The shorter the vocal cords, the better the sound. Function of the vocal folds

Most of Yusson's opponents conducted experiments on animals (dogs, cats). The difficulty, however, here lies in the fact that the results of not every experience can be mechanically transferred to a person, since the human vocal muscle has a number of distinctive properties. Yusson refers to these distinctive properties, putting forward his theory. Similar experiments on humans can be carried out only in exceptional cases, during a forced operation on the larynx, and even then with the consent of the patient.

Nevertheless, there is still reason to believe that the regulation of the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords in humans is a rather complex process, in which, under all conditions, the role of myoelastic forces and air pressure can hardly be ignored. Even in the last century, the German physiologist I. Müller managed to show that the pitch emitted by an isolated human larynx can be varied fundamentally in two ways: the tension force of the vocal cords at a constant air pressure and the force of the subglottic air pressure at a constant tension of the ligaments. Why couldn't these simple mechanisms be used by nature to regulate the pitch of the fundamental tone of the voice in a living organism as well? To clarify the issue of the role of air pressure, the following experiments were carried out (Medvedev, Morozov, 1966).

At the time when the singer sounded a note, the air pressure in his oral cavity was artificially changed using a special device. The magnitude of this pressure and the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords were recorded on an oscilloscope. As can be seen on the oscillogram, despite the fact that the singer was instructed to keep the pitch of the note unchanged, the main tone of his voice still involuntarily rose or fell depending on the pressure in the oral cavity (Fig. 17). An artificial increase in pressure in the mouth led to a decrease in the frequency of the fundamental tone up to a complete stop of the vibrations of the vocal cords, and a decrease in pressure again led to an increase in the fundamental tone of the voice. At the same time, it was found that the less experienced the singer, the more the frequency of the main tone “walks” with him when the pressure in the oral cavity is artificially changed.

Finally, in another series of experiments, the condition of complete naturalness of phonation was not violated at all. When singing, the singers were given the task to periodically change sweats of a certain height, that is, to reduce or increase the force of the subglottic pressure, while trying not to change the pitch of the fundamental tone of the voice at all. The strength of the voice also changed from forte to piano. Both the power of the voice and the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords of the singer were continuously recorded and measured by special devices. The graph (Fig. 18) clearly shows that with a wave-like change in the strength of the voice, and, consequently, pressure in the lungs, the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords also involuntarily changes (albeit within small limits), slightly increasing with an increase in the strength of the voice and decreasing with a decrease subglottic pressure.

This fact is well known from everyday experience: in ordinary conversational speech, don't we raise the fundamental tone of the voice when we want to shout louder and, conversely, don't we lower the sound when talking quietly? It is not for nothing that a person who begins to speak loudly is told: “Do not raise your voice!”.

Rice. 18. Change in the frequency of oscillations of the human vocal cords with a change in the strength of the voice. The solid line is the pitch frequency; intermittent - voice power In conventional units; arrow - the direction of amplifying the voice and increasing the frequency of the fundamental tone; horizontally - time from the beginning of phonation (in sec.).

It goes without saying that if the frequency of oscillations of the vocal cords of a person was completely independent of pressure (more precisely, on the difference between subglottic and supraglottic pressure), then we would not find such changes in the vibrations of the vocal cords. However, they are found, and this can be traced in many other examples.

If a singer is given the task of singing all the notes - from the lowest to the highest - with a voice of the same strength, for example, forte, then we can guarantee that not a single singer can withstand the strength of the voice on all notes the same. He will sing the lowest notes much quieter than the highest ones (see, for example, Fig. 6). Numerous studies show that the involuntary increase in the strength of the voice as the tone rises is a pattern in singers. Thus, in order to sing low sweats, the singer must necessarily reduce the force of pressure in the lungs. At the same time, an increase in subglottic pressure helps the singer hit high notes. True, the singer can, within certain limits, change the strength of the voice without changing its pitch, but these limits are still limited: over a wide range, the pitch of the voice depends on the strength, just as the strength depends on the height.

The experiments and observations cited, although not in direct contradiction to Husson's basic idea of ​​the central neuromotor nature of human vocal cord oscillations, nevertheless force one to be cautious about his statements about the complete independence of the frequency of vocal cord oscillations from the subluminal air pressure.

The vocal apparatus is a living acoustic device, and, therefore, in addition to physiological laws, it also obeys all the laws of acoustics and mechanics. And turning to musical acoustics, we see that the pitch of musical instruments is regulated by simple string tension or by varying the size of vibrating reeds (Konstantinov, 1939). The sound pitch of some whistles (f0) is determined by the dependence f0=kvr, where p is the air pressure value, k is the proportionality factor. There is evidence that the frequency of oscillation of the vocal cords of the human larynx (ceteris paribus) is also determined by this ratio (Fant, 1964). Further, we see that the shorter the singer's vocal cords, the higher his voice. In addition, bass vocal cords are two and a half times thicker than sopranos. According to the studies of L. B. Dmitriev, the size of the resonators in singers with low voices is naturally larger than in singers with high voices (Dmitriev, 1955). Isn't all this mechanics related to the pitch of the voice? Surely it is!

