Part of the earth's surface. Earth structure

Only 29.2% of the Earth is occupied by continents, most of the earth's surface is covered with water. (2\3). The real surface of the Earth's solid body has complex outlines. In relation to the level of the world ocean, the continents are located above, and the bottom of the oceans is below. The hypsometric curve is used to characterize the relief of the Earth.

The highest mountain on Earth is called Everest in the Himalayas (8848 km). There are few high mountains on Earth. A huge area on the continents is occupied by plains (300 m above sea level).

In the structure of the ocean floor up to 200 m there is a shelf, up to 3000 m a continental slope, up to 6000 m - the bed of the world ocean, deep-water depressions or trenches up to 11000 m deep.

Methods for studying the internal structure of the Earth

The methods of direct observations include the study of the depths of the Earth with the help of mine workings - mines, tunnels and wells. There are many of them on Earth, especially wells drilled in search of oil and gas. The depth of such wells does not exceed 5 km. There are already several ultra-deep wells that are being drilled to study the upper parts of the Earth: on the Kola Peninsula, in Azerbaijan and elsewhere. The depth of ultra-deep wells is within the limits of modern technical capabilities and does not yet exceed 15 km. And this is very little to judge the structure of the Earth.

Data on what is inside the Earth is obtained by studying volcanic eruptions and lava erupting from the bowels. But even here, even if we take the depth of the foci of some eruptions as 100 km, the data are extremely insufficient.

Geophysical methods, studying the physical parameters of the Earth - electrical conductivity and gravity, can judge the internal state of the Earth, practically without limiting the depth of research. Geophysical methods are so far the only ones that bring scientifically based information about what is happening inside the Earth. Especially a lot of interesting data was obtained in the study of the propagation velocities in the Earth of elastic oscillations, which are called seismic waves. The branch of science that studies these waves is called seismology.

The study of the propagation velocity of seismic waves showed that with depth, their velocity changes either abruptly (seismic sections of the 1st order) or gradually (seismic sections of the 2nd order), revealing a steady tendency to increase towards the center of the Earth.

A wave is the propagation of some deformation in an elastic medium, i.e. change in the volume or shape of a substance. When a material is deformed, a stress arises that tends to return it to its original shape or volume. There are two types of seismic waves: body and surface.

Body waves are longitudinal and transverse (Fig. 2).

Longitudinal are compression waves propagating in the direction of wave motion. They are designated by the Latin letter "P" (primary - primary, English), since the speed of their propagation is higher than other waves and they are the first to arrive at seismic receivers. A longitudinal wave changes the shape of the body.

transverse S waves (secondary - secondary, English) are shear waves, in which deformations in the substance occur across the direction of wave movement.

Surface waves propagate in the surface layer of the earth's crust. There are Love and Rayleigh waves. In the first of them, oscillations are carried out only in a horizontal plane across the direction of wave motion. Rayleigh waves are like waves on water, in which particles of matter make circular motions.

Fig.2. Types of seismic waves. A - body waves: a - longitudinal, b - transverse. B - surface waves: c - Love, d - Rayleigh.

The arrows show the direction of water movement.

A change in the velocities of seismic waves on interfaces can be associated with a change in the density of matter or its phase state, or both. Separation surfaces limit inside the Earth spherical shells and its core. Such shells are called domestic geospheres. To external The geospheres include the biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Consider first the outer geospheres.

Outer geospheres

Atmosphere - located from the Earth's surface to a height of up to 1300 km. The main components that make up the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapor. In a small amount, gases are present in the atmosphere and are of great importance in her life. Thus, industrial gases create a tangible greenhouse effect, leading to the heating of the atmosphere due to the absorption of a significant part of the infrared radiation of the Earth's surface heated by the Sun. Ozone, concentrating at an altitude of 10-15 km, forms ozone layer, protecting all living things from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun. This layer can be destroyed due to the entry into the atmosphere of substances that destroy ozone, and, in particular, technogenic freon.

The atmosphere consists of several layers:

Troposphere up to 8 km above the pole and 17 km above the equator;

Stratosphere up to a height of 55 km;

The ionosphere, in which rarefied air is ionized by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and is capable of conducting electric current.

