What is vocabulary in Russian examples. Lexical meaning of the word

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Introduction

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

Chapter 2

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

2.2 Synonyms

2.3 Antonyms

2.4 Paronyms

Chapter 3

3.1 Obsolete words

3.2 Common and restricted vocabulary

3.3 Dialectisms

3.4 Terminological and professional vocabulary

3.5 Slang and slang vocabulary

Chapter 4. Lexical errors in Russian

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons. The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language, which has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the language: processing, normalization, the breadth of social functioning, universal obligation for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various spheres of society.

The modern Russian language is a literary language, the language of science, press, radio, cinema - its meaning and use of words, pronunciation and spelling, the formation of grammatical forms obey the generally accepted pattern.

The Russian language has two forms - oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, since they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual. The written language differs from the oral one in the greater complexity of syntax, the predominance of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, mainly international in its use.

Term vocabulary (gr. lexikos - verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings 6 to define the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( book vocabulary).

The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. there are always elements in it that go into the past; there are just emerging, new ones. The existence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language indicates its constant movement and development. The task of lexicology is to study the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, describe the sources of the formation of the lexical system, and analyze the processes of its renewal and archazation.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. The study of the lexical system of a language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of words connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical and phraseological system of the language.

Not a single word in the Russian language exists separately, isolated from its common unified system. Words are combined into various groups based on certain causes and signs.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language.

The lexical system singles out groups of words connected by a common or opposite meaning; similar or opposed in stylistic properties; united common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates a large and expressive system of vocabulary, which is an integral part of a larger language system.

The general language system and the lexical norm, as its component, is revealed and recognized in speech practice, has an impact on changes in the language, contributes to its development and enrichment. The study of vocabulary is a necessary norm for the perception of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which is necessary for the development of literary and linguistic forms in artistic speech.

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

The word in Russian is the most important nominee of the language system. The idea of a word as the main unit of naming a phenomenon really develops directly in the speech practice of people. However, it is more difficult to give a scientific definition of a word, since words are diverse in terms of structural, grammatical and semantic features.

Word called a linguistic unit that has in its original norm only one main stress (if it is not unstressed) and has some meaning. The most important features of a word, which distinguish it from other linguistic units, are lexical and grammatical relatedness, semantic unity, a unit of naming of grammatical wholeness.

Consider the norms of differential features characteristic of most lexical units:

- Every word has a phonetic (in oral form) and graphic (in writing) design

Words have a certain meaning. The sound design of a word is the external material side, which is a form. Its meaning is the inside meaning the content. Form and content are inextricably linked: a word cannot be perceived if we do not pronounce it or write it, and cannot be understood if the pronounced combinations of sounds are devoid of meaning

- Words characterize the constancy of sound and meaning. No one has the right to change the phonetic shell of a word and give it an unusual meaning, because the form and content of the word are fixed in the language.

- Words (unlike phrases) are impenetrable: any word acts as an integral unit, inside which it is impossible to insert another word, especially several words. Exceptions are negative pronouns, which can be separated by prepositions (no one, no one, no one)

- Words have only one main stress, and some may be unstressed (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc.). However, there are no words that would have two main stresses. The non-double stress of a word distinguishes it from a stable (phraseological) combination that has a holistic meaning.

An important feature of words is their lexical and grammatical relatedness; they all belong to one or another part of speech and have a certain grammatical structure. So, nouns, adjectives and other names are characterized by forms of gender, number, case; verbs - forms of mood, aspect, tense, person, etc. These words perform various syntactic functions in a sentence, which creates their syntactic independence.

- Integrity and uniformity distinguish words from phrases. Compound words like fresh frozen, radio show, flirtatious grammatical feature expresses only one ending.

- All words characterize reproducibility: we do not construct them anew each time, but reproduce them in speech in the form in which they are known to all native speakers. This distinguishes words from phrases at the moment of utterance.

- Words are distinguished by their predominant use in conjunction with other words: in the process of communication, we build phrases from words, and from them - sentences

- One of the signs of the norm of the word is isolation. Words can also be perceived outside the speech stream, in isolation, retaining their inherent meaning.

The word is inherent in nominativeness - the ability to name objects, qualities, actions. True, service parts of speech, interjections, modal words, and pronouns do not have this feature, since they have a completely different specificity. The pronoun, for example, indicates objects, qualities, quantity, and interjections express the feelings and experiences of the speaker without naming them.

Lexical meaning word is called the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit fixed in the minds of speakers with one or another phenomenon of reality. Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard, touched, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

The concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general norms for expressing reality and their properties. Such features may be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object. The concept is the result of a generalization of the mass of single phenomena, during which a person focuses on the main features. Without the ability of the word to name the concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts in words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from a multitude, or to name any of the multitude, we use the word Human. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of wildlife, there are words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. Movement in space of various objects is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, as well as ice, rain, snow).

A complex lexical system appears in all its diversity and complexity and in individual concepts of words. So, for example, the word Island does not indicate to us a certain geographical position, name, form, fauna, flora, but appears to us as simply a piece of land surrounded by water. Thus, those essential norms for describing objects are fixed in words, which make it possible to distinguish a whole class of some objects from others.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names.

There are proper names that name single concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Chaliapin), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America) By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of objects that are one of a kind.

personal names of people (Alexander, Vladimir), surnames (Petrov, Ivanov, Sidorov), on the contrary, do not give rise in our minds to a certain idea of a particular person.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law, son) according to various signs of professions, degrees of kinship make it possible to form some small idea about these people.

grammatical the meaning of a word is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular time, person, number. Kind.

Lexical and grammatical values are closely related. A change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in the grammatical one. For example: voiceless consonant (relative adjective) and voiceless voice (qualitative adjective) has a degree of comparison, short form, gostiny dvor and living room, adjective and noun

Proper names, geographical concepts, common nouns can also be attributed to unambiguous words.

Unambiguous in Russian, words are called that have only one lexical meaning, they can also be called monosemantic. The ability of words to appear in only one meaning is called the unambiguity of a word, or monosemy.

There are several types of unambiguous words:

Proper names: Ivan, Vladimir, Moscow, Vladivostok. Their limiting value excludes the possibility of variation, since these words are single names.

Recently emerged words that have not yet received distribution: briefing, pizzeria. For the development of their ambiguity, their frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.

Words with a narrowly specific meaning of special use, which are used relatively rarely in speech

Terminological names gastritis, myoma.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called ambiguous or polysemantic and are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of lexical units to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy. The ambiguity of a word is usually realized in speech as a complete, in a semantic sense, segment of speech that clarifies one of the specific meanings of the ambiguity of a word.

Usually even the narrowest context is enough to clarify the shades of the meanings of polysemantic words. quiet (quiet) voice, quiet (calm) disposition, quiet (slow) ride, quiet (calm) weather, quiet (smooth) breathing. Here the minimum context is the word quiet allows you to delimit values.

Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure the words. The connection of the meanings of a polysemantic word most clearly reflects the systemic nature of the language and, in particular, vocabulary.

Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as the main, main, and others - as derivatives of this main, original meaning. The main meaning is always indicated first in the explanatory dictionaries, followed by the numbers of derived meanings. For example, only the word go there are up to forty values: Go where your free mind takes you; I had to walk across the field for a long time; Is it again going to war against Russia; The letter goes for a week; The clock goes forward; There are some gossips and talks about you; Steam comes out of the kettle; It is raining outside the window; There are trades on the stock exchange; Red suits your hair.

It would be a lexical error to assume that the development of the meanings of words is caused only by extralinguistic factors. Multilingualism is also determined purely linguistically: words can also be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one object to another if these objects have common features. Indeed, the lexical meaning of words does not reflect all the differential features of the named object, but only those that attracted attention at the time of nomination. Thus, many objects have common connections that can serve as the basis for the associative convergence of these objects and the transfer of the name from another.

The word acquires ambiguity in the process of the historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, as a person learns it. as a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the dictionary of any language is limited, therefore, the development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in the Russian language.

Chapter 2. Ttypes of words in Russian,understanding of lexical norms and their rulesuses

Depending on on what basis and on what grounds the name of one object is assigned to another, there are three types of polysemy of words: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphor(gr. metaphor- transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape ( ring 1 on the hand - a ring 2 smoke); by color ( gold 1 medallion - gold 2 curls); by function ( fireplace 1 - "room oven" and fireplace 2 - "Electric device for space heating"). The similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something ( tail 1 animal - tail 2 comets), in their estimate ( clear 1 day - clear 2 style), in the impression they make ( black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena with one word. There are other similarities as well: green 1 strawberries - green 2 the youth(the unifying feature is "immaturity"); fast 1 running - fast 2 mind(a common feature is "intensity"); stretch 1 mountains are stretching 2 days(associative connection - "length in time and space"). Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream. It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various signs: gray-haired 1 old man - gray-haired 2 antiquity - gray 3 fog; black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts are black 3 ingratitude is black 4 saturday - black 5 box(by plane). Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly non-figurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat bow, train tail. But there may be such transfers of meaning, in which imagery is partially preserved: blooming girl, steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images; cf. language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of feelings; fire blue.

Metonymy(gr. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency. Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic ( gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); the names of the place (premises) to the groups of people who are there ( class, audienceClass preparing for the test;Audience listens carefully to the lecturer); names of dishes for their contents ( porcelain dish - deliciousdish ); the name of the action on its result ( doing embroidery - beautifulembroidery ); the name of the action to the scene of the action or those who perform it ( crossing the mountains - undergroundtransition ; dissertation defense - playin defense ); the name of the item to its owner ( tenor - youngtenor ); the name of the author on his works ( Shakespeare - stagedShakespeare ) etc

Synecdoche(gr. Synekdoche- connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, pear 1 - "fruit tree" and pear 2 - "the fruit of this tree"; head 1 - "part of the body" and head 2 - "a smart, capable person"; cherry ripe- in the meaning of "cherries"; we are simple people- so the speaker speaks of himself. Synecdoche is based on transfers of meaning in such expressions, for example: a sense of comradeship, a faithful hand, a helping hand, a kind word.

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

In the lexical system of the Russian language, there are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called homonymy (gr. homos- identical + onyma- name). For example, key 1 is "spring" ( icykey ) and key 2 - "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" ( steelkey ); onion 1 - "plant" ( greenonion ) and onion 2 - "weapon for throwing arrows" ( tightonion ). Unlike polysemantic words, lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

Various forms of lexical homonymy are known, as well as phenomena related to it at other levels of the language (phonetic and morphological). Full lexical homonymy is the coincidence of words belonging to the same part of speech in all forms. An example of full homonyms is the words outfit 1 - "clothes" and outfit 2 - "order"; they do not differ in pronunciation and spelling, they coincide in all case forms of the singular and plural. With incomplete (partial) lexical homonymy, the coincidence in sound and spelling is observed in words belonging to the same part of speech, not in all grammatical forms. For example, incomplete homonyms: plant- "industrial enterprise" ( metallurgicalplant ) and plant 2 - "device for actuating the mechanism" ( plant at the clock). The second word has no plural forms, but the first one does. For homonymous verbs bury 1 (pit) and bury 2 (drug) match all imperfective forms ( I'm burying, I'm digging, I'll be burying); forms of real participles of the present and past tense ( digging, digging). But there is no match in the forms of the perfect form ( dig - dig etc.).

By structure, homonyms can be divided into root and derivatives. The former have a non-derivative basis: world 1 - "lack of war, consent" ( cameworld ) and world 2 - "universe" ( world filled with sounds); marriage 1 - "flaw in production" ( factorymarriage ) and marriage 2 - "marriage" ( happymarriage ). The latter arose as a result of word formation, therefore, they have a derivative basis: assembly 1 - "action on the verb collect" (assembly designs) and assembly 2 - "small fold in clothes" ( assembly on a skirt); combatant 1 - "relating to actions in the ranks" ( drill song) and combatant 2 - "suitable for buildings" ( combatant forest).

Along with homonymy, they usually consider related phenomena related to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language.

Among consonant forms, there are homoforms- words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often - in several). For example, three 1 - numeral in the nominative case ( three friend) and three 2 - verb in the imperative mood of the singular of the 2nd person ( three carrots on a grater). The grammatical forms of words of one part of speech can also be homonymous. For example, adjective forms big, young may indicate, firstly, the nominative singular masculine ( large 1 success, young 1 "specialist); second, to the genitive singular feminine ( large 2 career, young 2 women); thirdly, into the dative singular feminine ( to big 3 career, to young 3 woman); fourthly, to the instrumental case of the feminine singular ( with a big 4 career, with a young 4 woman).

There are also words in Russian that sound the same but are spelled differently. This is homophones(gr. homos- identical + phone- sound). For example, words meadow and onion, young and the hammer, carry and lead coincide in pronunciation due to the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant. Changing vowels in an unstressed position leads to the consonance of words rinse and caress, lick and climb up, old-timer and guarded. Words are pronounced the same patronize and march, atstrova and acute, take and brother etc. Consequently, homophones are phonetic homonyms, their appearance in the language is associated with the action of phonetic laws.

Homophony can also manifest itself more widely - in the sound coincidence of a word and several words: Not you, but Sima sufferedunbearable , waterNeva is wearable ; Years beforea hundred grow us withoutold age (M.) Homophony is the subject of study not of lexicology, but of phonetics, as it manifests itself at a different linguistic level - phonetic.

Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently are called homographs(gr. homos- identical + grapho- writing). They usually have stress on different syllables: mugs - mugs, fell asleep - fell asleep, p'arit - steam etc. There are more than a thousand pairs of homographs in modern Russian. Homography is directly related to the graphic system of the language.

Strict differentiation of linguistic phenomena requires to delimit proper lexical homonyms from homoforms, homophones and homographs.

One cannot ignore the fact that the development of polysemy into homonymy can be facilitated by changes that occur in the process of the historical development of society, in the objects themselves (denotations), in the way they are made. So, once the word paper meant "cotton, products from it" and "material for writing". This was due to the fact that in the past paper was made from rag mass. Until the middle of the 19th century, the connection between these meanings was still alive (one could say paper dress, wool fabric with paper). However, with the replacement of raw materials for the production of paper (it began to be made from wood), a semantic splitting of a polysemantic word into homonyms took place. One of them (meaning cotton and products from it) is given in dictionaries in a separate dictionary entry with the note outdated. The transformation of polysemy into homonymy in such cases should not be in doubt.

Difficulties in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy lead to the fact that sometimes doubts are expressed about the legitimacy of including words in a number of homonyms, the different meanings of which go back to the same historical root. With this approach, homonyms include only words that are different in origin. However, it is impossible to agree with such a solution to the problem. Accepting this point of view would move the concept of homonymy to the field of historical lexicology, while the distinction between polysemantic words and homonyms is important precisely for the current state of the language.

In the modern Russian language, a significant number of homonyms have been recorded, and with the development of the language, their number is increasing. The question arises whether homonymy interferes with the correct understanding of speech? After all, homonyms are sometimes called "sick" words, since homonymy reduces the informative function of the word: different meanings receive the same form of expression.

In support of the negative assessment of the phenomenon of homonymy, the idea is also expressed that the very development of the language often leads to its elimination. Many examples of such opposition of the language itself to the phenomenon of homonymy can be cited. So, adjectives disappeared from the dictionary eternal(from eyelid), wine(from guilt); the latter is supplanted by a related word - guilty.

However, this process is far from active and not consistent in the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Along with the facts of the elimination of homonymy, the emergence of new homonyms, homophones and homographs is observed, which has a certain linguistic value and therefore cannot be considered as a negative phenomenon, which the language itself "obstructs".

2.2 Synonyms

Synonyms (gr. synonymos - eponymous) are words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, often differing in stylistic coloring: here - here, wife - spouse, look - look; homeland - fatherland, fatherland; brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, fearless, daring, dashing.

A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called a synonymic row (or nest). Synonymic rows can consist of both heterogeneous and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymic series is usually taken by the defining and stylistically neutral word - the dominant (Latin dominans - dominant) (it is also called the pivotal, main, supporting word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in the last example, the dominant word is the word brave, it most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - "fearless" and free from expressive and stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, fearless is a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring - folk poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing - colloquial - "bold, risk-taking". Synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical compatibility (they are combined only with nouns that call people; one cannot say "brave project", "fearless decision", etc.).

Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.

Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word-formation system, each of them has related words related to other parts of speech and entering into the same synonymous relations with each other; cf. beautiful - charming, charming, irresistible --> beauty - charm, charm, irresistibility; to think - to think, to think, to think, to think --> thoughts - thoughts, reflections, reflections, thoughts. Such synonymy is stably preserved between derivative words: harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious; harmony - euphony; harmonious - harmonious. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.

The Russian language is rich in synonyms, rare synonymic series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymic rows of different lexicographers often do not match. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the unequal understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.

Some scientists consider the designation of the same concept by them as an obligatory sign of synonymous relations of words. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for highlighting synonyms. The third point of view boils down to the fact that the proximity of the lexical meanings of words is recognized as the decisive condition for synonymy. In this case, the following criteria are put forward:

1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings;

2) only the identity of lexical meanings;

3) proximity, but not identity, of lexical meanings.

The most important condition for synonymous words is their semantic proximity, and in special cases - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, the synonymy of the verbs hasten - hurry is expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, flood, roll, roll, giggle, snort, squirt, which have significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed with the semantic identity of words: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words that are absolutely identical in the language; as a rule, they develop semantic shades, stylistic features that determine their originality in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms, differences in lexical compatibility have already been outlined; cf .: domestic linguistics, but structural linguistics.

Full (absolute) synonyms are most often parallel scientific terms: spelling - spelling, nominative - naming, fricative - slot, as well as single-root words formed with the help of synonymic affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.

With the development of the language, one of the pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. So, for example, the original full-voiced variants fell out of use, giving way to Old Slavonic ones in origin: licorice - sweet, good - brave, helmet - helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.

Synonyms, as a rule, designate the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function also allows you to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of the language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymic relations can break up, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymic series, acquiring other semantic connections. Yes, the word scrupulous, formerly synonymous with haberdashery now synonymized with the words thin, delicate; the word vulgar has ceased to be a synonym for words widespread, popular and approached next to: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently violated thought, but preserved with the words dream, dream. Accordingly, the system connections of related words also change. The semantic structures of the given lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - sophistication, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, meanness; to dream - to dream.

Since synonyms, like most words, are characterized by ambiguity, they are included in complex synonymous relations with other ambiguous words, forming a branched hierarchy of synonymic series. With other words, synonyms are connected by relations of opposites, forming antonymic pairs with them.

Synonymic connections of words confirm the systemic nature of Russian vocabulary

1. Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic (semantic, ideographic) For example, wet - damp, damp reflect a different degree of manifestation of the trait - "having significant moisture, saturated with moisture"; cf. also: die - perish, perish- "to cease to exist, to be destroyed (as a result of disasters, the impact of any forces, conditions)".

2. Synonyms that have differences in expressive and emotional coloring and are therefore used in different styles of speech are called stylistic; cf. wife (common) - spouse(official); young(colloquial) - newlyweds(book), eyes(neutral) - eyes(vyc.), face(neutral) - muzzle(reduced) - face(vyc.).

3. Synonyms that differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically are called semantic-stylistic. For example, wander- a bookish word meaning "to go or go without a certain direction, without a goal, or in search of someone or something"; circle (whirl) - colloquial, meaning "changing the direction of movement, often get to the same place"; stray- everyday-colloquial, meaning "to go or go in search of the right direction, the right road"; with the same meaning: get confused- colloquial fornicate- spacious.

In the context, the semantic differences of words close in meaning are often erased, the so-called value neutralization, and while synonyms can be used words that do not belong to the same synonymous series in the lexical system of the language. For example, in phrases voice (murmur) of waves, noise (rustle, rustle, whisper) foliage the highlighted words are interchangeable, but it is impossible to call them synonyms in the strict sense of the term. In such cases, one speaks of contextual synonyms. For their convergence, only conceptual correlation is sufficient. Therefore, in the context, words that cause certain associations in our minds can be synonymized. So, the girl can be called baby, beauty, laughter, whim, coquette etc.

The richness and expressiveness of synonyms in the Russian language creates unlimited opportunities for their purposeful selection and careful use in speech. Writers, working on the language of their works, attach special importance to synonyms that make speech accurate.

2.3 Antonyms

Antonyms(gr. anti- against + onyma- name) - these are words that are different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - be silent .

Antonyms belong to the same part of speech and form pairs.

The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related. Word kind , for example, evokes in our minds the word evil , far reminiscent of close , speed up - about slow down .

Antonyms "are at the extreme points of the lexical paradigm", but between them in the language there may be words that reflect the indicated feature to a different extent, i.e., its decrease or increase. For example: rich - prosperous - poor - poor -beggar ; harmful - harmless - useless -useful . Such opposition suggests a possible degree of strengthening of a sign, quality, action, or gradation(lat. gradient- gradual increase). Semantic gradation (gradation), thus, is characteristic only of those antonyms whose semantic structure contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large and under. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of the sign of gradualness: up - down, day - night, life - death, floor - ceiling, man - woman .

In the lexical system of the language, one can distinguish and antonyms-conversives(lat. conversion- change). These are words expressing the relationship of opposites in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statements: Alexandergave book to Dmitry.- Dmitrytook Alexander's book Professoraccepts credit from the trainee.-

Internsurrenders requiredcredit to your professor

There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - the antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or enantiosemy(gr. enantios- opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemantic words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, the verb depart can mean "to return to normal, feel better", but it can also mean "to die, say goodbye to life." Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: Editorviewed these lines; Ilistened to divertissement; Speakermisspoke and under.

By structure, antonyms are divided into heteroroot (day Night ) and single root (come - go, revolution - counter-revolution ). The former constitute a group of proper lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite of meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relations; compare: in lie down -you lay down,at put -from put,behind cover -from cover. Therefore, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that adding prefixes to quality adjectives, adverbs not- , without- most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite ( young - not young ), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with non-prefixed antonyms turns out to be "muffled" ( middle-aged It doesn't mean "old" yet. Therefore, not all prefix formations can be attributed to antonyms in the strict sense of this term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless .

In modern linguistics, one sometimes speaks of contextual antonyms, i.e., words opposed in a certain context: "Wolves and sheep." The polarity of the meanings of such words is not fixed in the language, their opposition is of an individual authorial nature. The writer can identify opposite qualities in various concepts and, on this basis, contrast them in speech; compare: notmother , adaughter ; solar light -lunar light; oneyear - alla life . However, the words that name such concepts are not antonyms, since their opposition is not reproduced in the language, it is occasional.

Antonymy is used not only to express contrast. Antonyms can show the breadth of spatial and temporal boundaries: Withsouthern mountains tonorthern seas(OK.); Troops are comingday andnight ; they become uncomfortable(P.), completeness of reflection of phenomena, facts of reality: sleepingrich andpoor , andwise , andstupid , andkind , andfierce (Ch.). Antonyms convey the change of pictures observed in life, the alternation of actions, events: Here in the distanceflashed clear lightning,broke out andwent out (Bl.); Let's make peace . Andquarrel . And again you won't sleep. We'll fold our insomnia into a solid white night(Birth.).

2.4 Paronyms

Paronyms(gr. para - near + onima - name) - these are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital.

Paronyms usually refer to the same part of speech and

perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.

Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished.

Paronyms that differ prefixes: about seals -from seals,at to pay -about to pay;

Paronyms that differ suffixes: no responsen th - no answerstvenn oh, nounnatural o - nounness ; commanderovann th - commandervegetable th;

Paronyms that differ the nature of the basis: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair can be:

Words with a non-derivative stem and prefixes: growth -WHO rast;

Words with a non-derivative stem and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - brakeenenie ;

words with a non-derivative stem and words with a prefix and suffix: cargo -on the cargoto a.

Semantically, there are two groups among paronyms.

Paronyms that differ subtle semantic nuances: long - long, desired - desirable, maned - maned, vital - worldly, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are a majority of such paronyms, their meanings are commented in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility; compare: economic effects -economical farming, wealthyinheritance - heavyheritage ; fulfill exercise -perform song.

Paronyms, drastically different in meaning: nest - nest, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.

A special group of paronyms are those that differ in functional and stylistic fixation or stylistic coloring; compare: work(common) - work(simple and special) live(common) - reside(official).

When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. So, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as "pseudo-homonyms", indicating their formal proximity. However, with homonymy, there is a complete coincidence in the pronunciation of words of different meanings, and paronymic forms have some differences not only in pronunciation, but also in spelling. In addition, the semantic proximity of paronyms is explained etymologically: initially they had a common root. And the similarity of homonymous words in the Russian language is purely external, accidental (with the exception of those cases when homonymy develops as a result of the disintegration of the semantic meanings of a polysemantic word).

Paronyms must also be distinguished from synonyms, although this can sometimes be difficult to do. When distinguishing between these phenomena, it should be borne in mind that the discrepancy in the meanings of paronyms is usually so significant that it is impossible to replace one of them with another.

word vocabulary Russian slang

Chapter 3The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others, thanks to the development of the Russian language, relatively recently.

Original Russian vocabulary it is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of labor tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, freedom.

...

Origin

According to its origin, the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is divided into two large unequal groups:

primordial;
borrowed.

Aboriginal vocabulary

The original vocabulary is divided into the following groups:

common Indo-European (names of animals, terms of kinship and simple numerals: sheep, bull, wolf, meat; brother, daughter, mother; one, two, three, four, five etc.)
common Slavic, which goes back to the linguistic community of all Slavs in the VI-VII centuries. During this period, most of the words of modern Russian and other Slavic languages appeared, denoting the names of trees, plants, birds, basic household items: boron, branch, wood, bark, forest, sheet,boughs; oak, spruce, maple, Linden, pine, bird cherry, ash; peas, poppy; oats, millet, wheat, barley; forge, flog; hoe, the cloth, shuttle; house, shelter, floor, canopy; goose, hen, starling, nightingale; kvass, kissel, salo, cheese, sword, book etc.
the East Slavic layer is represented by Old Russian words that appeared and spread within the Slavic population of Kievan Rus, which flourished in the 11th - 12th centuries. This includes words such as rumble, gray, good; uncle, stepdaughter; lace, churchyard; squirrel, finch; fourty, ninety; suddenly, today and etc.
proper Russian lexical units began to appear from the end of the 15th century. These include, for example, the words grumble, coo, crush, thin out, scold; cover, irradiation, wallpaper; cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; total, bluntly, deception, experience and many others.