The facts show that the acoustic-mechanical laws governing the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords undoubtedly take place in a living organism, and it would hardly be fair to discount them. Even if we are extremely friendly to Husson and fully recognize the existence of a “third function” of the human vocal cords, then there is still no reason to think that this “third function” is the only monopoly regulator of the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. The human voice apparatus is an exceptionally complex device and, like any complex apparatus, it is evident that it has not one, but several, to a certain extent, independent regulatory mechanisms controlled by the central nervous system. This provides amazing accuracy and reliability of the voice apparatus in a wide variety of conditions.

These arguments, however, in no way diminish the role of the central nervous system in regulating the vocal cords. On the contrary: it must be emphasized that the regulation of all myoelastic and mechanical properties of the vocal cords (the degree of their tension, closure, density, etc.) and aerodynamic conditions in the larynx (regulation of subglottic pressure, etc.) is entirely carried out by the central nervous system. The nervous system is in charge of all this acoustics and mechanics. Numerous sensitive formations (proprioreceptors and baroreceptors) help the central nervous system in this most complex process, sending information to the nerve centers about the degree of contraction of various muscles of the larynx and the entire respiratory tract, as well as the degree of air pressure in the lungs and trachea. The role of these internal sensitive formations (receptors) in the regulation of voice function is well identified in the works of Soviet researchers V. N. Chernigovsky (1960), M. S. Gracheva (1963), M. V. Sergievsky (1950), V. I. Medvedev with co-authors (1959), as well as in the experiments of Yusson himself.

The studies of R. Husson and his collaborators are undoubtedly of great progressive importance in the development of the physiology of phonation: they attract the attention of scientists to this important problem, stimulate new searches, and already today explain what is difficult to explain from the old positions. Undoubtedly, a great scientific dispute around a new theory is also useful, since every day it brings us more and more new knowledge. In a dispute, truth is born.

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Many vocal teachers advise you to feel the sound in the stomach, on the diaphragm, on the tip of the nose, in the forehead, in the back of the head ... Anywhere, but not in the throat, where the vocal cords are located. But this is a key moment in the device of the voice apparatus! The voice is born precisely on the cords.

If you want to learn how to sing correctly, this article will help you better understand the structure of the vocal apparatus!

Physiology of the voice - vibrations of the vocal cords.

Recall from a physics course: sound is a wave, isn't it? Accordingly, the voice is a sound wave. Where do sound waves come from? They appear when the "body" vibrates in space, shakes the air and forms an air wave.

Like any wave, sound has movement. The voice must be sent forward even when you sing softly. Otherwise, the sound wave will quickly die out, the voice will sound sluggish or clamped.

If you are into vocals, but still do not know what the vocal cords look like and where they are, the video below is a must-see.

The device of the vocal apparatus: how the ligaments and voice work.

• We take a breath, the lungs increase in volume.
• On exhalation, the ribs gradually narrow and.
• Air travels up the trachea and bronchi to the pharynx where the vocal cords are attached.
• When a jet of air hits the vocal cords, they begin to oscillate: close and open hundreds of times per second and create vibrations in the throat.
• Sound waves from the vibration of the vocal cords diverge through the body, like circles on water.
• And then we direct the born sound wave into the resonators with our attention - into the nose, mouth, feel vibrations in the head, chest, face, neck ...
• We shape the resonant wave of sound into vowels and consonants with the tongue and lips, with the help of diction and articulation.
• We fill our mouths with sound, let it go forward with an open smile and ... sing!

Errors in the work of the vocal cords.

The device of the voice apparatus consists of all the stages described above. If there are problems at least on one of them, you will not get a free and beautiful voice. More often errors occur at the first or second stage, when we. The ligaments should not come into conflict with the exhalation! The smoother the stream of air that you exhale, the smoother the vibrations of the vocal cords, the voice sounds more uniform and beautiful.

If he does not control the flow of breath, then an uncontrolled stream of air comes out at a time with a large wave. The vocal cords are unable to cope with such pressure. There will be a disconnection of ligaments. The sound will be sluggish and hoarse. After all, the tighter the ligaments close, the louder the voice!

And vice versa, if you hold your exhalation and, there is a hypertonicity of the diaphragm (clamp). The air will practically not go to the ligaments, and they will have to oscillate on their own, pressing against each other through force. And thereby rub the calluses. They are nodules on the vocal cords. At the same time, painful sensations arise during singing - burning, perspiration, friction. If you work in this mode constantly, the vocal cords lose their elasticity.

Of course, there is such a thing as "belting", or a vocal cry, and it is done with a minimum exhalation. The ligaments close very tightly for a loud sound. But you can sing with such a technique correctly only by understanding the anatomy and physiology of the voice.

The vocal cords and larynx are your first vocal instruments. Understanding how the voice works and the vocal apparatus gives you limitless possibilities - you can change colors: sing either with a more powerful sound, then ringing and flying, then gently and reverently, then with a metallic ringing shade, then in a half-whisper, taking the audience by the soul .. .