Hydrosphere, or the water shell of the Earth, includes the water of the seas and oceans, rivers, lakes, swamps, as well as the ice of glaciers. Groundwater is also included in the hydrosphere.

Biosphere forms a zone on the border of the atmosphere and lithosphere, which includes the hydrosphere, and is characterized by the fact that it contains organic life. Organic life in the biosphere is widespread almost everywhere, but most of all it is in the seas and oceans. A major role in the study of the biosphere belongs to V.I. Vernadsky.

Internal geospheres.

Earth's crust- the upper stone shell of the Earth is composed of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, having from 7 to 70-80 km. The earth's crust is limited from below by a very clear surface of the P and S wave velocity jump, first established by the Yugoslav geophysicist A. Mohorovichic in 1909 and named after him: the Mohorovichic surface (Moho or simply M). This is the most active layer of the solid Earth. Here, vertical and horizontal heterogeneity, created by a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic, intrusive rocks, is especially clearly manifested.

Mantle- the largest intermediate shell of the Earth. The mass of the Earth enclosed in this layer is about 2/3 of the mass of the planet. The second global seismic interface is located at a depth of 2900 km, was identified in 1913 by the German geophysicist B. Gutenberg and also received his name.

Upper mantle. The lower boundary on the continents is located at a depth of 80 - 120 km, in the oceans - does not exceed 50 km. The structure of this layer under the continental and oceanic structures differs significantly. On the continents, this is conditionally a granite layer, in the oceans - basalt, with an average density of 2.7 g / cm 3. The surface separating the granite and basalt layers is called the Konrad boundary. Basalt rocks contain less flint and aluminum compared to granites and have a higher density of 2.8 - 2.9 g/cm 3 .

lower mantle in the range of 2900-120 km it is characterized by a density of 5.5 - 6.0 g/cm 3 , where, along with oxygen, silicon, magnesium, there are such heavy elements as iron and nickel. Temperature - 1000 0 . The substance is in a glassy (amorphous) state. This state is maintained by high pressure.

The central, inner, densest part of the Earth is called core. According to geophysical data, the core is in a state close to liquid with a temperature of 2500 - 3000 0 C. The density of the substance reaches 13 g / cm 3 .

At a depth of 5120 km, an abrupt increase in the velocity of longitudinal waves occurs again, and by applying a special method it is shown that transverse waves also appear there, i.e. this part of the core is solid (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Seismic wave velocities and density inside the Earth. Seismic waves: 1 - longitudinal, 2 - transverse, 3 - density.

The emergence of the earth's crust

The earth's crust arose in the process of geological evolution. In the pregeological history, the core and mantle warmed up, the melt mixed with the upper, lighter components. The first volcanic-plutonic ring structures made of basalts appeared on the surface of the planet. Meteor craters complemented this "lunar" landscape. With the degassing of the mantle, gases were released and the atmosphere formed: methane, ammonia, and, to a lesser extent, hydrogen, water vapor and carbon dioxide. Thus, by the end of the lunar stage, a basal layer Earth, primary atmosphere and hydrosphere.

The further evolution of the Earth is associated with the formation granite layer Earth. Atmospheric processes contributed to the destruction and processing of the volcanic mountainous terrain. Compaction and metamorphism created a thick layer of metamorphic rocks (gneisses, quartzites, etc.). The ongoing processing of gaseous and liquid solutions of alkalis and silica coming from the bowels of the Earth contributed to the metasomatic granitization of sediments. These changes initially occurred in limited, oval-shaped areas - nucleoids. The "nuclear" (growing) stage of the development of the earth's crust continued 3.5-4.0 billion years ago. The widespread development of granitization zones led to the creation of the Earth's granite layer.

Approximately 3.5 billion years ago, the stage of formation of the strata began and is now continuing. sedimentary breeds. This stage is associated with endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) processes.

The structure of the earth's crust

The structure of the earth's crust, whose thickness varies from 0 to 75 km and everywhere has a clear lower boundary - the Moho surface, is fundamentally different on the continents and in the oceans (Fig. 4).