Borrowed vocabulary

In terms of the number of foreign borrowings, the modern Russian language as a whole occupies a balanced position in the circle of Slavic languages. Their number is not as great as in Polish, but not as insignificant as in Croatian, where linguistic purism is noted. In this regard, the modern Serbian language is close to him. Despite the influx of words of non-Slavic origin into the Russian language over the past 400 years, most of the borrowings in Russian are borrowings from other Slavic languages, first of all, these are Church Slavonicisms, which make up up to 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Another significant group of early borrowings are groups of words of Turkic origin - Turkisms. Later borrowings represent Polonisms, Bohemisms, Gallicisms, Grecisms, Latinisms, Italianisms, Hispanisms, Germanisms, Anglicisms and others.

In modern Russian, there are many lexical borrowings from Church Slavonic (these include, for example, such familiar words as thing, time, air, delight, verb, single, withdraw, reward, cloud, general, response, victory, work, advice, compose, vain, excessive and many others. etc.), some of which coexist with proper Russian doublets, which differ from Church Slavonic ones in meaning or stylistically, cf. (Church Slavonic word is given first): power / volost, drag / drag, head / head, citizen / city dweller, milky / milky, darkness / darkness, clothes / clothes, equal / even, depravity / reversal, give birth / give birth, cathedral / collection, guard / watchman and others. Individual morphemes were also borrowed from Church Slavonic into the literary language (for example, verb prefixes from-, bottom-, before- and co-) and even individual grammatical forms - for example, verbal participles (cf. Church Slavonic participles in origin current or burning with their corresponding native Russian forms fluid and hot, preserved in the modern language as adjectives with the meaning of a constant property) or forms of verbs like flutters(with an alternation unusual for proper Russian forms t/w, cf. primordially Russian laughs or babbles).

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was greatly influenced by those languages with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) had been in contact for a long time. The oldest layer of borrowings is of East German ("Gothic") origin (these are words such as dish, letter, camel, much, hut, prince, cauldron, cross, buy, donkey, plow, glass, bread, barn, hill, artist, church, helmet etc.), as well as a few, but important words borrowed from ancient Iranian languages ("Scythian vocabulary") - for example, heaven, dog, ax(however, it should be borne in mind that not all of these Germanic and Iranian etymologies are considered absolutely indisputable). Germanic (mostly Scandinavian) origin and some Russian personal names, for example, Gleb, Igor, Oleg, Olga.

The next layer in time is made up of Greek words ( hell, letter, clerk, abbot, icon, katavasia, penal servitude, bed, crocodile, doll, magnet, cucumber, ward, sail, pop, shroud, beetroot, bench, notebook, vinegar, lantern etc.) and Turkic origin ( diamond, lasso, head, shoe, biryuk, money, raisin, wild boar, treasury, border, shackles, trap, guard, caftan, carpet, sausage, quiver, horse, hearth, barn, chest, goods, fog, prison, hut, tent, pants, coachman, label and etc.; some of these words, in turn, go back to Arabic or Persian sources). It should be borne in mind that the vast majority of Russian personal baptismal names are also borrowed from Greek (such as Alexander, Alexey, Anatoly, Andrey, Arkady, Vasily, Vlas, Gennady, George, Denis, Dmitry, Evgeny, Kirill, Kuzma, Leonid, Luka, Makar, Nikita, Nikolai, Peter, Stepan, Timofey, Fedor, Philip; Anastasia, Barbara, Galina, Ekaterina, Elena, Zoya, Irina, Xenia, Pelageya, Praskovya, Sophia, Tatyana and etc.; through Greek, such common Christian names of Hebrew origin as Benjamin, Daniel, Ivan, Ilya, Matvey, Mikhail, Naum, Osip, Semyon, Yakov; Anna, Elizabeth, Mary, Martha and etc.).

In the XVI-XVII centuries. the main source of borrowings is polish, through which a large number of Latin, Romance and Germanic words penetrate into Russian (for example, algebra, author, pharmacy, Africa, screw, hubbub, arrogance, barracks, keys, jacket, kitchen, paint, painter, music, drill, shell, Paris, please, mail, private, powder, crimson, leggings, company, market, knight, steel, dance, plate, factory, fake, fortel, goal, shop, figure, school, grind, sword, thing, bayonet, card sharper, skirt, fair and many others. etc.), as well as a certain number of proper Polish ( jar, bottle, redneck, monogram, allow, finish off, thorough, bully, inveterate, passionate, inveterate, beg, rabbit, jacket, cop, tradesman, courage, fatherland, stick, lousy, jam, tease, duel, lieutenant, suburb, capital, suma, buffoon, lad, fumbling, mischievous, cheat sheet and etc.).

The influence of the South Russian dialect of the Russian language took place in the 17th - early 18th centuries. In the Russian language of that time: girlo, relish, savory, tavern, tavern, zlochinets, joke, duties, station wagon, commission other. In the modern Russian language, words of a mostly everyday-ethnographic and historical nature associated with the South of Russia have been preserved: hut, way, dumplings, pot, scroll, tavern, tavern, bandura, hopak, mace, haidamak, father(ataman), lad other.; a small number of common words: shtetl, kids, girls, kosovitsa, grain grower, farmer(the word was created on this model cotton grower), milkmaid; in 1920 - 1930s.: hut-reading room, hut-laboratory. Stylistically colored words and expressions used to emphasize the "simplicity" of speech: already, with a hook: a hundred kilometers with a hook, zhinka, dad, do not go ahead of the father in hell; ironically: sack, open, do not rock the boat, kurkul, schoolboy, verse, paint, do anyhow, my hut is on the edge, elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kyiv, in particular those that are used in relation to Ukrainians and Ukraine: independent, broad Ukrainian, mova; some proper names: Oksana instead of Xenia or Aksinya, affectionate forms Marusya, Natalochka. In the Russian language on the territory of modern Ukraine, there are numerous cases of profanity.

In the new period (from the 18th century), borrowings come mainly from the Dutch ( apricot, admiral, orange, boatswain, trousers, drift, umbrella, south, cable, cabin, berth, coffee, sailor, wig, flight, steering wheel, mouthpiece, hold, fairway, flute, gateway, yacht), German ( paragraph, bandage, exchange, accountant, tie, general, count, huntsman, hall, apartment, cinema, blot, resort, coachman, lieutenant, master, uniform, mouthpiece, officer, parade ground, planer, locksmith, mourning, fireworks, paramedic, time pressure, cement, mine, tire, screen, barrier, train, headquarters, staff, ersatz and many others. others) and French ( lampshade, avant-garde, advance, album, actor, barrier, boulevard, bourgeoisie, bureau, veil, garage, debut, conductor, dossier, shower, blinds, magazine, canvas, caprice, kiosk, nightmare, courage, shop, make-up, machine, menu, Negro, pavilion, parachute, park, password, ground, platform, platform, beach, district, rubber, relief, repair, restaurant, risk, role, piano, season, soup, circulation, sidewalk, trick, style, fairy, fairy, foyer, chance, charm, overcoat, highway, driver and many others. etc.).

Currently, the most powerful source of borrowings is English, some borrowings from which date back to the 19th - first half of the 20th century. (early borrowings - avral, iceberg, bar, boycott, boxing, station, clown, club, cowboy, cocktail, elevator, rally, rails, rum, square, sports, start, tank, tennis, shorts, fashionable, finish, folklore, football, hooligan, shorts, newer - business, businessman, briefing, dumping, default, jeans, dispatcher, clearing, harvester, container, computer, content, leasing, marketing, rating, trend, weekend, file, holding and many others. etc.). Some English words were borrowed into Russian twice - for example, the old lunch and modern lunch; the newest English borrowings often displace earlier borrowings from other European languages - for example, new English. franchising and old French franchise, New English bowling and old German bowling alley in the same sense, new English. broker and old German broker, New English office and old German office, New English tagline and old German slogan, New English lobster and old French lobster, New English hit and old German smash hit, New English price list and old German price-list and etc.

From other European languages, there were significantly fewer borrowings, but in certain areas of the lexicon their role is also quite important. For example, a number of military terms are borrowed from Hungarian ( haiduk, hussar, saber), a large number of musical, as well as a number of financial, culinary and other terms - from Italian (sometimes through French or German mediation): advice note, aria, bravo, cello, libretto, pasta, malaria, opera, pasta, clown, piano, balance, somersault, scherzo, solfeggio, sonata, soprano and etc.

In turn, there are many ancient borrowings from Russian in the Finno-Ugric languages (for example, in Finnish and Karelian, Mordovian, Mari, etc.). A number of Russian words (including those borrowed by origin) have become internationalisms, already borrowed from Russian into many languages of the world ( vodka, dacha, mammoth, matryoshka, perestroika, pogrom, samovar, satellite, steppe, tsar).

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An excerpt characterizing the Vocabulary of the Russian language

After Denisov's departure, Rostov, waiting for the money that the old count could not suddenly collect, spent another two weeks in Moscow, without leaving home, and mainly in the young ladies' room.
Sonya was more tender and devoted to him than before. She seemed to want to show him that his loss was a feat for which she now loves him all the more; but Nicholas now considered himself unworthy of her.
He filled the girls' albums with poems and notes, and without saying goodbye to any of his acquaintances, finally sending all 43 thousand and receiving Dolokhov's receipt, he left at the end of November to catch up with the regiment, which was already in Poland.

After his explanation with his wife, Pierre went to Petersburg. There were no horses at the station in Torzhok, or the caretaker did not want them. Pierre had to wait. Without undressing, he lay down on a leather sofa in front of a round table, put his big feet in warm boots on this table and thought.
- Will you order the suitcases to be brought in? Make a bed, would you like some tea? the valet asked.
Pierre did not answer, because he did not hear or see anything. He had been thinking at the last station and still kept thinking about the same thing - about such an important thing that he did not pay any attention to what was going on around him. He was not only not interested in the fact that he would arrive later or earlier in Petersburg, or whether he would or would not have a place to rest at this station, but all the same, in comparison with the thoughts that occupied him now, whether he would stay for a few hours or a lifetime at that station.
The caretaker, caretaker, valet, a woman with Torzhkov sewing came into the room, offering their services. Pierre, without changing his position of his raised legs, looked at them through his glasses, and did not understand what they might need and how they could all live without resolving the issues that occupied him. And he was occupied with the same questions from the very day he returned from Sokolniki after the duel and spent the first, painful, sleepless night; only now, in the solitude of the journey, they took possession of it with particular force. Whatever he began to think about, he returned to the same questions that he could not solve, and could not stop asking himself. It was as if the main screw on which his whole life rested was curled up in his head. The screw did not go further in, did not go out, but spun, without grabbing anything, all on the same groove, and it was impossible to stop turning it.
The superintendent entered and humbly began to ask his excellency to wait only two hours, after which he would give courier for his excellency (what will be, will be). The caretaker obviously lied and only wanted to get extra money from the traveler. “Was it bad or good?” Pierre asked himself. “It’s good for me, it’s bad for another passing by, but it’s inevitable for him, because he has nothing to eat: he said that an officer beat him up for this. And the officer nailed him because he had to go sooner. And I shot at Dolokhov because I considered myself insulted, and Louis XVI was executed because he was considered a criminal, and a year later those who executed him were killed, also for something. What's wrong? What well? What should you love, what should you hate? Why live, and what am I? What is life, what is death? What power governs everything?” he asked himself. And there was no answer to any of these questions, except for one, not a logical answer, not at all to these questions. This answer was: “If you die, everything will end. You will die and you will know everything, or you will stop asking.” But it was also scary to die.
The Torzhkovskaya tradeswoman offered her goods in a shrill voice, and especially goat shoes. “I have hundreds of rubles, which I have nowhere to put, and she stands in a torn fur coat and looks timidly at me,” thought Pierre. And why do we need this money? Precisely for one hair, this money can add to her happiness, peace of mind? Can anything in the world make her and me less subject to evil and death? Death, which will end everything and which must come today or tomorrow - all the same in a moment, in comparison with eternity. And he again pressed the screw, which was not grasping anything, and the screw was still spinning in the same place.
His servant handed him a book of the novel, cut in half, in letters m me Suza. [Madame Susa.] He began to read about the suffering and virtuous struggle of some Amelie de Mansfeld. [to Amalia Mansfeld.] And why did she fight her seducer, he thought, when she loved him? God could not put into her soul aspirations contrary to His will. My ex-wife didn't fight and maybe she was right. Nothing has been found, Pierre told himself again, nothing has been invented. We can only know that we know nothing. And this is the highest degree of human wisdom.”
Everything in him and around him seemed to him confused, meaningless and disgusting. But in this very disgust for everything around him, Pierre found a kind of annoying pleasure.
“I dare to ask Your Excellency to make room for a little one, here for them,” said the caretaker, entering the room and leading another, who was stopped for lack of horses, passing by. The passer-by was a squat, broad-boned, yellow, wrinkled old man with overhanging gray eyebrows over shining, indefinite grayish eyes.
Pierre took his feet off the table, got up and lay down on the bed prepared for him, occasionally glancing at the newcomer, who, with a gloomy tired look, without looking at Pierre, was heavily undressing with the help of a servant. Left in a shabby, covered sheepskin coat and felted boots on thin, bony legs, the traveler sat down on the sofa, leaning his very large and wide at the temples, short-cropped head against the back and looked at Bezukhy. The strict, intelligent and penetrating expression of this look struck Pierre. He wanted to speak to the traveler, but when he was about to turn to him with a question about the road, the traveler had already closed his eyes and folded his wrinkled old hands, on the finger of one of which was a large cast-iron ring with the image of Adam's head, sat motionless, or resting, or about something thoughtfully and calmly thinking, as it seemed to Pierre. The passerby's servant was all covered with wrinkles, also a yellow old man, without a mustache and beard, which apparently had not been shaved off, and had never grown with him. The agile old servant was dismantling the cellar, preparing a tea table, and brought a boiling samovar. When everything was ready, the traveler opened his eyes, moved closer to the table and poured himself one glass of tea, poured another for the beardless old man and served it to him. Pierre began to feel anxiety and the need, and even the inevitability of entering into a conversation with this traveler.
The servant brought back his empty, overturned glass with a half-bitten piece of sugar and asked if he needed anything.
- Nothing. Give me the book, said the passerby. The servant handed over a book, which seemed to Pierre spiritual, and the traveler deepened in reading. Pierre looked at him. Suddenly the passer-by put down the book, laid it down, closed it, and, again closing his eyes and leaning on his back, sat down in his former position. Pierre looked at him and did not have time to turn away, when the old man opened his eyes and fixed his firm and stern gaze straight into Pierre's face.
Pierre felt embarrassed and wanted to deviate from this look, but the brilliant, aged eyes irresistibly attracted him to him.

