What a scout needs to know. What instructions should the Russian intelligence officer follow in case of failure

The ancient Hellenes did not physically differ from modern ones.

BUT anthropological data

Early anthropologists generally believed that the Greeks were predominantly of the Mediterranean race. Such views, for example, were held by Sergi and Ripley.

Buxton, in one of his works, shares the opinion of his predecessors, although he notes that the brachycephalic element was already present among the Greeks at an early stage, and that Alpine-Mediterranean combinations were common among the Greeks at an early stage.

Alexander the Great

The American anthropologist Kuhn agrees that the Greeks are an Alpine-Mediterranean combination with a small Nordic component, being "remarkably similar" to their ancient ancestors.

The most comprehensive study of Greek remains, from the Neolithic to the present, was carried out by the American anthropologist Lawrence Engel, who established a fact indicating that in the early stages, racial variability in Greece was 7% above average, indicating that the anthropological composition of the Greeks was initially diverse within the Caucasoid race.

Angel noted that from antiquity "racial continuity in Greece is striking."

Buxton, who had previously studied Greek skeletal material and made anthropometric measurements of modern Greeks, especially in Cyprus, finds that modern Greeks “have physical characteristics not essentially different from those of the past [Ancient Greeks].”

And this is what the famous ancient Greek heroes look like, which we are used to seeing only in the form of statues ..

Amazon
Aphrodite
Apollo
Athena
Another version of Athena
Nika
Venus de Milo

Origin of the Greek people

Where did he come from, this people, who neither on the Mycenaean tablets nor in the Homeric poems called themselves “Greeks”, because not he himself, but the Italians, having come into conflict with the inhabitants of Epirus, extended the nickname of a little-known tribe to the entire Greek archipelago, in the 4th century BC e. living in the vicinity of Dodona. The author of the Catalog of Ships (Iliad, II, 530) uses the term panhellenes to refer to all the inhabitants of Hellas, that is, a small region south of Thessaly, as well as the valley of Sperhei. Most often, the soldiers gathered near Troy are called Achaeans ( akhaios), Argives ( argeios) or Danes ( danaoi), this is clearly not a self-name. Historians point to the presence of Achaean tribes in half a dozen regions of Greece - from Thessaly to Crete. The name Argos ("White City") was borne by eight cities or settlements from the middle basin of Heliakmon (Vistritsa) and northern Thessaly to the island of Nisyros. The name of the Danaans is associated not only with the subjects of the mythical king Danae from Argolis, the father of Danaides, but also with the name of a large river in Thessaly - Apidanos. So, most likely, the four names by which the most ancient written sources known to us designate the Greeks - Hellenes, Achaeans, Argives, Danaans - belonged to the tribes that inhabited the rich Thessalian plain. But where did they come from?

There are three options for resolving this issue. The first of them, literary, is no worse and no better than the other two. It consists in taking into account the opinion of Greek historians, because who, if not them, knows the origin of their own ancestors. The ancients considered Hellenes, the hero-eponym of their race, the son of the northerner Prometheus, or Deucalion ("White") and Pyrrha ("Red"). The last ones were washed up on the mountains of Thessaly after the Great Flood. Therefore, they came from somewhere north of Mount Olympus and, according to tradition, this was around 1600 BC. e., Hellen married the nymph Orsea, thereby giving life to the four ancestors of the Hellenic tribes.

The linguistic solution was prompted by a search among the most ancient toponyms of peninsular Greece and Crete for a series of names that undoubtedly preceded the Greek ones, and an attempt to find correspondences for them in Europe and Asia. Meanwhile, among the pre-Hellenic proper names, there are two types: those that cannot be explained according to the laws of the Indo-European languages, such as the names of certain mountains (Mala, Parna, Pindus) and rivers (Arna, Tavros), and others that are ubiquitous on the banks of Aegean, with roots and suffixes comparable to those found in the Indo-European languages, although their phonetics violates the laws of Greek: say, Corinth and Kurivanda, Pedas and Pedassa, Pergamon and Larissa. As a result, the conclusion suggests itself that before the appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly, at least two different peoples lived on the Greek archipelago: the first was pre-Indo-European, and the second was formed from various Indo-European elements, and its speakers used words ending in - eus, - tpa, - nthos, - ssos-ssa etc. Such words are widely represented on our maps, from the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara to Crete, including in Thrace, Eastern Greece and the Peloponnese.

As for the proto-Hellenic region proper, linguists who study the names of rivers and mountains locate it in Pieria, north of Epirus, that is, approximately on the territory of present-day northwestern Greece: here all toponyms are of ancient Greek origin. Scientists conclude that the ancestors of the mythical Hellenes roamed between the Grammos massif, the copper mines near Grevena and the Ion River basin. On their migrations to the south-east, driving or driven by herds, hungry and too numerous to feed themselves, they encountered a mixed population, the bearer of a higher culture than their own, and called them Pelasgians. It has been noted that during the Trojan War, only the eastern parts of Greece, the Balkan Peninsula and the adjacent islands were considered as Hellenic, as if the people of Hellenic were dissolved among the shepherds of Pindus and Parnassus and the Aegean sailors. In all likelihood, the name "Achaeans", akhaios, - Pelasgic, that is, of pre-Hellenic origin, and means warrior men, "comrades."