Fig.4. Diagrams of the structure of the earth's crust.

I - continental crust, layers: 1 - sedimentary, 2 - granite-metamorphic, 3 - basalt, 4 - peridotites of the upper mantle.

II - oceanic crust, layers: 1 - sedimentary, 2 - basalt, 3 - complexes of parallel dikes, 4 - gabbro, 5 - upper mantle peridotites

Bark continents has a significant thickness and consists of layers - sedimentary, granite-metamorphic, basalt and peridotites of the upper mantle.

Oceanic the crust, with a much smaller thickness, consists of layers - thin sedimentary, basalt, a complex of parallel dikes, gabbro, peridotites of the upper mantle.

Test questions:

1. Give a schematic diagram of the birth, life and death of stars.

2. On what theoretical concepts and experimental data the Big Bang theory is built.

3. Compare oceanic and continental types of the earth's crust.

4. List methods for studying the internal structure of the Earth.

5. Name the external and internal geospheres of the Earth.

6. What is the earth's crust?

part of the earth's surface visible to the eye of an observer in an open area

Alternative descriptions

The height of the water in the pond

The visible boundary of the sky and the earth or water surface, as well as the celestial space above this boundary

Circle of Future Opportunities

Russian artificial satellite

Poul Anderson's film Through...

. “The edge is visible, but you won’t reach” (riddle)

sky border

Poem by V. Vysotsky

Collection of Russian poet M. Svetlov

Circle of knowledge, ideas

The visible boundary of the sky and the earth's surface

Barley variety

Rock formation

The line along which the sky appears to border on the earth's surface

Great circle of the celestial sphere

Moscow cinema

The line where the sky ends

Soviet TV brand

Visibility Curve

The edge is visible, but you won’t reach

elusive line

The sun sets behind him

Edge of visible space

The visible border of heaven and earth

Far "edge" of the landscape

The "junction" of heaven and earth

The Unreachable End of the Earth

Behind him is the sun

The visible border of heaven and earth

Circle of knowledge and ideas

Visibility Curve

The height of the water in a river or reservoir, in the soil

. "the edge is visible, but you will not reach" (riddle)

Far "edge" of the landscape

The sun sets behind him

M. the outskirts of the earth's surface, around the observer, where the sky adjoins; firmament, outlook, sky, skyscraper, sunset of the sky; with an eye, we see; hang up, hang up, close the casp. mischief, see arch. look at the eagle a line that separates the part of heaven and earth that we see from the invisible. Astronomer. an imaginary plane passing through the center of the earth, vertical to the axis of the observer; it is an astronomical, true mischief; sensual, visible, determined by the line of sight, from the eye of the observer to the slope or to the visible outskirts of the globe, and further, to the firmament; everything below this line, that we do not see; which is higher, we see. Forests, mountains, and other objects hamper and shorten our vision, which forms a regular circle only in the open sea. The countries of the world, winds or rhumbs (see wind, compass) are indicated by the circumference of the eye, which is represented by the card (cups) of the compass, and there are no countries of the world at the very poles. * The range of a person's concepts, the limits of what he can grasp with his mental eye, according to the degree of his education, according to knowledge and mind. Horizontal, lying at the level of the earth, sea; on which a free plumb line falls at a right angle; water-right, water-direct, plantar, lying, level, lying, suspended. The horizontality the state or property it is; water-rightness, water-rightness, soleness, levelness, bed-weight, suspension

Place of "junction" of heaven and earth

Poul Anderson's film Through...

The concept of a land plot is central to land legislation.

Abroad (USA, England, Sweden, etc.), a land plot is understood as a cone with a vertex in the center of the Earth, a section in the earth's crust along the border of the plot, and a base extending upwards. Everything that is in the cone: subsoil, minerals, buildings, structures, utilities, refers to the land.

There are several definitions of a land plot in Russian legislation, the issue of the relationship between the concepts of "land" and "land plot" is not settled, there is no precise indication of when the concept of "land" should be used, and when - "land plot".

Everything below the soil (fertile layer) belongs to the state, and use is regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Subsoil". Everything above the earth's surface and the buildings, structures and structures located on it also belongs to the state, and its use is regulated by the Air Code of the Russian Federation.