“I have the pleasure of talking to Count Bezukhy, if I am not mistaken,” said the passerby slowly and loudly. Pierre silently, questioningly looked through his glasses at his interlocutor.
“I heard about you,” continued the traveler, “and about the misfortune that befell you, my lord. - He seemed to emphasize the last word, as if he said: “yes, misfortune, whatever you call it, I know that what happened to you in Moscow was a misfortune.” “I am very sorry about that, my lord.
Pierre blushed and, hastily lowering his legs from the bed, bent down to the old man, smiling unnaturally and timidly.
“I did not mention this to you out of curiosity, my lord, but for more important reasons. He paused, without letting Pierre out of his sight, and moved on the sofa, inviting Pierre to sit down beside him with this gesture. It was unpleasant for Pierre to enter into a conversation with this old man, but, involuntarily submitting to him, he came up and sat down beside him.
“You are unhappy, my lord,” he continued. You are young, I am old. I would like to help you to the best of my ability.
“Oh, yes,” Pierre said with an unnatural smile. - I am very grateful to you ... Where do you want to pass from? - The face of the traveler was not affectionate, even cold and stern, but despite the fact, both the speech and the face of the new acquaintance had an irresistibly attractive effect on Pierre.
“But if for some reason you find it unpleasant to talk to me,” said the old man, “then you say so, my lord. And he suddenly smiled unexpectedly, a fatherly gentle smile.
“Oh no, not at all, on the contrary, I am very glad to meet you,” said Pierre, and, looking once more at the hands of a new acquaintance, he examined the ring closer. He saw Adam's head on it, the sign of Freemasonry.
“Let me ask,” he said. - Are you a Mason?
- Yes, I belong to the brotherhood of free masons, said the traveler, looking deeper and deeper into Pierre's eyes. - And on my own behalf and on their behalf, I extend my brotherly hand to you.
“I’m afraid,” said Pierre, smiling and hesitating between the confidence instilled in him by the personality of a Mason and the habit of mocking the beliefs of Masons, “I’m afraid that I’m very far from understanding how to say this, I’m afraid that my way of thinking about everything of the universe is so opposite to yours that we do not understand each other.
“I know your way of thinking,” said the Mason, “and that way of thinking of which you speak, and which seems to you the product of your mental labor, is the way of thinking of most people, is the monotonous fruit of pride, laziness and ignorance. Excuse me, my lord, if I did not know him, I would not speak to you. Your way of thinking is a sad delusion.
“Just as I can assume that you are in error,” said Pierre, smiling weakly.
“I will never dare to say that I know the truth,” said the freemason, more and more striking Pierre with his certainty and firmness of speech. - No one alone can reach the truth; only stone after stone, with the participation of all, millions of generations, from the forefather Adam to our time, that temple is being erected, which should be a worthy dwelling of the Great God, - said the freemason and closed his eyes.
“I must tell you, I don’t believe, I don’t ... believe in God,” Pierre said with regret and effort, feeling the need to tell the whole truth.
The Mason carefully looked at Pierre and smiled, as a rich man who held millions in his hands would smile at a poor man who would tell him that he, the poor man, did not have five rubles that could make him happy.
“Yes, you do not know Him, my lord,” said the Mason. “You cannot know Him. You don't know Him, that's why you're unhappy.
“Yes, yes, I am unhappy,” Pierre confirmed; - but what am I to do?
“You do not know Him, my lord, and that is why you are very unhappy. You do not know Him, but He is here, He is in me. He is in my words, He is in you, and even in those blasphemous speeches that you have spoken just now! said the Mason in a stern, trembling voice.
He paused and sighed, apparently trying to calm himself.
“If He weren’t there,” he said quietly, “we wouldn’t be talking about Him, my lord. What, who were we talking about? Who did you deny? he suddenly said with enthusiastic severity and authority in his voice. - Who invented it, if it does not exist? Why did the assumption arise in you that there is such an incomprehensible being? Why did you and the whole world assume the existence of such an incomprehensible being, an omnipotent being, eternal and infinite in all its properties?… – He stopped and was silent for a long time.
Pierre could not and did not want to break this silence.
“He exists, but it is difficult to understand Him,” the freemason spoke again, looking not at Pierre’s face, but in front of him, with his old hands, which, from inner excitement, could not remain calm, sorting through the pages of the book. “If it were a person whose existence you would doubt, I would bring this person to you, take him by the hand and show you. But how can I, an insignificant mortal, show all omnipotence, all eternity, all His goodness to the one who is blind, or to the one who closes his eyes so as not to see, not to understand Him, and not to see, and not to understand all his abomination and depravity? He paused. - Who are you? What you? You dream of yourself that you are a wise man, because you could utter these blasphemous words, - he said with a gloomy and contemptuous smile, - and you are more stupid and madder than a small child who, playing with parts of an artfully made watch, would dare to say that , because he does not understand the purpose of these hours, he does not believe in the master who made them. It is difficult to know Him... We have been working for this knowledge for centuries, from the forefather Adam to the present day, and we are infinitely far from achieving our goal; but in not understanding Him, we see only our weakness and His greatness ... - Pierre, with a sinking heart, looking with shining eyes into the face of the Mason, listened to him, did not interrupt, did not ask him, but with all his heart believed what this stranger told him. Did he believe in those reasonable arguments that were in the Mason's speech, or did he believe, as children believe, in the intonation, conviction and cordiality that were in the Mason's speech, the trembling of the voice, which sometimes almost interrupted the Mason, or these brilliant, senile eyes, grown old on that the same conviction, or that calmness, firmness and knowledge of one's purpose, which shone from the whole being of the Mason, and which struck him especially strongly in comparison with their omission and hopelessness; - but with all his heart he wanted to believe, and believed, and experienced a joyful feeling of calm, renewal and return to life.

10. The concept of vocabulary, the word.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD- fixed in the mind of the speaker, the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something."

12. HOMONYMS These are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a club of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that have the same meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more diverse and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS are words that are opposite in meaning.

Antonyms are words that are relative in meaning; you can not put in an antonymous pair of words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different angles (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man”, the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.

15. Discharges of words by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

primordially Russian, which include Indo-Europeanisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pek-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), proper Russian vocabulary (mason, leaflet);
borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages (finger, mouth - Old Slavonicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages (Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Obsolete words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often on the web. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century the word "satellite" was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all the words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.

8. In Russian, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:

dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
morphological (characterized by a special inflection): I have,
phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.

professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

jargon - these are words that are used by a narrow circle of people united by a common interest, occupation or position in society; for example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing mark), camp jargon,

argotisms are the same as jargonisms, but they are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words; as a rule, this is the speech of socially closed groups, for example, thieves' slang.

Vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language

1. Speech qualities of a verbal expression

1 . Content.

Need to know, what to tell. It should be interesting and new for the addressee. Without this, speech will turn into idle talk, chatter.

· It [prose] requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. (A. Pushkin)

· Words fall like pearls on thoughts breathing power. (M. Lermontov)

Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious. (N. Nekrasov)

2 . Accuracy.

According to M. Gorky, "accuracy gives strength and beauty to the language."

Speech should reflect knowledge of the subject of speech - the topic. The accuracy of the image of reality is the result of observation. The accuracy of observations and the simplicity of descriptions of nature by the masters of the artistic word are striking.

Nature's clear smile

Through a dream meets the morning of the year;

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, forests

As if they are turning green.

Bee for tribute in the field

Flies from the wax cell.

The valleys dry and dazzle;

The herds are noisy, and the nightingale

Already sang in the silence of the nights. ( A. Pushkin)

Words must be used strictly according to their meaning. Do not use words whose meaning is not entirely clear. This creates an unfavorable impression. Absolute accuracy is especially important in scientific and business speech, where distortions of facts, figures, etc. are completely unacceptable. In journalism, various interpretations of facts are possible, but the facts must remain reliable.

3 . Logic.

a) Speech must be built according to certain laws.

b) In speech, it is necessary to follow the rules of logic.

Famous pun It was raining and two students. One in galoshes, the other to the university based on the game of two meanings of the verb go and the ambiguity of the preposition in. The comic effect is created by connecting the logically incompatible. An unexpected rethinking of ordinary things causes laughter.

4 . Right.

Compliance with the norms of the literary language (orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, lexical, etc.)

Departure from literary norms should be motivated by the goals and conditions of communication.

5 . expressiveness.

The expressiveness of speech is created not only by the ability to choose the most accurate and appropriate words in a speech situation, but also by the widespread use of proverbs, phraseological units, popular expressions and artistic and visual means. Especially often they sound in oral speech and adorn written phraseological units.

6 . Purity.

The purity of speech implies the absence in it of words and expressions that are not literary. Cursing, rude words, “weed” words are completely unacceptable in literary speech.

Inappropriate in good speech and dialectisms, if they are used unnecessarily, instead of the words of the literary language.

Slang words and expressions do not decorate speech ( I'm trudging, I'm high, the roof has gone, etc.)

The purity of speech is violated by the abuse of foreign words, which have recently been especially numerous in the newspaper and journalistic style: consensus(agreement), rating(rating, level of fame, popularity), pluralism(diversity of opinion) precedent(the case that took place earlier), plebiscite(popular vote), etc.

7 . Emotionality.

Speech has a stronger effect on the interlocutor if it expresses the attitude of the speaker to what he utters, if the speech is emotional. This sign of good speech is not characteristic of works of scientific and business style, but is necessary for colloquial, journalistic and artistic styles of speech.

The emotional coloring of speech is created by intonation, exclamatory sentences, introductory words and expressions, specific vocabulary, and a variety of artistic and visual means.

2. Literary form of the Russian language. Varieties.

Literary language- the processed part of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form.

Literary language is a supra-dialect subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, polyfunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among native speakers of this national language. The property of all who owns its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it usually focuses on the same norms, contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted. In different historical epochs and among different peoples, the degree of closeness of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language - the common language of writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes orally. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.

Literary language is a historically established, socially conscious language system, which is characterized by strict codification, but mobile, and not static, which covers all spheres of human activity: the sphere of science and education - scientific style; socio-political sphere - journalistic style; sphere of business relations - official business style.

The idea of the “fixedness” of the norms of the literary language has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of the people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the very problem of literary language.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of the literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either the written literary language, or the colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, though related concepts.

3. The colloquial form of the Russian language. Varieties.

If book styles (scientific, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, artistic) are used primarily in an official setting and in writing, require indispensable care about the form of expression, then colloquial style used in informal settings. The degree of preparedness of speech may be different. In everyday conversation, she is usually completely unprepared (spontaneous). And when writing a friendly letter, drafts written in advance can also be used. But this readiness never reaches the degree that is characteristic of book styles.

All this leads to the fact that the dominant of the conversational style, especially colloquial speech that exists in the oral form of informal personal communication, is to minimize the concern for the form of expression of thoughts. And this, in turn, gives rise to a number of linguistic features of conversational style.

On the one hand, the colloquial style of speech is characterized by a high degree of standardization of the language. Typified, standard constructions are convenient for spontaneous (unprepared) speech. Each typical situation has its own stereotypes.

For example, etiquette stereotypes include phrases: Good afternoon!; Hey!; What's new?; Till! Stereotypes are used in urban transport: Are you leaving on the next one?; in the shop - Weigh three hundred grams of oil etc.

On the other hand, in a relaxed environment, the speaker is not limited by the strict requirements of official communication and can use untyped, individual means.

It should be remembered that colloquial speech serves not only the purposes of the message, but also the purposes of influence. Therefore, the colloquial style is characterized by expressiveness, visualization and figurativeness.

Some linguists distinguish three groups of colloquial speech from a lexico-semantic point of view.

1 . Ordinary colloquial words, that is, everyday colloquial, or everyday.

2 . Spoken words with limited use: everyday vernacular, colloquial terminological words, or slang.

3 . Colloquial words with a pronounced limitation of the scope of use: dialectal, slang and roughly colloquial, reduced words.