About 15 muscles of the larynx are responsible for the movement of the ligaments! And in the device of the larynx there are also various cartilages that ensure the correct closure of the ligaments.

It is interesting! Something from the physiology of the voice.

The human voice is unique:

• People's voices sound different because each of us has a different length and thickness of the vocal cords. In men, the cords are longer, and therefore the voice sounds lower.
• Singers' vocal cords fluctuate in the approximate range from 100 Hz (low male voice) to 2000 Hz (high female voice).
• The length of the vocal cords depends on the size of the person's larynx (the longer the larynx, the longer the vocal cords), so the vocal cords are longer and thicker in men than in women with a short larynx.
• Ligaments can stretch and shorten, become thicker or thinner, close only at the edges or along their entire length due to the special structure of the vocal muscles at the same time longitudinal and oblique - hence the different coloring of the sound and the strength of the voice.
• In a conversation, we only use one tenth of the range, that is, the vocal cords can stretch ten times more for each person, and the voice can sound ten times higher than the spoken one, this is inherent in nature itself! If you understand this, it will be easier.
• Exercises for vocalists make the vocal cords elastic, make them stretch better. With elasticity of the ligaments voice range increases.
• Some resonators cannot be called resonators because they are not voids. For example, the chest, back of the head, forehead - they do not resonate, but vibrate from the sound wave of the voice.
• With the help of sound resonance, you can break a glass, and the Guinness Book of Records describes a case when a schoolgirl shouted over the noise of a plane taking off thanks to the power of her voice.
• Animals also have ligaments, but only a person can control his voice.
• Sound does not propagate in a vacuum, so it is important to create the movement of exhalation and inhalation in order to reproduce sound when the vocal cords vibrate.

How long and thick are your vocal cords?

It is useful for every novice vocalist to go to an appointment with a phoniatrist (a doctor who treats the voice). I send students to him before starting the first vocal lessons.

The phoniatrist will ask you to sing and show with the help of technology how the voice works and how the vocal cords work in your singing process. He will tell you how long and thick the vocal cords are, how well they close, what kind of subglottic pressure they have. All this is useful to know in order to better use your voice box. Professional singers go to the phoniator once or twice a year for prevention - to make sure that everything is fine with their vocal cords.

We are accustomed to using the vocal cords in life, we do not notice their vibrations. And they work even when we are silent. No wonder they say that the voice apparatus imitates all the sounds around us. For example, a rattling tram passing by, the screams of people on the street, or the bass from the speakers at a rock concert. Therefore, listening to quality music has a positive effect on the vocal cords and increases your vocal level. And silent exercises for vocalists (there are some) train the voice.

Vocal teachers do not like to explain the physiology of the voice to their students, but in vain! They are afraid that the student, having heard how to close the vocal cords correctly, will begin to sing “on the cords”, the voice will be squeezed.

In the next article, we will look at a technique that helps you easily control your voice and hit high notes just because the vocal cords work correctly.

The most ancient musical instrument is the voice. And ligaments are its main component. Always feel the work of the vocal cords when singing! Study your voice, be more curious - we ourselves do not know our capabilities. And hone your vocal skills every day.

Subscribe to the news of the O VOCALE blog, where a small life hack will soon appear, how to feel if you are closing your vocal cords correctly when breathing.

You'll like it:

Probably every person loves to sing or tries to sing. If you have never learned to sing or are just starting out, then it may just be interesting for you to get acquainted with vocal terms, to learn something new for yourself. Well, if you want to practice vocals professionally, then you just need to know the structure of your working apparatus, at least in general terms. Knowledge will shorten your path to success in vocals, save you from many "pitfalls". Accurate information will help to "filter" information and not trust all advisers indiscriminately. In addition, it is much easier to perform an action by first visualizing its process in detail mentally.

"The human voice is the result of the coordinated work of the entire vocal apparatus," wrote Manuel Garcia, the largest teacher of the 19th century (g. g)
The vocal apparatus is a complex system that includes many organs.
The main role in the production of sound belongs to the larynx. The relaxed free position of the larynx is considered the most "favorable" for singing. Here, the air pushed out by the lungs meets the closed vocal cords in its path and sets them in oscillatory motion.