Above one point on the earth's surface, there may be several land plots at different levels (ground, above ground, underground), which may have several different owners and users.

The Economic and Legal Dictionary defines not the concept of " Earth', and the concept of ' he ml»:

We ml- a resource used for the production of agricultural products, for the construction of houses, cities, railways, one of the main components of production (other components: labor, capital, natural resources).

Article 9 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation establishes that land and other natural resources are used and protected in the Russian Federation as the basis of life and activity of the peoples living in the respective territory. By exercising power on its territory, the state establishes environmental requirements that are mandatory for all land users in the interests of society, controls the use of land, determines protected zones, public easements, etc.

Land is an object of real estate, and any other property firmly associated with it is real estate only by virtue of its connection with the land, has a certain legal status that determines the form of legal possession, intended purpose and permitted use.

When we talk about land as an object of land legal relations, we do not mean land in its natural state, but land in respect of which a certain legal regime has been established, due to which it becomes an object of law - an object of land legal relations.

Article 6 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes 3 types objects land relations:

Land as a natural object and natural resource;

Land;

Parts of land.

Subjects(participants) of land relations are citizens, legal entities, the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipalities.

However, in most cases, the object of land relations is not land as an object of nature or a resource, but a land plot - an individualized part of the earth's surface in the prescribed manner.

The Legal Dictionary of Terms defines:

« Land plot- the spatial border of state sovereignty, the territory to which the power of the state extends.

Here are the definitions of a land plot from land legislation.

Article 11.1 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation (Federal Law of October 25, 2001 No. 136-FZ) gives the concept of a land plot:

« Land plot is a part of the earth's surface, the boundaries of which are determined in accordance with federal laws.

Article 130 "Immovable and movable things" of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation classifies land plots as immovable things (real estate, real estate).

Thus, having studied these definitions, we can name the main feature of a land plot, which distinguishes between the concepts of "land" and "land plot". This sign is individualization on the surface of the Earth, that is, the boundaries of the land plot are unambiguously described and certified in the prescribed manner. In general, the definition of a land plot can look like this:

Land plot- this is a part of the land that has a certain legal regime and intended purpose (permitted use), the boundaries of which are defined.

The boundaries of this part of the land are established and fixed in the course of cadastral work and are verified by entering information about the land plot into the State Real Estate Cadastre.

When we do not individualize a particular piece of land, we can use the concept of "land" or "land", and this concept is also used in relation to the lands that make up the fund of natural resources. And if legal relations arise regarding a certain plot with an indication of its characteristics, the concept of "land plot" should be used.

Legally significant features of a land plot, its spatial scope as an object of property rights are reflected in Art. 261 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Thus, the territorial boundaries of a land plot are determined in the manner prescribed by land legislation, on the basis of documents issued to the owner by state bodies.

In accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the composition of the elements of the land plot, to which the right of ownership applies, includes the surface (soil) layer located within the boundaries of the land plot, closed reservoirs, forests and plants (Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 261).

Each land plot belongs to one of the seven categories of land defined by the Land Code of the Russian Federation. Lands in the Russian Federation are divided into the following categories according to their intended purpose:

1) agricultural land;

2) lands of settlements;

3) lands of industry, energy, transport, communications, broadcasting, television, informatics, lands for space activities, lands for defense, security and lands for other special purposes;

4) lands of specially protected territories and objects;

5) lands of the forest fund;

6) lands of the water fund;

7) reserve land.

The procedure for using land within one or another of their categories is determined by the owner, user, owner, tenant of land plots in accordance with land and town planning legislation, natural and agricultural zoning of land, their zoning, territorial use planning and land management documentation.

The category of land must be indicated in acts of federal executive authorities, acts of executive authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and acts of local governments on the provision of land plots; as well as in contracts, the subject of which are land plots.

The transfer of land from one category to another must be carried out in full accordance with the Land Code of the Russian Federation by the following authorized bodies:

1) transfer of federally owned lands - by the Government of the Russian Federation;

2) transfer of lands owned by the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and agricultural lands owned by municipalities - by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

3) transfer of lands owned by municipalities, with the exception of agricultural lands, - by local self-government bodies;

4) transfer of land in private ownership:

Agricultural land - by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

Lands for other designated purposes - by local governments.