Each of these groups has words that are functionally connotative, that is, stylistically colored.

The literary and colloquial group includes such words that have a certain shade of decline in comparison with other styles. But, despite this, such words are found in many areas of human communication. So, for example, the words correspondent, evening party, concrete, bagpipes, high-voltage, anti-aircraft guns, manner; cry, feverish, celebrate (birthday) and others are widely used in various genres of newspaper and journalistic style.

Colloquial words include words used in everyday everyday communication. Like the words of literary and colloquial speech, they do not violate the norms of actual colloquial speech. But here words with a reduced meaning will already prevail, having, moreover, an additional stylistic coloring. This includes words with disapproving, playful, ironic, familiar shades of speech. Their use in other styles of language would be inappropriate and ridiculous. Colloquial-everyday (colloquial-everyday) words include such words as brainless, nonsense, chatter, grandfather, joker, etc. All these words have a negative or positive expressive-emotional assessment that is not too conspicuous.

4. Vocabulary. Polysemantic words, synonyms, ononyms, antonyms, paronyms.

Vocabulary (from other Greek τὸ λεξικός "referring to a word; word; figure of speech") - a set of words of a particular language, part of a language. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena. The science of lexicology is engaged in the study of vocabulary, as well as semasiology and onomasiology.

All words are divided into single-valued and polysemantic.

Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning.

Polysemantic words are words that have two or more lexical meanings.

Examples of single-valued words: trousers, perpendicular, cake, lovely.

Examples of polysemantic words:

hand (body part - left hand; handwriting, creative manner - hand of the master)

beautiful (outwardly attractive - a beautiful girl; interesting, spectacular, difficult to perform - a beautiful solution to a problem, a beautiful goal; designed only for an external effect - these are just beautiful words)

cream (cosmetic product - hand cream, confectionery - cake with chocolate cream).

Usually, all the meanings of a polysemantic word are related to each other by similarity or by contiguity. For example, a mushroom or nail cap is called so because it looks like a hat - a headdress. And not only a wardrobe is called a wardrobe (there is an old wardrobe in the room), but also a room for storing clothes (put the coat in the wardrobe), as well as the clothes themselves (update the wardrobe) - in this case, the meanings of the word are related by adjacency.

The transfer of a name by similarity is called metaphor, and by adjacency - metonymy. A common metaphor or metonymy leads to the formation of a new meaning of a polysemantic word. Author's metaphor and metonymy are means of expressiveness.

It is important to distinguish polysemantic words from homonyms: the meanings of polysemantic words are related by similarity or by contiguity, and the meanings of homonyms are in no way related to each other. An example of homonyms: dachshund (dog breed) - dachshund (tariff).

Synonyms(from other Greek σύν "together" † ὄνομα "name") - words of the same language, usually belonging to the same part of speech, different in pronunciation and spelling, but having a similar lexical meaning.

Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, brave - brave, go - walk.

They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech, avoid its monotony.

Homonyms- these are the same in spelling, but different in meaning, morphemes and other units of the language. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs, homoforms and paronyms.

Antonyms(ancient Greek ἀντι- a prefix with the meaning of the opposite † ὄνομα "name") - these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: "truth" - "false", "good" - "evil", "to speak" - "to be silent".

Paronyms(from other Greek παρα- - a prefix with the meaning of adjacency, ὄνομα - "name") - these are words that are similar in sound and morphemic composition, but differ in lexical meaning. It is also possible to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee - addresses n t. By analogy with the false friends of the translator, paronyms are sometimes called false brothers.

5. Passive and active composition of the language: historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

The totality of the words of the modern Russian language, as a designation of objects, phenomena and concepts, forms its vocabulary, or vocabulary. Words are characterized by a certain specificity: they differ from each other in their origin, the degree of their activity, the scope of their use and their stylistic affiliation. Taking into account these features of language units allows us to substantiate the general principles of vocabulary classification:

According to its origin, the vocabulary is divided into native Russian and borrowed (from Old Church Slavonic and other languages of the world);

According to the degree of use, vocabulary is divided into active and passive vocabulary (regularly and often reproduced units belong to the first, obsolete and new vocabulary to the second: historicisms, archaisms and neologisms);

Outdated words.

Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For some time, they are still understandable to speakers of a given language, known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are listed in explanatory dictionaries marked obsolete.

The process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, enemy, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest period of time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in the newest period; cf .: shkrab - in the 20s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers' and Peasants' Inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.

The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs left, right (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa - "left hand" and right hand - "right hand" became archaic. In such cases, the systemic relations of lexical units played a decisive role. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname dating back to the nickname). Antonymic pairs collapsed (shuytsa - right hand, oshuyu - right hand), synonymous connections ( oshuyu, on the left). However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it by systemic relations, was retained in the language for some time. In the Pushkin era, for example, it was used in the "high syllable" poetic speech; cf: And I put the sting of a wise snake into my frozen mouth with a bloody right hand (P.), while oshuyu was only an echo of dilapidated archaism, and its use was possible only in a satirical context: Oshuyu sits here with me the eighth miracle light (Bat.)

Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms.

To historicism include those obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the fact that the objects or phenomena they designate have gone out of life: armyak, caftan, camisole, chain mail, serf, prince, armor, etc. Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian. In the Russian language, historicisms of the Soviet period make up a special group, these are: tax in kind, NEP, NEPman, farm laborer, worker's faculty, kulak, kombed, Budyonovka, etc.

Archaisms, their types

To archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to the active lexical stock; cf. everyday - always, comedian - actor, it is necessary - it is necessary, percy - chest, verb - to speak, to know - to know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in the modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.

Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffixal design (height - height), in their sound (eighth - eighth, hospital - hospital), in their individual meanings (nature - "nature", fairly - "excellent", disorder - "mess" ). This gives grounds to single out several groups in the composition of archaisms.

Lexical archaisms- words that are outdated in all their meanings: lying (possible), barber (hairdresser), very (very), therefore, know, it is coming.

Lexical and derivational archaisms- words in which individual word-forming elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, since (because), it is necessary, handicrafts (craft), transgress.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms- words in which their phonetic design has become outdated, which has undergone some changes in the process of the historical development of the language: licorice, vorog, young, breg, night, Sveisky (Swedish), English (English), heroism, atheism.

Lexico-semantic archaisms- words that have lost their separate meanings: guest - "merchant", shame - "spectacle", vulgar - "popular", dream - "thought".

The largest group is actually lexical archaisms, which can be subjected to further systematization by highlighting words that are close in time to the transition to a passive stock, or by distinguishing, for example, words that have the same root as part of modern vocabulary (lya - impossible, ryahaya - slob), and words , devoid of family ties with modern nominations: uy - "maternal uncle, strynya -" uncle's wife, cherevye - "skin (cf.: Ukrainian chereviki), vezha -" tent, wagon, etc.

3. New words (neologisms).

The lexical composition of the language is constantly updated with new words, neologisms, created to designate new objects, phenomena, to express new concepts. At the moment of their appearance, they enter the passive vocabulary and remain neologisms until they lose their shade of novelty and freshness. When such words become common and enter the active vocabulary, they cease to be neologisms.

Neologisms, their types

The classifications of neologisms are based on various criteria for their selection and evaluation. Depending on the method of appearance, neologisms are distinguished lexical, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words. Among the lexical neologisms, on the basis of word-formation, one can single out words produced with the help of suffixes (earthlings), prefixes (pro-Western), as well as suffix-prefix formations (landing, undock), names created by compounding (moon rover, hydroweightlessness), compound abbreviated words (omon , special forces, CIS, GKChP) and abbreviated words (help, deputy).

Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into general language that appeared along with a new concept or a new reality, and individually-author's introduced by specific authors. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group; so, neologisms that appeared at the beginning of the century collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plans many others are characterized by commonness.

The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky prosessed. Having crossed the boundaries of individual authorial use, having become the property of the language, these words have now joined the active vocabulary. The language also has long mastered the terms introduced by M. V. Lomonosov constellation, full moon, attraction; used for the first time by N.M. Karamzin's words industry, future others

To the same group of neologisms belong the so-called occasionalisms(lat. occasionalis random) - lexical units, the occurrence of which is due to a certain context. All of the above neologisms are linguistic, they have become the property of Russian vocabulary, are recorded in dictionaries, like any lexical unit, with all the meanings assigned to them.

Occasional neologisms- these are words formed by writers and publicists according to the word-formation models existing in the language and used only once in a certain work - wide-noiseoak trees(P.), in heavy snakes hair (Bl.), flammable sprigs of elderberry (Color). The authors of such neologisms can be not only writers; we ourselves, without noticing it, often come up with words in case (such as opener, unpack, overload). Especially many occasionalisms are created by children: I messed up; See how the rain poured; I am no longer a baby, but a big one and under.

In order to distinguish between artistic and literary occasionalisms and purely everyday ones, which are not a fact of artistic speech, the former are called individual stylistic. If everyday occasionalisms usually arise in oral speech, involuntarily, without being fixed anywhere, then individual stylistic ones are the result of a conscious creative process, they are imprinted on the pages of literary works and perform a certain stylistic function in them.

In terms of their artistic significance, individual stylistic neologisms are similar to metaphors: their creation is based on the same desire to discover new semantic facets in the word, to create an expressive image with economical speech means. Like the brightest, freshest metaphors, individual stylistic neologisms are original and unique. At the same time, the writer does not set himself the task of putting into use the words he invented. The purpose of these words is different - to serve as an expressive means in the context of one, specific work.

Depending on the purpose of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a purely nominative function in the language, while the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names.

Nominative neologisms include, for example, the following: futurology, feminization, pre-perestroika (period), pluralism. The appearance of nominative neologisms is dictated by the needs of the development of society, the success of science and technology. These neologisms arise as the names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names (cosmonaut - astronaut) is possible, one of which, as a rule, subsequently displaces the other. The bulk of nominative neologisms are highly specialized terms that are constantly replenishing the scientific vocabulary and may become commonly used over time; cf .: moon rover, dock, spaceport.

Stylistic neologisms are created as figurative names of already known objects, phenomena: pioneer, atomograd, motor city, starship. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are inferior to them in intensity of expressive coloring; cf: starship - spaceship. However, the frequent use of these neologisms in speech translates them into an active vocabulary, neutralizes their stylistic coloring. For example, the word health resort, which came into the language as a stylistic neologism, is now perceived as a neutral synonym for the words sanatorium, rest home.

6. Origin of Russian vocabulary. Exoticisms. Barbarisms.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1 . New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2 . New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

exoticism- a foreign borrowing denoting an object or phenomenon from the life of another people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, exoticisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. At the same time, such words can often be changed to fit the norms of the new language or distorted, especially if they came through a third language, such as sushi or comics. Close to exoticisms are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms that describe the life realities of a sub-ethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the szeklers (székelys) and changos (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Culinary and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, tacos, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Barbarism- a word from a foreign language or a figure of speech built on the model of a foreign language, violating the purity of speech of a native speaker.

Barbarism refers to the least mastered type of borrowed vocabulary; it can be used in transliteration or even in foreign language spelling. Usually used for stylistic purposes to create "local color" or to follow "fashion requirements".

7. Phraseological units and winged words.

Absolutely every person uses phraseological units in communication with other people. And what is a phraseological unit and what is it eaten with? Phraseologism is a stable combination of words, that is, with an invariable order, which, in turn, individually do not mean everything the same as together. Where do phraseological units come from? Who invented them? It is likely that phraseological units, they are also idioms, aphorisms, winged expressions began to exist since the time when human speech appeared. Academician V. began to closely study phraseological units, he also laid the foundation for phraseological units as a linguistic discipline. At present, it is quite difficult to imagine our life without phraseological units. Often we use them in a particular situation, sometimes even for a bunch of text, in order to emotionally enhance the effect of what was said. In some moments it is impossible to do without phraseological units! For example, “don’t talk my teeth into me” in the meaning - don’t say too much, agree that phraseologism sounds more emotional and persistent than just a request not to say too much, unnecessary. Phraseologisms: examples and their meanings. History of occurrence. The origin of phraseological units. For example, such a phraseological unit as "lead by the nose" in its unity means to deceive a person, if you take the words separately, then the meaning is already lost. The history of the emergence of this phraseological unit goes to Central Asia. Previously, camels and bulls were led there by ropes that were tied to rings threaded through the nose of a camel or a bull. Thus, the temper of the animal becomes more docile. Such a phraseological unit as “a matter in the hat”, meaning that everything is fine, the assigned task is done, was “born” in the distant, distant past, several centuries ago, when important letters and papers were delivered by a messenger on horse artillery. In those days, it was extremely dangerous to carry a bag with important papers, as robbers could attack on the way and take it away. To preserve important papers, they were sewn into the lining of the messenger's hat, and he delivered them to the specified place safe and sound. Or, for example, the phraseologism “kill yourself on the nose”, meaning to remember once and for all! Do not think that he is not associated with any bodily bullying. It's just that in ancient times, when people were still illiterate, they carried a small tablet with them everywhere, and if something needed to be remembered, they made notches on it. This little board was called the nose. Interesting, isn't it? Sentences with phraseological units: examples. Some examples of the use of phraseological units in sentences. Yes, he will not go to school today, how to drink to give! Your friend is rather strange, if not of this world. It's written on his forehead who he is. The prodigal son has returned! I know everything, you can not lead me by the nose.

winged the words

widely used expressions, phrases, sayings of historical persons and literary characters. Winged words, unlike an aphorism, may not express a complete thought, but simply represent a well-aimed figurative expression. For example, “I came, I saw, I conquered” by Julius Caesar, “And yet it spins” by Galileo Galilei, “Potemkin villages” (from memoirs of the 18th century). Winged words, as a rule, have already lost touch with their original source and are rethought with each use in connection with a specific situation.