However, the archeological approach to solving this issue is now in vogue. After the excavations of Orchomena, the Minoan capital of Boeotia, the discovery of many cities of Argolis, including Lerna, and most importantly, after a comparative study of burial mounds in southern Russia, called mounds, and similar burial grounds in the Mediterranean, from Albania to Asia Minor, most archaeologists admit the possibility of an invasion of the Balkans by several successive waves of Indo-European aliens from the beginning of the Bronze Age, that is, from about 2500 BC. e. You should not think that they fell in droves: probably there were no more than a few tens of thousands of them, roaming with their herds in search of pastures, living space and a place in the sun. Along the way, they caused a lot of disasters, but they brought something new with them both to the land of Greece itself and to the region of Troy. The settlements of the more ancient inhabitants of those places probably burned to the ground more than once between 2500 and 1900 BC. e .: conflagrations are characteristic of Troy, the towns of Thessaly, Etresi and Lerna, and in the years 2300-2200 the same fate befell many settlements on the Cretan shores.

The steppes brought with them the features of a completely different civilization: burials under mounds, original ceramics with wicker ornaments, very smooth and imitating metal, the ability to combine copper with many other elements - arsenic, zinc, lead, silver, tin - to make battle axes, daggers and swords that became longer and stronger, spears with tips and peculiar armor that covered the whole body, as well as the feudal system of dividing society into three or four classes, and among the latter - a caste of professional warriors capable of harnessing a horse to a war chariot.

The most ancient remains of a domesticated horse found in Macedonia date back to the Early Bronze Age. At the end of the 17th century BC. e. noble conquering warriors demanded that they be buried in Greece under huge barrows along with horses - this fact is proved by excavations in Marathon. It is not difficult to imagine what horror seized the peaceful farmers and shepherds who lived on the plains of Thessaly, Boeotia and Attica, at the sight of war chariots, these terrible war machines, on which archers and spearmen raced without a miss. The natives, or rather, those who had come here before - the Pelasgians, Lelegs, Lapiths or Aons - had only to flee or submit.

And archaeologists also confirm what has been dimly seen both from literary analysis and from the comparative study of place names: from 1600 to 1200, the Mycenaean world experienced a phase of impressive economic and demographic expansion. New settlements appeared everywhere and cities were built. Finally, the instability of the early and middle Bronze Ages is opposed by the constancy of the customs of the Late Bronze Age. Neither in Marathon, nor in Arkhani in Crete (ancient Akanans) during the 16th-13th centuries, no changes were observed in the funeral rites. All these considerations come down to a few dates and symbolic facts:

1600–1500: Construction of a circle of royal tombs at Mycenae AT, then circle A Appearance of similar burials from Lefkada to Marathon.

1500-1400: Laying of the most ancient palaces in Mycenae, Tiryns and Thebes. The appearance of royal domed tombs, tholoses.

1400–1300: Construction of Cyclopean fortifications and new palaces in twenty cities of Greece and on the coasts of Asia.

1300–1200: Build-up and improvement of means of defense. Massive colonization of islands and outlying coasts.

It should not be imagined that the phenomenon of invasions and the merger of invaders with local residents is characteristic exclusively of Greece, and most importantly, that all this ceased in 1200 BC. e. Since that time, every century has witnessed how in the Balkans, not afraid of either the Tempe Gorge or Thermopylae, hordes of conquerors from the farthest corners of Europe march, and sometimes settle on the peninsula. Dorians, Thracians, Macedonians, Celts, Goths, Slavs, Crusaders, Albanians, peoples of the Caucasus and so on - all of them, who earlier, who later, set foot on the land of Greece. But what is most striking in the legendary campaign of the Achaeans to the shores of Asia, or rather, to Troy, is that they met there, according to ancient sources, languages, customs and religions similar to their own, as if they were brothers, or at least relatives of Priam and his vassals. For 100 years, archaeologists have noted that the sixth layer of the Trojan ruins contains the same "Minoan" ceramics - gray, then red and cream, the same types of vessels, buildings, fortifications as the Greek cities contemporary to this layer (c. 1900-1360 .). On the other hand, the Mycenaean pottery found in Troy VII A testifies to the close ties between this city and the Achaean world. And you begin to seriously wonder if Troad was not filled with the same nomadic tribes as the Greek peninsula at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and if the Achaeans, who became the masters of Greece 500 years later, tried to subjugate the Asian "Minoans" how did they conquer the "Minoans" of Europe?

Anything, of course, happens in the world, but it is hardly worth considering the abduction of the Greek woman Helen from Sparta by the Trojan Paris-Alexander as an indisputable historical fact. It might have been more of a provocation. casus belli(6) capable of justifying a long-planned military campaign. In the end, they did not hesitate, but in 1645 A.D. e. the Turks of Istanbul to throw 400 warships to Crete and capture it, allegedly in retaliation for the hijacking of a galley with a princess from the Seraglio by Maltese corsairs? This is indeed a historical fact, and people have often unleashed wars under much less serious pretexts.