The vocal cords can be long or short, thick or thin. Laryngologists have found that ligaments in low voices are longer than in high ones. However, Caruso, the tenor, had bass strings.
The vibrating vocal cords form a sound wave. But in order for a person to pronounce a letter or a word, the active participation of the lips, tongue, soft palate, etc. is necessary. Only the coordinated work of all organs of voice formation turns simple sounds into singing.
The nasal cavity also plays an important role. Together with the paranasal sinuses, she takes part in the formation of the voice. Here the sound is amplified, it is given a peculiar sonority, timbre. For the correct pronunciation of speech sounds and for the timbre of the voice, the state of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is of some importance. It is their individuality that gives each person a peculiar timbre of voice.
Interestingly, the cavities in the anterior part of the human cranium fully correspond in their purpose to the acoustic vessels walled up in ancient Roman amphitheatres, and perform the same functions of natural resonators.
The mechanism of correct voice formation is based on the maximum use of resonation.
The resonator is primarily a sound amplifier.
The resonator amplifies the sound without requiring any additional energy from the sound source. Skillful use of the laws of resonance makes it possible to achieve tremendous sound power up to 120-130 dB, amazing tirelessness, and beyond that - ensures the richness of the overtone composition, the individuality and beauty of the singing voice.
In vocal pedagogy, two resonators are distinguished: head and chest. The head resonator was discussed above.
The lower, chest resonator gives the singing sound lower overtones and colors it with soft, dense tones. Owners of low voices should use the chest resonator more actively, and those of high voices should use the head resonator. But for each voice it is important to use both chest and head resonators.
The German educator Yu. Gey considers "the connection of the chest and head resonators possible with the help of a nasal resonator, which he calls the "golden bridge".
The singer's breath plays an important role.
Breathing is the energy system of the vocal apparatus of the singer. Breathing determines not only the birth of sound, but also its strength, dynamic shades, to a large extent timbre, pitch, and much more.
In the process of singing, breathing must adjust, adapt to the work of the vocal cords.
This creates the best conditions for their vibration, maintains the air pressure that is needed for a particular amplitude, frequency of contractions and density of closure of the vocal cords. Maestro Mazetti considered "a necessary condition for singing is the ability to consciously control breathing."

How can respiratory muscles be developed?

The "plasticity" of breathing, strength, free handling of it, the singer needs to work out with breathing exercises. In the old days, Italian vocal teachers brought a lit candle to the student's mouth. The wavering or fading of the flame indicated that the student was exhaling too much air without using it. Candle training continued until the technique of vocal breathing was perfected. In addition to such exercises with a candle, you can advise exercises with books that are placed on the stomach in a prone position and lifted by the force of the diaphragm.

How can this be useful in everyday life?

"Breathing is life!" - says the proverb. “If you breathe well, you will live long on Earth,” say yogis. If you do not have the time and patience to regularly practice yoga breathing exercises, combine business with pleasure - sing! Full vocal breathing is very similar to yoga breathing exercises and has the same benefits:

protects against diseases of the respiratory organs, relieves runny noses, colds, coughs, bronchitis, etc. saturates the blood with oxygen, and therefore cleanses it develops a narrow chest helps the stomach and liver work normally (contractions of the diaphragm, together with the rhythmic movement of the lungs, light massage to the internal organs) restores the functioning of the body, so a fat person loses weight, and a too thin person gets better

And there is nothing surprising in the fact that vocal lessons help to master the technique of breathing on and under water, because the basis of swimming is the same deep rhythmic breathing.

Singer is important breath associated with singing. The main thing for a singer is not the strength of breathing, not the amount of air that his lungs take in, but how this breath is held and spent, how exhalation is regulated during singing, that is, how its work is coordinated with other components of the vocal apparatus.
Learning to sing beautifully and correctly is not easy. The singer, in comparison with other musicians-performers, has difficulty in self-control. A sound reproduction tool - the vocal apparatus is part of his body, and the singer hears himself differently from those around him. During training, both resonator and other sensations associated with singing turn out to be new and unfamiliar to him. Therefore, the singer needs to know and understand a lot.

"Singing is a conscious process, and not spontaneous, as many believe" -.
Singing voices, both in women and in men, are of three kinds: high, medium and low.
High voices are soprano for women and tenor for men, middle voices are respectively mezzo-soprano and baritone, low voices are contralto and bass.
In addition, each group of voices has even more precise subdivisions:

soprano - light (coloratura), lyrical, lyrical-dramatic (spinto), dramatic;

mezzo-soprano and contralto are themselves varieties;

tenor-altino, lyrical (di-gracia), mezzo-characteristic (spinto), dramatic (di-forza);

baritone lyrical and dramatic;

bass-high (cantanto), central, low (profundo).

The correct definition of the nature of voice data is the key to their further development. And this is not always easy to do. There are distinct categories of voices that leave no one in doubt as to their nature. But for many singers (not just beginners) it can be difficult to immediately determine the nature of the voice.

It should be remembered that the middle register of all singing voices is most convenient when looking for natural sound and the right vocal sensations.
Voice setting consists in revealing its nature and acquiring the correct singing techniques.

The presence of a good, reliable and promising vocal technique leads to the fact that the acoustic indicators of the voice - sonority, flight, voice power, dynamic range, etc. improve as a result of "tuning" the voice in the process of singing.
Umberto Mazetti believed that "a small range and a small voice are not completely precluding professional training." He believed that from proper treatment and good schooling, the voice could gain strength and develop in range.
The voice is rarely all "on the surface". More often, his resources are hidden due to the inept use of the vocal apparatus, its underdevelopment, and only in the process of training, when the voice develops, does its dignity, richness and beauty of timbre become clear to us.

Scientific research.