Publicists, orators, politicians resort to the use of winged words as a confirmation of their opinion or a well-aimed argument against an opponent. Sometimes there is a deformation of winged words (for example, a newspaper headline “I came, I saw, I paid”). Often winged words are filled with new content in a literary work. For example, the use of a Latin proverb in "The Stranger" by A. A. Blok:

And drunkards with rabbit eyes.

8. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Dictionary types.

Lexicography- a section of linguistics devoted to the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, one of the areas of applied lexicology.

There are two main types of dictionaries according to their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The object of description in the encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), while the nature of the information provided by the dictionary differs depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

The main type of linguistic dictionary is dictionary. The explanatory dictionary serves to interpret the meaning of words, their role in the study of the lexical system of the language is enormous. In the explanatory dictionary, you can get information about the lexical meaning of a word, find out whether it is polysemantic or not, find out if it has homonyms. Such a dictionary also provides information about the main orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic characteristics of the word, and examples of word usage are given. The dictionary consists of dictionary entries . A headword is at the beginning of a dictionary entry. (the totality of all capital, i.e. interpreted, words of the dictionary is called a dictionary). The interpretation of values in a dictionary can be represented in different ways: descriptive(a description of the essential features of the object, phenomenon is given), synonymous(the meaning of the word is explained by the selection of synonyms), reference(derivative words are described by referring to the producer, taking into account the meaning of the word-formation means). In one interpretation, different methods can be combined. Different meanings of the same word can be interpreted in different ways.

Dictionaries may differ in the selection of vocabulary (in terms of composition and number of included words). Thus, a dictionary can cover the entire vocabulary of a language or any of its individual layers (dictionaries of terms, foreign words, slang vocabulary). Dictionaries that include vocabulary of the national (nationwide) language (for example, "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.V. Dahl) or separate layers of the national language that are not included in the literary language ("Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", "Arkhangelsk Regional Dictionary") are non-normative- they do not codify the literary language, do not set its boundaries. If the dictionary is normative(such are all explanatory dictionaries published in Soviet times), it includes the vocabulary of the literary language.

A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by Dahl's dictionary, published in 1863 and including 200 thousand words. In 1935, D.N. Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in 4 volumes. This is a normative dictionary with a carefully designed labeling system. In 1949, S.I. Ozhegov's Dictionary of the Russian Language was published. In the first edition, about 50,000 words were included. In the 1960s, the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language (BAS) was published - the most complete of the standard explanatory dictionaries. Explanatory dictionaries differ in the volume of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of words, and the technical means of presenting the material.

In addition to explanatory, there are other types of linguistic dictionaries, which differ in what aspect of linguistic units is the main one in them. There are dictionaries for translation, reference (orthoepic, spelling), reflecting systemic relations in the vocabulary (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

Linguistic dictionaries differ in the way the material is organized. The most common is alphabetical way of arranging words. Vocabulary can be organized by nesting principle, when in one dictionary entry not a word is interpreted, but the whole word-formation nest.

9. Expressive means of language. Trails.

The means of speech expressiveness is one of the most important factors due to which the Russian language is famous for its richness and beauty, which has been glorified more than once in poetry and immortal works of Russian classic writers. To this day, Russian is one of the most difficult languages to learn. This is facilitated by a huge number of expressive means that are present in our language, making it rich and multifaceted. To date, there is no clear classification of expressive means, but two conditional types can still be distinguished: stylistic figures and paths.

trails(from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech, technique, image) - such turns of speech that are based on the use of words in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the speaker or writer.

Metaphor (from Greek metafora - transfer, figurative meaning) - the transfer of a name from one reality to another based on the similarity of features. For example: a noble nest, the sound of waves, etc.

Metonymy (from Greek metonymia - renaming) - renaming an object based on the similarity between the object and the material from which it is made. For example: the theater applauded (instead of the audience applauded).

Synecdoche (from Greek synekdoche - correlation) (a kind of metonymy) - renaming an object based on a quantitative ratio; the name of a part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa. For example: My little head is gone (instead of I am gone).

Comparison is a comparison of two concepts, in which their similarity is found on some basis. For example: The road winds like a gray ribbon ...; Snow dust stands in a column in the air; The snowflakes sparkled like diamonds.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbola - exaggeration) - tropes of speech, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, value, etc. any object or phenomenon. For example: a river of blood.

Litota (from Greek litotes - simplicity) - 1) deliberate understatement; 2) trope of speech, which consists in defining a concept or object by negating the opposite; negation of a sign that is not characteristic of the object, i.e. a kind of "negation of the negation". For example: 1) a little man with a fingernail; 2) not useful.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) - a trope consisting in likening a word or expression in a sense opposite to the literal one, with the aim of ridicule. For example: This is Hercules! (about a sick person).

Epithet (from the Greek epitheto - attached) - an artistic, figurative definition. It is usually expressed in a word in a figurative sense - an adjective, an adverb, a noun-application. For example: emerald eyes, dress noisily, tramp-wind.

Figures of speech- in the general case, any turns of speech that deviate from the natural norm.

Allegory (from the Greek allos - different, agoreuo - I say) is an allegorical depiction of a situation with the help of a specific life image: we are talking about one thing, but in fact something completely different is meant. For example: Whoever looks back too often can easily stumble and fall.

Alliteration (from Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - a figure of speech, a stylistic device that consists in repeating the same consonant sounds or sound combinations. For example: The hiss of frothy glasses And the blue flame of punch.

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic elements at the beginning of each parallel row. For example: We must think about Russia! We must think about the people! Therefore, we must adopt a law on environmental protection!

Antithesis (from the Greek antithesis - opposition) - opposition of concepts, images, thoughts. For example: What did you make of that France that I left in such a brilliant position? I left you peace, but I find war! I left you Italian millions, but I find predatory laws and poverty! I left you victories, but I find defeats!

Antonomasia (from Greek antonomasia - renaming) - replacement of a common noun with a proper name. For example: For a long time, jealous people have been called the name Othello, voluptuaries and womanizers - Don Juans.

Gradation (from Latin gradation - gradual increase) is a stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of parts of the statement, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase in the impression they produce is created. For example: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ....

Inversion (from Latin inversio - turning over, rearranging) - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: I saw an interesting book yesterday; It plays and howls like a young beast that sees food from an iron cage.

A pun (from the French calembour) is a figure of speech consisting in the humorous use of the ambiguity of a word or the sound similarity of different words. For example: Osip is hoarse, and Arkhip is hoarse.

Polyunion (polysyndeton) is a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating a unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech. For example: The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.

Oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another. For example: a living corpse, the heat of cold numbers.

Paradox (from the Greek paradokos - unexpected, strange) - an opinion, a judgment that sharply differs from the generally accepted one, but upon closer examination, it is true, at least under some conditions. For example: Mutual misunderstanding is the most suitable basis for marriage.

Paraphrase (periphrase) (from the Greek periphrasis - a descriptive expression, allegory) - a modified name of an object, phenomenon or person, replacing them with a description of essential features or an indication of their characteristic features. For example: the king of beasts (instead of a lion), being in the arms of Morpheus (instead of sleeping), the temple of Melpomene (instead of a theater).

Parcellation (new Latin parcellatio - division) is a figure of speech, a special division of a sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. For example: And again. Gulliver. Costs. slouching.

A period is a structurally organized rhythmic utterance, consisting of two proportionate parts - ascending and descending. For example:

The more often the lyceum celebrates

Your holy anniversary

The more timid is the old circle of friends

The family is shy of being single,

The less often he so our holiday

Darker in its joy;

The more muffled is the sound of convalescent bowls,

And our songs are the sadder.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not imply new information in the answer: the speaker is essentially asking about what he has long known, it is important for him that the listeners give the same answer to themselves. For example: Who is not affected by novelty?

Syntactic parallelism - the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech (identical or similar arrangement of speech elements). For example:

In the blue sea

The waves are splashing.

In the blue sky

The stars are shining.

Silence is a deliberate break in the statement, giving emotionality, excitement to speech and suggesting that the reader himself will guess what exactly was left unsaid. For example:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to annoy the geese ...

(The ellipsis means "better keep quiet")

Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipsis - omission, lack) is a stylistic figure that consists in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of the sentence (language unit) and gives speech dynamism, liveliness. For example: An order was given to him to the west, to her - to the other side; Tanya - 5, and Valya - 3; My mother is a doctor.

Epiphora (from the Greek epiphora - additive) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. For example:

This is the artist Altman,

A very old man.

In German it means Altman -

A very old man.

10. Visual means of language. Figures.

Figurative and expressive means of language- These are poetic turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense. At the heart of all tropes (with the exception of metonymy) is a comparison, a comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one with the help of the other.

Lexical means

Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning ( good - evil, powerful - powerless). The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak body, but strong spirit.

Contextual (or contextual) antonyms - these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - That's the main thing that distinguished this hero.

Hyperbole - figurative expression exaggerating any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow felled from the sky by the pood.

Litota - worst understatement : a man with a fingernail. Used to enhance the artistic impression.

Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - thanks to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problems: ... how can we make sure that our rights do not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)

Synonyms - These are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Love is love, friend is friend. Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express the idea, use. To enhance the feature.

Contextual (or contextual) synonyms − words that are synonymous only in this text: Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)

Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.

In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on: There were, are, and, I hope, always will be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would come in the world, it would have skewed...tipped over and sunk. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.

personification - one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person: Trees leaning towards me outstretched thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain slapped bare feet along the paths of the garden.

Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.

Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, create whole artistic pictures, give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions: like, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color: Like the night his eyes are black.

Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: Anxiety snake crept into our hearts. There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words: similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.

Phraseologisms - these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc.: people like my hero have divine spark. Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.

Epithet - a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition for another: chatterbox forty, fateful hours. looks eagerly; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense: half-asleep, tender, loving eyes.

Gradation - stylistic figure, which consists in the consequent injection or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).

Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

colloquial vocabulary gives additional. Expressive-emotional. Coloring (put, deny, reduce) can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.

Historicisms - words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts they denoted (chain mail, coachman)

Archaisms- words that are in modern. Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)

In the works of the artist Lit. They help to recreate the color of the era, are a means of speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic.

Loans. The words - to create humor, a nominative function, give national. Coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is described.

Stylistic figures - special turns of speech fixed by stylistics used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simplock, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, multi-union, chiasm, silence, etc.) . Sometimes stylistic figures include tropes, as well as unusual phrases, turns of speech that go beyond the language norm (for example, solecism).

11. Gender of indeclinable nouns

Gender of indeclinable common nouns
Average	Male	Female
Inanimate: mashed potatoes, coats, mufflers (but: female R. avenue, kohlrabi. salami: male R. coffee, tenge, penalties).	Animated, denoting persons husband. gender or animals: bourgeois, kangaroo, chimpanzee.	animated, denoting persons female miss, frau, mademoiselle.
Genus of indeclinable proper names
Determined by that common word, to which this name refers: Or(river) - f. R.: Ontario(lake) - cf. R.; Baku(city), Almaty(city) - m.
Genus indeclinable compound abbreviations words
Determined according to the type of main word in the phrase from which this compound word is formed: CIS- cf. R. ( Commonwealth independent states), MTS- well. R. (machine and tractor station), vocational school - cf. R. (vocational school).

Declension of names and surnames

bow down	Don't bow down
Male foreign names into consonants (Jack London, Jules Verne novels)	Male foreign names ending in a vowel (Paolo - about Paolo, Jose - to Jose)
The second part of foreign French double names (about Jean-Jacques Rousseau)
Russian and foreign surnames with a consonant sound, if they refer to a man ( Pavel Belous, for Tom Brown)	Russian and foreign surnames into a consonant if they refer to a woman (Natalia Belous, Maria Muller)
	Surnames of the group “Animals. Items» (To Andrey Chyzh, Elena Kvadrat)
Foreign surnames for an unstressed vowel -а/-я (poems by Petrarch, paintings by Goya)	Foreign surnames with stressed -a / -ya or another vowel (from Versace)

12. Adjective. Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Adjective name An adjective is an independent part of speech denoting a non-procedural feature of an object and answering the questions “what?”, “what?”, “what?”, “what?”, “whose?” etc. In Russian, adjectives change by gender, case and number, and can have a short form.

Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives

From most qualitative adjectives it is possible to form simple and complex forms of comparative and superlative degrees: dangerous– dangerous her – more (less ) dangerous; dangerous eysh ii - most dangerous - more dangerous all - the most dangerous, nai dangerous her neck.

A complex form of comparative degree (ex. more dangerous, more complex, higher, more beautiful) characterized as a book; simple form (more dangerous, harder, higher, prettier) stylistically neutral. However, with the attachment on- it takes on a colloquial coloring, cf.: taller, prettier, stronger etc.

Forms with suffix -her also characteristic of colloquial speech: fast her - faster, smarter her smarter, dangerous her- more dangerous. Forms prettier, sweeter, worse, livelier, louder and others like it are colloquial.