Land plots are formed during the division, consolidation, redistribution of land plots or separation from land plots, as well as from lands that are in state or municipal ownership. The procedure for the formation of land plots is established by Chapter I.1 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation.

Education of land plots from land plots in state or municipal ownership is carried out on the basis of decisions of the executive bodies of state power or local self-government bodies.

At section of a land plot, several land plots are formed, and the land plot, from which land plots are formed during the division, ceases to exist.

Section of a land plot is carried out in case of allocation of a share or shares from a land plot that is in shared ownership. When allocating a land plot, one or more land plots are formed. At the same time, the land plot from which the allotment was made remains within the changed boundaries (changed land plot).

At association adjacent land plots, one land plot is formed, and the existence of such adjacent land plots ceases.

At redistribution several adjacent land plots, several other adjacent land plots are formed, and the existence of such adjacent land plots ceases.

The boundaries of the formed land plots should not cross the boundaries of municipalities and (or) the boundaries of settlements.

Newly formed land plots must comply with the established minimum and maximum sizes of land plots, determined by the Town Planning Regulations. In addition to the maximum size of land plots, the urban planning regulations establish the types of permitted use of land plots and capital construction facilities; restrictions on the use of land plots and capital construction facilities, established in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The legal regime of land plots is determined on the basis of their belonging to one category or another and the permitted use in accordance with the zoning of territories.

The legislation fixes the definitions of certain types of land plots. So, according to Art. 1 of the Federal Law of April 15, 1998 No. 66-FZ “On horticultural, gardening and country non-profit associations of citizens”:

garden plot of land- a land plot provided to a citizen or acquired by him for growing berries, vegetables, melons or other crops and potatoes (with or without the right to erect a non-permanent residential building and outbuildings and structures, depending on the permitted use of the land plot, determined during the zoning of the territory) .

with hellish land is a land plot provided to a citizen or acquired by him for growing fruits, berries, vegetables, melons or other crops and potatoes, as well as for recreation (with the right to erect a residential building without the right to register residence in it and economic buildings and structures).

suburban area a land plot granted to a citizen or acquired by him for the purpose of recreation is recognized (with the right to erect a residential building without the right to register residence in it or a residential building with the right to register residence in it and outbuildings and structures, as well as with the right to grow fruit, berries, vegetables, gourds or other agricultural crops and potatoes.

From a legal point of view, a land plot can be recognized divisible or indivisible.

divisible a land is recognized that can be divided into parts, each of which, after the division, forms an independent plot, the permitted use of which can be carried out without transferring it to land of another category, except for cases established by federal laws. If these requirements are not met, then the land is indivisible.

Together with the concepts Earth" and " land plot» The legislation uses the concept of « land". Land plots are the main element of the state accounting of land and are divided into:

Agricultural grounds;

Non-agricultural land.

To agricultural land include arable land, fallow land, hayfields, pastures, perennial plantations.

non-agricultural land- these are lands under surface water bodies, including swamps, forest lands and lands under trees and shrubs, development lands, lands under roads, disturbed lands, other lands (ravines, sands, etc.).

Land plots can be withdrawn from circulation or limited in circulation. Land plots classified as land withdrawn from circulation cannot be provided for private ownership, as well as be objects of transactions provided for by civil law. Land plots classified as lands restricted in circulation are not provided for private ownership, with the exception of cases established by federal laws.

Features of the legal status of the land plot . The land is a real estate object. This means that land plots are subject to civil rights and transactions can be made with them. The emergence and preservation of the right of ownership to the formed or changed land plots are carried out in accordance with Articles 11.4 - 11.7 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation.