The fact that the human voice is formed in the larynx, people have known since the time of Aristotle and Galen. Only after the invention of the laryngoscope (1840) and the classical works of M. Garcia (gg.) It became known that the sound of the voice is the result of periodic vibration of the edges of the vocal cords, which occurs under the action of an air respiratory stream. As an active force in this process (vibration: closing and opening of the vocal cords) is the pressure of the air stream. This is the "myoelastic theory" by M. Garcia.

The scientist Raoul Husson in 1960 put forward a new, so-called "neuromotor theory", the essence of which is as follows: the vocal cords (folds) of a person do not fluctuate passively under the influence of a passing air current, like all the muscles of the human body, they contract actively under the influence of coming from central nervous system impulses of biocurrents. The frequency of impulses is highly dependent on the emotional state of a person and on the activity of the endocrine glands (in women, the voice is a whole octave higher than in men). If a person begins to sing, then according to Yusson, the regulation of the pitch of the fundamental tone begins to be carried out by the "cerebral cortex".

The human voice apparatus is an exceptionally complex device and, like any complex apparatus, it is evident that it has not one, but several, to a certain extent, independent regulatory mechanisms controlled by the central nervous system. And so both of these theories are valuable.

The sound of a person's voice is a form of energy. This energy, generated by the vocal apparatus of the singer, causes the air molecules to vibrate periodically with a certain frequency and strength: the more often the molecules vibrate, the higher the sound, and the greater the amplitude of their vibrations, the stronger the sound. Sound vibrations in the air propagate at a speed of 340 m per second. The vocal apparatus is a living acoustic device, and, therefore, in addition to physiological laws, it also obeys all the laws of acoustics and mechanics.

So, how are vocal organs person.

They are based on diaphragm- muscular-tendon septum, (chest-abdominal barrier) separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity .. The diaphragm is a living foundation for a whole and perfect instrument. The diaphragm is a powerful muscular organ attached to the lower ribs and spine. During inhalation, the muscles of the diaphragm contract and the volume of the chest increases. But we cannot feel the diaphragm, because its movement during breathing and voice formation occurs at a subconscious level.
chest cavity protected by ribs and thoracic vertebrae, contains vital organs - lungs, heart, windpipe, esophagus.

Lungs- like real organ bellows, they participate in sound production, creating the necessary air flow. From the lungs, air enters bronchi, thin and similar to the branches of a tree. Then they join together and form the trachea, which goes up, vertically. Trachea- consists of cartilaginous semirings, it is quite mobile, and is connected to the larynx.

Larynx performs a triple function - respiratory, protective and voice. Its skeleton is made up of cartilage, which are interconnected by joints, ligaments, and muscles, due to which they have mobility. The largest cartilage of the larynx is the thyroid, and its size determines the size of the larynx. Low male voices are characterized by a large larynx protruding on the surface of the neck in the form of an Adam's apple. superior opening of the larynx, the so-called entrance to the larynx is formed by movable laryngeal cartilage - epiglottis. When breathing, the larynx is free, and when swallowing, the free edge of the epiglottis leans back, closing the opening of the larynx. During singing, the entrance to the larynx is covered by the epiglottis. The larynx tends to be very mobile, mainly in the vertical plane.

AT in the middle the larynx narrows, and in the narrowest place there are two horizontal folds, or - ligaments. The opening between them is called the glottis. Above the vocal cords are - ventricles of the larynx above each of which is a fold parallel to the vocal cords. The superior ventricular folds are called false and consist of loose connective tissue, glands, and poorly developed muscles. The glands in these folds provide moisture to the vocal folds, which is very important for the singing voice. During sound production, the vocal folds connect or close, and the gap closes. The ligaments are covered with a dense mother-of-pearl fabric. Ligaments can change their length, thickness, and fluctuate in parts, which gives the singer's voice a variety of colors, richness of sound and mobility.
Sound resonates in the cavity above the larynx, in the pharynx .

Pharynx rather bulky, irregularly shaped. The pharynx is separated from the palate, the so-called palatine curtain. A small tongue at the back of the palate, as if forming a double arch. The size of the pharynx can vary from the movements of the palate and tongue. Articulation is also of great importance for proper sound formation. The structure of the vocal apparatus has individual characteristics in each individual case.

Therefore, the pedagogical approach to each vocalist is also very individual. When working with a singer, first of all, the physical state of the vocal apparatus, the physiological structure and personal characteristics of the singer, the psychological and emotional state are taken into account. And on the basis of the received idea, an individual program is drawn up.

The main task of the teacher is to choose from his usual set of exercises for each singer exactly what he needs at the moment. Or, if none of these exercises is perceived correctly by the student, improvise on the go exactly what will be clear to the beginning singer. It is important that the singer feel that he can achieve the right result, that his voice sounds better. He should enjoy vocal lessons.
Undoubtedly, the teacher needs to be careful not to force a successful result. The main thing is that the student realized and remembered the pleasant feeling when singing, felt his abilities. Next time he will try to remember and reproduce all his good moments.