Combination of simple and complex shapes (more stronger, faster, less dangerous etc.) is a violation of the stylistic norm.

The comparative degree of adjectives is used in speech to compare the same quality in different subjects: There is no treasure more valuable than life. A drunk driver driving a car is no less dangerous than an armed bandit. As part of legal terms, it is used without comparison with another subject: less grievous bodily harm, more lenient punishment.

Superlative forms are characterized by a greater variety in education and use than comparative forms. The book character has a simple form (especially with the prefix nai – ), the complex form is used in all styles of speech. Wed: the most important – most important, brightest– the brightest, the strictest– the most strict. Note that simple superlatives are more expressive than complex ones. Compound forms made up of a simple comparative degree and a word all (most important, stricter than all, smarter than all etc.), have a colloquial connotation.

The combination of simple and complex forms contradicts the language norm: the most dangerous, the most difficult. Necessary: most dangerous or most dangerous, heaviest or the heaviest . Unfortunately, in recent years, in radio and television programs, one can increasingly hear inthe nearest, the shortest time; the most dangerous disease, the most important task, which violates the literary norm. Interestingly, in legal terms lower penalty simple forms of comparative and superlative degrees are combined.

Synonymous forms of short adjectives

AT in some cases it is difficult to use parallel forms of short adjectives. How, for example, is correct: responsible or responsible? Sharp or sharp?

Variants in the formation of a short form of masculine adjectives with suffixes -en and -enen usually observed with adjectives that have several consonants before the suffix –enn– , eg: lawsuit ssv enny, naturally stv ed, answered tstv enny, beznra vstv enny etc. The development of these forms is interesting. More ancient was the form with the suffix –en, she came from the Slavic language. Then there was a tendency to use forms with the suffix -enen, in recent decades, researchers have noted the predominance of forms with the suffix –en: yav en, nonsense en, properties en, ignorance en etc. It should be remembered that short forms with a suffix –en are the norm of literary speech, forms with a suffix -enen perceived as outdated. But you need to distinguish between short forms responsible (short participle: responsibility en for the investigation i.e. answers) and responsible (short adjective: om responsible, i.e. conscientious).

13. The name is numeral. Variants of combinations of numerals with nouns. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred.

Numeral- an independent part of speech that denotes the number, quantity and order of objects. Answers the questions: how much? which?

Numerals are divided into four lexical and grammatical categories: quantitative (two, fifty, two hundred, three hundred fifty one) and collective (both, two, five) - answer the question how many?, ordinal- answer the question which? (first, second, hundredth), fractional (one fifth, three whole, two sevenths). Cardinal numbers include definite-quantitative and indefinite-quantitative numerals. The former denote a certain number of units ( two, four, fifteen, a hundred and fifty, two hundred), the second - an indefinite number of units; these include the words few, quite a few, lot, Little, as well as pronominal numerals some, how many, any, some, so many.

The numeral both is used in combination with masculine and neuter nouns, as well as different genders: both brothers, both windows, both: brother and sister. The numeral both - only in combination with feminine nouns: both sisters, both doors. The numerals both, both are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form. Incorrect: at both gates, at both points. We can say: at both gates, at two points.

The word pair is used in the meaning of two only with paired objects and is colloquial: a pair of stockings, socks, a pair of eyes, hands. Incorrect: a pair of coats (an unpaired object), it is necessary: two coats. The word couple also has several meanings and is found in colloquial speech: a couple of trifles, a couple of days, a couple of words. May I ask you for a few words?

With a mixed number, the noun is controlled by a fraction, i.e. the noun is put in the genitive case in the singular: 8.7 seconds; 41.3 centners; 12.7 kilometers.

Compound numbers ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 44, 102, 104, etc.) do not combine with nouns that have only plural forms (day, scissors). The fact is that such words as a day are combined not with quantitative, but with collective numbers (two, three), which cannot be included in a compound number. Incorrect: The campaign lasted twenty-two days. The campaign lasted twenty-two days. Correct options: The campaign lasted for twenty-two days (the whole construction is put in the genus case). The campaign lasted twenty-two days (the option with a synonym is less preferable).

Compound numerals for two, three, four, combined with animate nouns in the accusative case, retain the form of the nominative case: accept twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers. This is a book edition. Colloquial option: accept twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers.

The numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative, are combined with the plural of the subsequent noun and have the forms of one and a half, one and a half hundred, respectively: one and a half dozen apples were bought - to one and a half dozen apples, one and a half meters - limit yourself to one and a half meters.

Declension of numerals "one and a half", "one and a half hundred"

numeral one and a half has two forms of the nominative case - one and a half(m. R. and S. R.) and one and a half(female): one and a half liters, one and a half logs, one and a half lives. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half, a hundred and fifty(number, amount of something equal to 150) is limited to only two case forms: one and a half, one and a half, a hundred and fifty for the nominative-accusative case and one and a half and one and a half hundred for all indirect cases without gender differences. Correctly: about a day and a half, a hundred and fifty kilometers, a not about a day and a half, a day and a half, a hundred and fifty kilometers.

14. Pronoun. Features of the declension of personal pronouns, combining them with prepositions.

Pronoun- an independent part of speech, which includes words that indicate objects, signs, etc., but do not name them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various members of a sentence.

Groups of pronouns according to correlation with other parts of speech:

Pronouns-nouns (I, who, nothing);

Pronouns-adjectives (none, own);

pronouns-numerals (several, not at all).

Ranks of pronouns:

personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;

reflexive (indicates the attitude to the acting person): oneself;

Possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): mine, yours, mine;

demonstrative (generally indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;

interrogative (transmit the question): who, which, whose;

Relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, what;

negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;

indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone, someone;

Definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of the subject): anyone, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can act as the same member of a sentence as the part of speech for which it is used:

subject: I came home very tired.

Definition: I want to buy some book.

· Addendum: I want to ask her about it.

circumstance: The boys went to her.

· Declension of pronouns- this is an inflection of pronouns according to cases, gender and numbers. Since in Russian pronouns are represented by groups of words with different grammatical features, the features of their declension are different.

Most pronouns are inflected. Indeclinable exception words include possessive pronouns him, her, them and uncertain someone, something. demonstrative pronoun such is and interrogative what change only in numbers and genders (these are the rules, this is the decision, what are the questions, what is the plan).

· Features of the declension of pronouns in Russian with examples are given in the tables.

Declension of personal pronouns in Russian

Singular	Plural
*1st person*	*2nd person*	*3rd person*	*1st person*	*2nd person*	*3rd person*
M. r.	S. r.	J. r.
I. p.	I	you	is he	it	she is	we	you	they
R. p.	me	you	his	her	us	you	them
D. p.	to me	you	him	her	us	to you	them
V. p.	me	you	his	her	us	you	them
T. p.	me (me)	by you (by you)	them	her (by her)	us	you	them
P. p.	about me	about you	about him	about her	about Us	about you	about them

In indirect cases, when used with prepositions, a prefix is added to personal pronouns of the 3rd person n-. Prepositions with pronouns are written APART!

Prepositions
At	at me	at you	at us
With	*with* him	*with* her	*with* us
Behind	*behind* me	*behind* them	*behind* us
To	to you	to him	to to you
Before	*before* us	*before* you	*before* them
Without	*without* you	*without* her	*without* you
For	*for* me	*for* him	*for* them

15. Verb. Features of the formation of some personal forms.

Verb- this is a word that denotes an action and answers the questions what it does, what it did, what it will do, etc. Verb is a part of speech denoting an action or state of an object. ... In the indicative mood Verbs change in time, that is, they can be present, future and past tense.

Formation of some personal forms

1. Verbs win, convince, find oneself, feel, kink and some others belonging to the so-called insufficient verbs (i.e., verbs limited in formation or use of personal forms) do not form the 1st person singular present-future tense. If it is necessary to use these verbs in the indicated form, a descriptive construction is used, for example: I will be able to win, I want (strive) to convince, I can find myself, I will try to feel, I will not be weird.

Due to phonetic coincidence with forms from other verbs, such forms as “buzhu” (from buzz, cf. wake up from wake up), "hold" (from dare, cf. I keep from Keep), "I grieve" (from pummel, cf. grieving from grieve) and some others.

Verbs kill, grumble form in the l-th person singular of the form I will kill, I will grumble.

2. Verbs recover, recover, recover form personal forms according to I conjugation: get well, -eesh, -eut; disgusted, -eesh, -eut; I resist, -eat, -eut. The forms of these verbs get well, -ish, -yat etc. (according to II conjugation) are colloquial.

3. Verb be based forms the indefinite form and the past tense ( was based) with suffix -and- (by II conjugation); the present tense and the participle are formed according to the I conjugation ( builds, -utsya, builds).

The same ratio of forms for the verb be ruffled (swayed; shaky - shaky, shaky, unshakable).

Verb to lay used only in the infinitive and in the past tense ( the fog was creeping); personal forms are formed according to I conjugation from an equal verb lay, For example: fog spreads, meadows spread over the boundless space.

Verb honor in the 3rd person plural has equal forms honor - honor; cf. from Gorky: Both of them honor her memory with love.. – They are honored, they are obeyed by thousands of people like him..

4. Some verbs form two forms of the present tense, such as the verb rinse: rinse(without alternating final consonants of the stem of the infinitive and the stem of the present) and rinses(with alternating consonants in the named forms).

First forms: rinses, splashing, dripping, cackling, swaying, purring, waving, prowling and others - are characteristic of the colloquial style. Second forms: rinses, splashes, drips, cackles, sways, purrs, waves, roars and others are inherent in the literary language. Wed in fiction:

On the river ... the women are sitting, rinse (L. Tolstoy). - In the bright blue skies rinse banners(Pavlenko) (the use of the word in a figurative sense in the second case does not affect its literary form);

flock of sea birds swaying on the waves(Goncharov). - Romantic ghosts of the past surround me, take possession of the soul, sway, cradle, caress ...(Korolenko);

Horse waving tail(Saltykov-Shchedrin). - There is a gray-haired sorceress, shaggy waving sleeve(Derzhavin).

Along with the stylistic, there is a semantic distinction between parallel forms.

The form splash - sprinkle has the meaning "sprinkle, sprinkle": splashing water, splashing clothes; the form splatter - splatter means "scatter drops, scatter drops, pour splashes": mud splashes, sparks splash, splashes with saliva.

The form move - moves means "to move by pushing or pulling something": moves furniture; the form move - moves along with the same value locomotive moves wagons) has a figurative meaning "to encourage, lead": they are driven by a sense of compassion. Wed also verb forms move: business is not moving - time is moving forward(the second version of the book); Tired horses move with difficulty. – Familiar figures move, ordinary episodes, everyday scenes(both examples from Korolenko). The train is moving means "set in motion"; the train is moving means "in motion".

The form drip - dripping has the meaning "fall in drops, pour drop by drop": sweat drips from the forehead, the nurse drips medicine into a glass; book version: rain drops; the form drip - caplet means "to flow, to pass a liquid": caplet roof.

The form throw - throws has the meaning "to sew, stitch with stitches, sheathe a loop": throws a jacket, throws a seam. The form throw– mosque means "throw, scatter, scatter": mosquethunder and lightning, throws angry eyes; also: caviar; in the same sense of "throw" in sports use the form throws: throws hammer, discus, spear etc.

In common speech and in dialects there are forms clicks(instead of calls- from click), meows(from meow; literary form meows- from mew).

Forms are spacious squeal, sting(instead of sprinkles, pinches- from sprinkle, pinch).

5. Verbs to milk, to cut, to drink, to conceal in the literary language form a form of the imperative mood on -and : ... Anxious swear drink!(Block).

Some prefixed verbs you- form equal forms of the imperative mood: put out - put out, put out - put out, straighten out - straighten out, pour out - pour out; the second options in each pair have a book character.

Verbs that have before -it infinitive there is a combination st or a confluence of two consonants, the first of which is a smooth consonant R , also form equivalent forms: clean - clean, do not spoil - do not spoil, do not writhe - do not wrinkle, do not wrinkle - do not wrinkle. However, in the plural, only forms on -ite : clean, do not spoil.

Forms notify - notify, feast - feast, cork - cork, uncork - uncork are also equal. However, the forms take a look, get out, don't steal, lay down(in phraseological combination take it out and put it down) are colloquial.

The forms have a vernacular character go(instead of go),clip(instead of hug); also drive(instead of go)

View form options

1. Forms manageconfess, preach etc. are obsolete. Wed modern profess, profess, preach.

Use of the form organize(as well as organize in the meaning of the imperfect aspect) is justified by the fact that in the past tense the verb organize only the perfect form matters (cf.: he organized a tourist song festival), therefore, to express the value of the imperfect form in the past tense, the form organized(cf.: annuallyhe organized tourism song festivals). For the same reason, the correct form attacked(the form attacked has the meaning of the perfect form).

