected the concept of "low matter".

18

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

Among the conversations (1) that took place then between Daisy and me (2) and (3) which often ended in the morning (4) because we discovered new sides of them with respect to the same things (5), the theme of traveling together to all those places (6) that I visited before.

19

Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.

He was content with (1) what is written in a notebook (2) and did not show bothersome curiosity (3) even (4) when he did not understand everything (5) that he listened and taught.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the incorrectly used word. Write down the chosen word, observing the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

The house-commune was equipped with the latest technology, the comfort of the residents was taken care of here: a laundry, a canteen-restaurant, a club, a shop, hot water, which was rare at that time, and a kindergarten.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.

(1) Autumn came by surprise and took possession of the earth - gardens and rivers, forests and air, fields and birds. (2) Everything immediately became autumn.

(3) Tits fussed in the garden. (4) Their cry was like the sound of broken glass. (5) They hung upside down on the branches and looked out the window from under the maple leaves.

(6) Every morning in the garden, like on an island, migratory birds gathered. (7) Under the whistle, scream and croak in the branches, there was a flurry. (8) Only during the day it was quiet in the garden: restless birds flew south.

(9) Leaf fall has begun. (10) Leaves fell days and nights. (11) They either flew obliquely in the wind, or they lay vertically in the damp grass. (12) The forests drizzled with a rain of flying leaves. (13) It rained for weeks. (14) Only by the end of September the copses were exposed, and through the thicket of trees the blue distance of compressed fields became visible.

(15) Then the old man Prokhor, a fisherman and a basket maker (in Solotch almost all old people become basket makers with age), told me a tale about autumn. (16) Until then, I had never heard this fairy tale - it must have been Prokhor who invented it himself.

(17) - You look around, - Prokhor told me, picking his bast shoes with an awl, - you look closely, dear person, than every bird or, say, some other living creature breathes. (18) Look, explain. (19) Otherwise they will say: I studied in vain. (20) For example, a leaf flies off in the fall, but people are unaware that a person in this case is the main defendant. (21) A person, say, invented gunpowder. (22) Break his enemy along with that gunpowder! (23) I myself also dabbled in gunpowder. (24) In ancient times, the village blacksmiths forged the first gun, stuffed it with gunpowder, and that gun hit the fool. (25) A fool was walking through the forest and saw how the orioles were flying under the sky, yellow cheerful birds were flying and whistling, inviting guests. (26) The fool hit them from both trunks - and golden fluff flew to the ground, fell on the forests, and the forests withered, withered and fell down overnight. (27) And other leaves, where the bird's blood got, turned red and also crumbled. (28) I suppose I saw in the forest - there is a yellow leaf and there is a red leaf. (29) Until that time, all the birds wintered with us. (30) Even the crane didn’t go anywhere. (31) And the forests stood both summer and winter! (32) And in leaves, flowers and mushrooms. (33) And there was no snow. (34) There was no winter, I say. (35) It wasn't! (36) Yes, why did she surrender to us, winter, pray tell ?! (37) What is her interest? (38) The fool killed the first bird - and the earth became sad. (39) From that time on, leaf fall began, and wet autumn, and leafy winds, and winters. (40) And the bird got scared, flies away from us, offended by a person. (41) So, dear, it turns out that we have harmed ourselves, and we need not to spoil anything, but to take good care of it.