The human vocal apparatus consists of the respiratory organs, the larynx with the vocal cords and the air resonator cavities (nasal, oral, nasopharynx and pharynx). The dimensions of the resonators are larger for low voices than for high ones.

The larynx is formed by three unpaired cartilages: cricoid, thyroid (Adam's apple) and epiglottis - and three paired: arytenoid, santorini and vrisberg. The main cartilage is the cricoid. Behind it, symmetrically on the right and left sides, there are two triangular arytenoid cartilages, movably articulated with its rear part. With the contraction of the muscles that pull back the outer ends of the arytenoid cartilages and the relaxation of the intercartilaginous muscles, the arytenoid cartilages rotate around the axis and the glottis is opened wide, which is necessary for inspiration. With the contraction of the muscles located between the arytenoid cartilages and the tension of the vocal cords, the glottis takes the form of two tightly stretched parallel muscle rollers, which happens when protecting the respiratory tract from foreign bodies. In humans, the true vocal cords are located in the sagittal direction from the inner corner of the junction of the plates of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The true vocal cords are composed of the internal thyroid-arytenoid muscles.

The lengthening of the ligaments occurs with the contraction of the muscles located in front between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. In this case, the thyroid cartilage, rotating on the joints located in the back of the cricoid cartilage, leans forward; its upper part, to which the ligaments are attached, departs from the posterior wall of the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, which is accompanied by an increase in the length of the ligaments. There is a certain relationship between the degree of tension of the vocal cords and the pressure of the air coming from the lungs. The more the ligaments close, the more the air leaving the lungs presses on them. Consequently, the main role in the regulation of the voice belongs to the degree of tension of the muscles of the vocal cords and the sufficient amount of air pressure under them, created by the respiratory system. As a rule, the ability to speak is preceded by a deep breath.

Innervation of the larynx. In an adult, there are numerous receptors in the mucous membrane of the larynx, located where the mucous membrane directly covers the cartilage. There are three reflexogenic zones: 1) around the entrance to the larynx, on the posterior surface of the epiglottis and along the edges of the scoop-epiglottic folds. 2) on the anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilages and in the interval between their vocal processes, 3) on the inner surface of the cricoid cartilage, in a strip 0.5 cm wide under the vocal cords. The first and second zones of receptors differ in diversity. In an adult, they are in contact only at the tops of the arytenoid cartilages. Surface receptors of both zones are located on the path of the inhaled air and perceive tactile, temperature, chemical and pain stimuli. They are involved in the reflex regulation of breathing, voice formation, and in the protective reflex of closing the glottis. Deeply located receptors of both zones are located in the perichondrium, in the places of muscle attachment, in the pointed parts of the vocal processes. They are irritated during voice formation, signaling changes in the position of the cartilage and contractions of the muscles of the vocal apparatus. Monotonous receptors of the third zone are located on the path of exhaled air and are irritated by fluctuations in air pressure during exhalation.

Since in the muscles of the human larynx, unlike other skeletal muscles, muscle spindles are not found, the function of proprioceptors is performed by deep receptors of the first and second zones.

Most of the afferent fibers of the larynx run in the superior laryngeal nerve, and the smaller part in the inferior laryngeal nerve, which is a continuation of the laryngeal recurrent nerve. Efferent fibers to the cricothyroid muscle pass in the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, and to the rest of the muscles of the larynx - in the recurrent nerve.

Theory of voice formation. For the formation of voice and the pronunciation of speech sounds, air pressure under the vocal cords is necessary, which is created by the expiratory muscles. However, speech sounds are not caused by passive vibrations of the vocal cords by the air current from the lungs, oscillating their edges, but by active contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords. From the medulla oblongata to the internal thyroid-arytenoid muscles of the true vocal cords, efferent impulses arrive through the recurrent nerves at a frequency of 500 per 1 s (for the middle voice). Due to the transmission of impulses with different frequencies in separate groups of fibers of the recurrent nerve, the number of efferent impulses can double, up to 1000 per 1 s. Since in the human vocal cords all muscle fibers are woven, like the teeth of a comb, into the elastic tissue that covers each vocal cord from the inside, a volley of recurrent nerve impulses is very accurately reproduced on the free edge of the cord. Each muscle fiber contracts with extreme speed. The duration of the muscle potential is 0.8 ms. The latent period of the muscles of the vocal cords is much shorter than that of other muscles. These muscles are distinguished by exceptional tirelessness, resistance to oxygen starvation, which indicates a very high efficiency of the biochemical processes occurring in them, and extreme sensitivity to the action of hormones.

The contractions of the muscles of the vocal cords are about 10 times the maximum air under them. The pressure under the vocal cords is mainly regulated by the contraction of the smooth muscles of the bronchi. When inhaling, it relaxes somewhat, and when exhaling, the inspiratory striated muscles relax, and the smooth muscles of the bronchi contract. The frequency of the fundamental tone of the voice is equal to the frequency of efferent impulses entering the muscles of the vocal cords, which depends on the emotional state. The higher the voice, the less chronaxia of the recurrent nerve and muscles of the vocal cords.