2. Type shape options to condition - to condition associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the imperfect form through suffixes -yva-, -iva- : in some cases there is an alternation of vowels oh-ah in the root, and in others the root vowel about saved:

1) verbs requiring the specified alternation: to procure - to procure, to swamp - to swamp, to freeze - to freeze, to build up - to build up, to affect - to affect, to process - to process, to ennoble - to ennoble, to master - to master, to challenge - to challenge, to honor - to honor, to assimilate - to assimilate and etc.;

2) verbs that preserve the root about : slam - slam, worry - worry, defame - defame, delay - delay, time - time, legitimize - legitimize, empower - empower etc. This also includes verbs in which about refers to the suffix -ov- , since the alternation of letters in the root, and not in the suffix, is associated with the formation of species, for example: to rob - to rob, to commemorate - to commemorate, to charm - to enchant, to equip - to equip;

3) verbs that allow both forms (book form - with about , colloquial - with a ): to suspect - to suspect, to condition - to condition, to concentrate - to concentrate and some others;

4) verbs forming imperfective forms with suffixes -yva-, -iva- (colloquial form) and with suffixes -and I- (book form): prepare - prepare, litter - clog, accumulate - accumulate, empty - empty, cheer - cheer up, prepare - prepare, replace - replace, try on - try on, adapt - adapt, catch a cold - catch a cold, cut - cut and etc.;

5) verbs forming an imperfect form with a suffix -I- (book form): improve - improve, acquaint - acquaint, formalize - formalize, legitimize - legitimize(also legitimize, see above), speed up - speed up and etc.

Non-prefixed forms of an imperfect form are also possible, acting in tandem with prefix formations of a perfect form, for example: disturb - disturb, disgrace - disgrace, discredit - discredit etc. The use of these forms is more preferable than the forms with the suffix -willow- (to disgrace, to denigrate).

3. Among verbs like (with suffix -izova- and suffix -izirova- ) can be divided into three groups:

a) verbs with a suffix -izova- :

demoralize, mobilize, neutralize, normalize, paralyze, realize, stylize, centralize, electrify;

b) verbs with a suffix -izirova- :

agonize, activate, militarize, hospitalize, democratize, idealize, ironize, canonize, latinize, monopolize, moralize, municipalize, polemize, signalize, symbolize, utilize, vernalize;

c) verbs that have both options:

to vulcanize - to vulcanize

to harmonize - to harmonize

to colonize - to colonize

crystallize - crystallize

legalize - legalize

localize - localize

modernize - modernize

pasteurize - pasteurize

to popularize - to popularize

rationalize - rationalize

secularize - secularize

stabilize - stabilize

to standardize - to standardize

terrorize - terrorize and some others.

In book and written speech, the second option is more common.

4. The colloquial shade is inherent in the second option in pairs:

to scoff - to scoff; For example: Grandfather ... did not disdain to make money on the side when he went to a cab(Gladkov);

to see - see; For example: ... Wild Master I am in it[in the room] did not see(Turgenev);

to smoke - to smoke(meaning "to emit soot"); For example: On thelooking at you, the flies are dying and the lamps are starting to smoke(Chekhov);

climb - climb; For example: They climbed trees, destroyed bird nests(Saltykov-Shchedrin);

measure - measure; For example: Cut all lines...(Bitter);

torment - torment; For example: Why are you torturing me like this?(Dostoevsky);

raise - raise; For example: Gypsies... raised them[horses] legs and tails, screaming, cursing...(Turgenev);

whistle - whistle; For example: The boy whistled piercingly...(Kuprin); in the meaning of "to make a whistle by means of a mechanical device" only the verb is used whistle;

hear - hear; For example: - Have you heard, sir, of your misfortune? the coachman asked(Garin-Mikhailovsky).

5. In some cases, both forms are acceptable, for example: Busthis line runs every five minutes. – A bus runs along this line every five minutes.. The difference between both options is as follows: walks has the meaning "back and forth", i.e. indicates movement not in one direction, but goes means "only there", i.e. indicates movement in one direction.

6. The names of means of land mechanical and air transport are usually combined with the verb to go, for example: The bus is on the new track; The train is moving at a speed of 60 kilometers per hour; The tram goes to the park; Planes are coming(also are flying) in sequence. Word motorbike combined with the verb drive, For example: The motorcycle was heading straight for us..

The names of vehicles on water are combined as with a verb go, and with the verb swim, For example: Loaded barges go (float) down the river; A boat was sailing near the shore; Torpedo boats go in a wake column; Ships are sailing in the sea.

7. In pairs gas - went out, mok - got wet, dry - dried etc. in the modern language, the first options are more often used (without the suffix -well- ). Past masculine forms of verbs with suffix -well- equal: sluggish - withered, rejected - rejected, resorted - resorted to, terminated - terminated, refuted - refuted and etc.

Returnable and non-returnable forms

1. Type options in the distance the sail is whitening - in the distance the sail is whitening(with the reflexive and irrevocable forms of the verb having the same meaning “to be visible in one's own color, to stand out with it”) differ in that in the reflexive verb the indicated feature is revealed less clearly and less steadfastly. Wed also: in the distance the forest turns black - in the distance the forest turns black, something turns blue in the fog - something turns blue in the fog, honey turns yellow in a cup - honey turns yellow in a cup etc. If there is a word in the sentence indicating the intensity of the manifestation of the feature, the irrevocable form is preferable, for example: bright green young grass.

In the meaning of “become white (green, red, black, etc.)”, only the irrevocable form is used, for example: strawberriesturns red in the sun, silver turns black with time, fox fur turns yellow very quickly.

2. In pairs to threaten - to threaten, to knock - to knock etc., reflexive verbs have a meaning of greater intensity of action, interest in its result; compare: he knocked on the door - he knocked on the door to be opened. Stylistically, these forms differ in that the forms on - are peculiar colloquial colloquial style, for example: One woman from the threshold of her hut threatened me with a grip(Turgenev).

3. In pairs circle - circle, splash - splash, decide - decide etc. the first (irreversible) forms are characterized as literary, the second - as colloquial; compare: Dasha decided to start an independent life as soon as possible(A. N. Tolstoy). - Relegated to the degree of a cook, Glafira decided to spend her life in the kitchen.(Ch. Uspensky).

4. When using verbs in -sya one should take into account the possibility that they have two meanings - passive and reflexive, which can give rise to ambiguity, for example: Foreign citizens who got lost in our city gather here(they come or collect them?). In such cases, an edit corresponding to the desired meaning is necessary; compare: a) Foreigners come here...; b) Foreign citizens are gathered here ...

The word is the unit of the normative text. It plays a key role in the normative text, if only because it is impossible to compose sentences that carry a semantic load without words.

In principle, the word expresses some concept that reveals itself outside with the help of the term. It turns out that the word is both a concept and a term.

There are the following requirements for terms regarding their use in normative documents: - clarity; -- uniqueness; -- Approbation; - self-explaining; - profitability; -- other. However, in practice this rule is not always clearly followed. Consider deviations that are not rare for the texts of normative acts:

1) polysemy - polysemy of a word.

For example, the word "organ" has many meanings, but in law it is used to refer to structures exercising state power. In this regard, the legislator is obliged to ensure that the term is used unambiguously in the normative act. Many means can be used here: clarification, concretization, definition, etc.;

2) synonymy - interchangeability of words. Synonyms in a normative act can play a positive role: they help to clarify, detail the will of the legislator. In addition, synonyms enrich the language of the text, which is also important.

However, when using synonyms, you must remember: - you can not use quasi-synonyms, that is, words that are not semantic related; - inaccurate or shading synonyms should not be allowed; - unacceptable synonymous excess;

3) antinomy. We are talking about the use of mutually exclusive terms. In normative texts, this is used quite often (“plaintiff” - “respondent”, “right” - “duty”, etc.).

Here you should also: - observe symmetry in opposition; - do not oppose polysemantic words; - do not oppose words that are close in meaning.

A lot of terms are used in law-making work.

Usually they are classified by type: - well-known terms that reflect the processes taking place in society ("owners of vehicles", "hired workers", "employer", "family", etc.); -- special concepts that came from various areas of public life ("natural-anthropogenic object", "natural ecological system", "informatization", "information processes", etc.); -- specific legal concepts ("sanity", "guilt", "plaintiff", "citizen", "prejudice", etc.).

These are the standard words that make up the normative text. However, there are non-standard lexical groups, the use of which in rule-making practice causes the greatest difficulties: - archaisms - names of objects, phenomena, for some reason crowded out by other words ("juror", "bailiff", "burden of proof", etc.) .

The following rule applies here: they should not be artificially forced out, since law is an element of culture, which is inherent in the continuity of its own traditions; - historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena (for example, "gendarme"). They reflect the process of return of these phenomena.

They should be taken for granted (if the phenomenon they reflect has been returned) and not try to use synonyms from modern life: they reflect historical facts; - dialectisms (provincialisms) - words with a limited scope of use, characteristic, as a rule, of any dialect (Northern Russian, Central Russian, South Russian). Since they are synonymous, they should not be relied upon as this does not contribute to the coherence of the legal system; - technicalisms - highly specialized names used in a particular activity ("developer", "endocarditis", etc.).

Their use should be limited until they become commonplace;

- foreign words - words borrowed from other languages used in the Russian lexicon. The process of borrowing words has recently been going on at a faster rate than before. The processes of globalization that are gaining momentum, which cannot be stopped, are having an effect. That is why it is important to observe the following rules: do not abuse foreign vocabulary; apply foreign words adapted to Russian vocabulary; do not use them as synonyms for Russian words; in the normative text to give their translations or clarifications; monitor their compatibility with the words used in the text;
- jargon - words that reflect the specifics of people united by a common interest (for example, "material evidence", "passenger flow"), in principle, their use is undesirable, since they give the normative document a touch of vernacular. Legal language is a kind of literary language. But even in cases where the slang word adapts and begins to acquire a commonly used character, there is nothing reprehensible in its use (for example, “moonshine”, “brothel”, “pimping”, “revenue”).

Phrases imply a stable semantic connection between words. Compatibility of words is an advantage of a normative text, not a disadvantage. We can talk not only about labor productivity, but also about language productivity. Phrases (ready-made units of text) are one of the ways to increase it. Phrases are of the following types:

- phraseological units, i.e., stable phrases. They are divided into general, non-legal and auxiliary (for example, registration number), as well as proper legal (necessary defense, detention, bringing to trial, appeal to the court);
- free phrases. They are more flexible, their parts can be replaced (for example, "funds" - "monetary resources", "final provisions" - "final section", "nominate for deputies" - "run for deputies"). Only at first glance it seems that everything is simple: substitute ready-made phrases instead of words. However, in legal texts, exact and unambiguous reproduction of phrases is necessary. Therefore, phrases must be used in accordance with the following rules:
-- use only well-known phrases, otherwise the availability of the regulatory text will be in question;
- avoid ambiguous phrases;
- preserve figurativeness, otherwise their use loses its meaning;
- do not combine phraseological units in one sentence;
- explain them if necessary.

What is vocabulary in Russian examples. Lexical meaning of the word

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Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

Consider the norms of differential features characteristic of most lexical units:

- Every word has a phonetic (in oral form) and graphic (in writing) design

- Words characterize the constancy of sound and meaning. No one has the right to change the phonetic shell of a word and give it an unusual meaning, because the form and content of the word are fixed in the language.

- Words (unlike phrases) are impenetrable: any word acts as an integral unit, inside which it is impossible to insert another word, especially several words. Exceptions are negative pronouns, which can be separated by prepositions (no one, no one, no one)

- Words have only one main stress, and some may be unstressed (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc.). However, there are no words that would have two main stresses. The non-double stress of a word distinguishes it from a stable (phraseological) combination that has a holistic meaning.

- Integrity and uniformity distinguish words from phrases. Compound words like fresh frozen, radio show, flirtatious grammatical feature expresses only one ending.

- All words characterize reproducibility: we do not construct them anew each time, but reproduce them in speech in the form in which they are known to all native speakers. This distinguishes words from phrases at the moment of utterance.

- Words are distinguished by their predominant use in conjunction with other words: in the process of communication, we build phrases from words, and from them - sentences

- One of the signs of the norm of the word is isolation. Words can also be perceived outside the speech stream, in isolation, retaining their inherent meaning.

Lexical meaning word is called the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit fixed in the minds of speakers with one or another phenomenon of reality. Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard, touched, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names.

There are proper names that name single concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Chaliapin), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America) By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​objects that are one of a kind.

personal names of people (Alexander, Vladimir), surnames (Petrov, Ivanov, Sidorov), on the contrary, do not give rise in our minds to a certain idea of ​​a particular person.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law, son) according to various signs of professions, degrees of kinship make it possible to form some small idea about these people.

grammatical the meaning of a word is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular time, person, number. Kind.

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An excerpt characterizing the Vocabulary of the Russian language

Vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language

1. Speech qualities of a verbal expression

2. Literary form of the Russian language. Varieties.

3. The colloquial form of the Russian language. Varieties.

4. Vocabulary. Polysemantic words, synonyms, ononyms, antonyms, paronyms.

5. Passive and active composition of the language: historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

6. Origin of Russian vocabulary. Exoticisms. Barbarisms.

7. Phraseological units and winged words.

8. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Dictionary types.

9. Expressive means of language. Trails.

10. Visual means of language. Figures.

11. Gender of indeclinable nouns

12. Adjective. Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives.

13. The name is numeral. Variants of combinations of numerals with nouns. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred.

14. Pronoun. Features of the declension of personal pronouns, combining them with prepositions.

15. Verb. Features of the formation of some personal forms.

There are proper names that name single concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Chaliapin), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America) By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of objects that are one of a kind.

personal names of people (Alexander, Vladimir), surnames (Petrov, Ivanov, Sidorov), on the contrary, do not give rise in our minds to a certain idea of a particular person.