From the book Myths and Legends of China author Werner Edward

From the book Rhythms of Eurasia: Epochs and Civilizations author Gumilyov Lev Nikolaevich

The origin of the Turkut people The Turkic-speaking peoples in the western part of Central Asia are known in the deepest antiquity, starting from the 3rd century BC. BC, but the term "Turk" did not exist then. At the dawn of history (3rd century BC) they were called "Xiongnu", later, in the 4th - 5th centuries,

From the book Sexual Life in Ancient Greece author Licht Hans

6. An Analysis of the Greek Ideal of Boys After presenting the Greek ideal of beauty as expressed in boyish traits, and after attempting to make it easier for the modern reader to understand, we should take a closer look at the details of the Hellenic ideal.

From the book Judgment of Time. Issues #35-46 author Mlechin Leonid Mikhailovich

42. Fidel Castro: policy against the people or for the benefit of the people? Part 1Svanidze: Hello! In Russia, as you know, the past is unpredictable. Each time perceives the past in its own way. On the air "Court of Time". Our focus is on historical events, characters,

From the book Ancient Greece author Lyapustin Boris Sergeevich

THE BIRTH OF THE GREEK POLIS The archaic era was a unique period in ancient Greek history. In just three centuries, completely new, never-before-existing types of civilization, society and statehood appeared in Hellas. Their starting point

From the book Ancient Greece author Lyapustin Boris Sergeevich

THE CRISIS OF THE CLASSICAL GREEK POLIS The crisis of the classical polis that began after the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) is an extremely complex and ambiguous phenomenon. He determined the entire development of Greek society in this century. It is no coincidence that in

From the book History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages author Gregorovius Ferdinand

5. Ignorance of Rome. - liber pontificalis Anastasia. - Origin and character of this book. - Translations of Anastasius from Greek. - Life of Gregory the Great, written by John the Deacon If Anonymous of Salerno visited Rome under Nicholas I, he, of course, would never have been able to find here

From the book The Conquest of America by Ermak-Cortes and the rebellion of the Reformation through the eyes of the "ancient" Greeks author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

5. The origin of Yermak and the origin of Cortes In the previous chapter, we have already reported that, according to Romanov historians, information about Yermak's past is extremely scarce. According to legend, Yermak's grandfather was a townsman of the city of Suzdal. His famous grandson was born somewhere in

From the book 100 great secrets of archeology author Volkov Alexander Viktorovich

From the book Three Disappeared Peoples author Gumilyov Lev Nikolaevich

The origin of the Turkut people The Turkic-speaking peoples in the western part of Central Asia are known in the deepest antiquity, starting from the 3rd century BC. BC, but the term "Turk" did not exist then. At the dawn of history (3rd century BC), they were called "Xiongnu", later, in the 4th-5th centuries -

From the book Diplomacy of Svyatoslav author Sakharov Andrey Nikolaevich

Once again about the "Note of the Greek toparch" In connection with the formulation of the question of the situation in the Northern Black Sea region, in our opinion, it is advisable to return once again to the repeatedly studied so-called "Note of the Greek Toparch". This "Note", as shown by its first

From the book of Jesus. The Mystery of the Birth of the Son of Man [compilation] by Conner Jacob

The Emergence of Greek Influence The beginning of Greek influence in this region dates back to 332 BC, when the soldiers of Alexander the Great discovered excellent but sparsely populated lands on the east side of the Jordan. They immediately occupied them, but they still had to

From the book Mysteries of the Roman genealogy of the Rurikovich author Seryakov Mikhail Leonidovich

Chapter 12. THE ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF RUSSIA AND THE ORIGINAL HOMELAND OF OUR PEOPLE Along with the Norman hypothesis, there were several versions about the Slavic origin of the name Rus. Since not far from Kyiv, in the Middle Dnieper, there is the river Ros, the temptation was great

From the book 50 great dates in world history author Shuler Jules

The Origin of the People of Israel The Jewish people belong to the numerous Semitic-speaking peoples of the Middle East. Leaving Lower Mesopotamia (the founding ancestor Abraham allegedly came from the upper city of Ur), he penetrated with his herds into Palestine and received the name

From the book History of the Ros people [From the Aryans to the Varangians] the author Akashev Yuri

§ 2. The origin of the name of the Russian people In the problem of the origin of the Russian people, one of the main ones is the question of the origin of its name. The answer to some other important questions also depends on the solution of this issue: about the antiquity of this people, about its ethnic

From the book General History [Civilization. Modern concepts. Facts, events] author Dmitrieva Olga Vladimirovna

Sparta as a type of Greek polis Along with Athens, ancient Sparta was one of the largest polises of Greece in archaic and classical times. Just as in Athens, in Sparta there is an ancient form of property as the collective property of fellow citizens -