During the pronunciation of speech sounds (phonation), all the muscle fibers of the vocal cords simultaneously contract in a rhythm exactly equal to the frequency of the voice. The vibration of the vocal cords is the result of rapid rhythmic contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords, caused by bursts of efferent impulses from the recurrent nerve. In the absence of air flow from the lungs, the muscle fibers of the vocal cords contract, but there are no sounds. Therefore, to produce speech sounds, contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords and air flow through the glottis are necessary.

The vocal cords are sensitive to the amount of air pressure below them. The strength and tension of the internal muscles of the larynx are very diverse and change not only with intensification and elevation of the voice, but also with its different timbres, even when pronouncing each vowel. The voice range can vary within about two octaves (an octave is a frequency interval corresponding to a 2-fold increase in the frequency of sound vibrations). The following voice registers are distinguished: bass - 80-341 vibrations per 1 s, tenor - 128-518, alto - 170-683, soprano - 246-1024.

The vocal register depends on the frequency of contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords, therefore, on the frequency of the efferent impulses of the recurrent nerve. But the length of the vocal cords also matters. In men, due to the large size of the larynx and vocal cords, the voice is lower than in children and women, by about an octave. Bass vocal cords are 2.5 times thicker than sopranos. The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords: the more often they vibrate, the higher the voice.

During puberty in male adolescents, the size of the larynx increases significantly. The resulting lengthening of the vocal cords leads to a decrease in the voice register.

The pitch of the sound produced by the larynx does not depend on the amount of air pressure under the vocal cords and does not change with its increase or decrease. The air pressure below them only affects the intensity of the sound formed in the larynx (the power of the voice), which is small at low pressure and increases parabolically with a linear increase in pressure. Sound intensity is measured by power in watts or microwatts per square meter (W/m2, µW/m2). The voice power during a normal conversation is about 10 microwatts. The weakest speech sounds have a power of 0.01 microwatts. The sound pressure level for an average conversational voice is 70 dB (decibel).

The strength of the voice depends on the amplitude of the vibrations of the vocal cords, therefore, on the pressure under the cords. The more pressure, the stronger. The timbre of the voice is characterized by the presence in the sound of certain partial tones, or overtones. There are more than 20 overtones in the human voice, of which the first 5-6 have the highest volume with the number of oscillations 256-1024 in 1 s. The timbre of the voice depends on the shape of the resonator cavities.

Resonator cavities have a great influence on the act of speech. since the pronunciation of vowels and consonants does not depend on the larynx, which determines only the pitch of the sound, but on the shape of the oral cavity and pharynx and the relative position of the organs located in them. The shape and volume of the oral cavity and pharynx vary widely due to the exceptional mobility of the tongue, movements of the soft palate and lower jaw, contractions of the pharyngeal constrictors, and movements of the epiglottis. The walls of these cavities are soft, so forced vibrations are excited in them by sounds of different frequencies and in a fairly wide range. In addition, the oral cavity is a resonator with a large opening into the outer space and therefore emits sound, or is a sound antenna.

The nasopharyngeal cavity, lying on the side of the main air flow, can be a sound filter that absorbs certain tones and does not let them out. When the soft palate is raised up to contact with the back wall of the pharynx, the nose and nasopharynx are completely separated from the oral cavity and excluded as resonators, while sound waves propagate into space through the open mouth. In the formation of all vowels without exception, the resonator cavity is divided into two parts, interconnected by a narrow gap. As a result, two different resonant frequencies are formed. When pronouncing "u", "o", "a", a narrowing is formed between the root of the tongue and the palatal valve, and when phonation "e" and "and" - between the raised tongue and the hard palate. Thus, two resonators are obtained: the rear one is of large volume (low tone) and the front one is narrow, small (high tone). Opening the mouth increases the tone of the resonator and its decay. Lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, tongue, epiglottis, pharyngeal walls and false ligaments have a great influence on the quality of sound and the character of the vowel. When consonants are formed, the sound is caused not only by the vocal cords, but also by the friction of air strings between the teeth (s), between the tongue and the hard palate (g, h, w, h) or between the tongue and the soft palate (g, k), between the lips ( b, n), between the tongue and teeth (e, t), with intermittent movement of the tongue (p), with the sound of the nasal cavity (m, n). During phonation of vowels, regardless of the fundamental tone, the overtones are amplified. These rising overtones are called formants.

Formants are resonant amplifications corresponding to the natural frequency of the vocal tract. The maximum number of them depends on its total length. An adult male may have 7 formants, but 2-3 formants are important for distinguishing speech sounds.

Each of the five basic vowels is characterized by formants of different heights. For "y" the number of oscillations in 1 s is 260-315, "o" - 520-615, "a" - 650-775, "e" - 580-650, "u" 2500-2700. In addition to these tones, each vowel has even higher formants - up to 2500-3500. A consonant sound is a modified vowel that appears when there are obstacles to the sound wave coming from the larynx, in the oral and nasal cavities. In this case, the parts of the wave run into each other and noise occurs.

Basic speech - phoneme. Phonemes do not coincide with sound, they may not consist of one sound. The set of phonemes in different languages ​​is different. There are 42 phonemes in Russian. Phonemes retain the same distinctive features - a spectrum of tones of a certain intensity and duration. There can be several formants in a phoneme, for example, "a" contains 2 main formants - 900 and 1500 Hz, "i" - 300 and 3000 Hz. The phonemes of consonants have the highest frequency (“s” - 8000 Hz, “f” - 12000 Hz). Speech uses sounds from 100 to 12,000 Hz.

The difference between loud speech and whispering depends on the function of the vocal cords. When whispering, there is a friction noise of air on the blunt edge of the vocal cord during its passage through a moderately narrowed glottis. With loud speech, due to the position of the vocal processes, the sharp edges of the vocal cords are directed towards the air stream. The variety of speech sounds depends on the muscles of the vocal apparatus. It is caused mainly by contraction of the muscles of the lips, tongue, lower jaw, soft palate, pharynx and larynx.

The muscles of the larynx perform three functions: 1) opening the vocal cords during inhalation, 2) closing them while protecting the airways, and 3) producing voice.

Consequently, during oral speech, a very complex and fine coordination of the speech muscles occurs, caused by the cerebral hemispheres and, above all, the speech analyzers located in them, which occurs due to hearing and the influx of afferent kinesthetic impulses from the speech and respiratory organs, which are combined with impulses from all external and internal analyzers. This complex coordination of movements of the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, soft palate, lips, tongue, lower jaw and respiratory muscles that provide oral speech is called articulation. It is carried out by a complex system of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes of these muscles.

In the process of speech formation, the motor activity of the speech apparatus passes into aerodynamic phenomena and then into acoustic ones.

Under the control of auditory feedback, kinesthetic feedback is continuously active when pronouncing words. When a person thinks, but does not pronounce a word (inner speech), kinesthetic impulses come in volleys, with unequal intensity and different intervals between them. When solving new and difficult problems in the mind, the strongest kinesthetic impulses enter the nervous system. When listening to speech for the purpose of memorization, these impulses are also great.

Human hearing is not equally sensitive to sounds of different frequencies. A person not only hears the sounds of speech, but also simultaneously reproduces them with his vocal apparatus in a very reduced form. Consequently, in addition to hearing, speech perception involves proprioceptors of the vocal apparatus, especially vibration receptors located in the mucous membrane under the ligaments and in the soft palate. Irritation of vibrational receptors increases the tone of the sympathetic nervous system and thereby changes the functions of the respiratory and vocal apparatus.

In 1741 Ferrein(Ferrein) for the first time made experiments on a dead larynx, which I. Muller later carefully checked. It turned out that only "in general" the number of vibrations of the vocal cords obeys the laws of string vibrations, according to which doubling the number of vibrations of any string requires squaring the tension weight.

Muller cut vocal cord length, pressing them in different places with tweezers both under tension and in various relaxed states. It turned out that, depending on the tension of the ligaments, either low or high sounds are obtained when both long and short ligaments function.

Great importance is attached vocal muscle activity(m. thyreo-arythenoideus s. vocalis). On a living larynx, the pitch of the sound does not depend on the lengthening, but on the contraction of the vocal cords, which is ensured by the activity of m. vocalis (V. S. Kantorovich). Shorter and more elastic vocal cords, other things being equal, provide an increase in sound, which corresponds to the physical concepts of a vibrating string. At the same time, the thickening of the vocal cords leads to a decrease in sound.

When as you rise fundamental tone tension of the vocal muscles(without thickening of the ligaments) becomes insufficient, the thyroid-cricoid muscles, which stretch (but not lengthen) the vocal cords, contribute to an increase in tone (MI Fomichev).

Vibrations of the vocal cords can be carried out not throughout their entire length, but only in a certain segment, due to which an increase in tone is also achieved. This is due to contraction of the oblique and transverse fibers of the vocalis muscle and possibly the oblique and transverse muscles, the arytenoid cartilages, and the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle.

M. I. Fomichev believes that the position of the epiglottis has some effect on the pitch. At very low tones, the epiglottis is usually strongly lowered, and the vocal cords become immense during laryngoscopy. As you know, closed pipes give a lower sound than open ones.

In singing, chest and falsetto are distinguished. sounds. Musehold was able, with the help of laryngostroboscopic photographs, to trace individual slow movements of the vocal cords.

With a chest voice, the cords are presented in the form two thick tense rollers tightly packed with each other. The sound here is rich in overtones and their amplitude slowly decreases with increasing pitch, which gives the timbre the character of fullness. The presence of chest resonance in the chest register is disputed by most researchers.

In falsetto, the ligaments appear flattened, strongly stretched and a gap is formed between them. Only the free edges of the true ligaments oscillate, moving upward and laterally. A complete interruption of air during falsetto does not work. As the falsetto tone increases, the glottis shortens due to the complete closure of the ligaments in the posterior sections.
With a mixed sound, the ligaments oscillate about half their width.