A land plot can be either privately owned, state owned or municipally owned. The right to own land is considered one of the most ancient and fundamental human rights. The full realization of this right is ensured not only by the right to use the land plot, but also by the ability to transfer it to other persons in order to receive other necessary property in return, as well as to transfer it to their children by inheritance or to other persons - by will, that is, to fully implement all the elements property rights (possession, use and disposal). The right of ownership to a land plot extends not only to the surface (soil) layer located within the boundaries of this plot, but also to closed water bodies located on the land plot, forest and plants, unless otherwise established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The owner of the land plot has the right to use at his own discretion everything that is above and below the surface of the land plot, unless otherwise provided by the laws on subsoil use, on the use of airspace, other laws and does not violate the rights of other persons.

Foreign citizens, stateless persons and foreign legal entities may not own land plots of the Russian Federation located in the border areas and other specially established territories of the Russian Federation in accordance with federal laws.

The land plot may also be located on the right permanent (perpetual) use, lifetime inheritable possession, on the right of limited use of someone else's land ( easement), on the right rent and on the right free urgent use.

All persons who are owners, owners, tenants of land plots or use land plots on any other basis are called land users and right holders land plots .

Citizens are not granted land plots for permanent (unlimited) use, and they also cannot dispose of such plots. Land plots are provided for permanent (perpetual) use only to state and municipal institutions, state-owned enterprises, historical heritage centers of the presidents of the Russian Federation who have ceased to exercise their powers, as well as state authorities and local governments.

Right lifetime inheritable tenure a land plot in state or municipal ownership acquired by a citizen before the entry into force of the new Land Code of the Russian Federation is retained, but the provision of land plots to citizens on the basis of the right of lifetime inheritable possession after the entry into force of the Code is not allowed. Disposal by citizens of a land plot that is on such a right is not allowed, with the exception of the transfer of rights to a land plot by inheritance. A person who has been granted the right of permanent (unlimited) use, the right of lifelong inheritable possession or the right of gratuitous fixed-term use of a land plot, from which land plots are formed during the division, merger or redistribution, respectively, has the right of permanent (perpetual) use, the right of lifetime inheritable possession , the right of gratuitous fixed-term use to the formed land plots.

easements established in relation to land plots, from which land plots are formed during division, amalgamation, redistribution or allotment, remain in relation to the formed land plots within the former boundaries. Encumbrances (restrictions) of rights, with the exception of encumbrances (restrictions) of rights arising on the basis of contracts, remain in relation to the land plots being formed, changed land plots within the former boundaries. If such encumbrances (restrictions) on the rights to land plots are established on the basis of agreements, the rules on the conclusion of agreements, on amendments to agreements are applied.

One of the most important characteristics of a land plot is its area. Distinguish physical and geodetic land area. physical area of a land plot is the area of ​​the earth's surface within the boundaries of the plot, taking into account the unevenness of the physical surface of the earth (slopes, ravines, cliffs, etc.), i.e. something that can be measured in nature. Geodetic area of the land plot is determined by the coordinates of the corners of the turning points of the border. In fact, the area of ​​a land plot is the area of ​​a polygon obtained by projecting the boundaries of the plot onto a plane in which the geodetic coordinate system is set. When describing a site in cadastral documents, its geodetic area is indicated.

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Europe, part of the world- I is one of the five parts of the world, and can be considered as a large western peninsula of Asia, with which in modern times, following the example of Suess, it is sometimes connected into one continent Eurasia (Eurasia). But the isolation of E. from Asia, as a separate ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Europe part of the world- one of the five parts of the world, and can be considered as a large western peninsula of Asia, with which in modern times, following the example of Suess, it is sometimes connected into one continent Eurasia (Eurasia). But the isolation of E. from Asia, as a separate part ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

GEORGIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. PART II- Primates of the GOC Bishops of Kartli (Mtskheta): John I (20-60s of the 4th century); Jacob (60-70s of the 4th century); Job (70-90s of the 4th century); Elijah I (90s of the 4th century); Simeon I (beginning of the 5th 20s of the 5th century); Moses (20s of the 5th century); Jonah (20s of the 5th century); Jeremiah (20th ... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia

GEORGIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. PART III- Folk customs associated with the church calendar Mn. cargo. legends and customs were recorded only in the 19th and 20th centuries. It is difficult to determine the time of occurrence. In present time, most of the customs that are not related to church tradition have not been preserved. ... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia