What does a systematic approach to society mean. System approach in sociology

One of the contradictions that arouse the constant interest of sociologists is the contradiction between a person's desire to be independent, autonomous in relation to society, and the inability and impossibility to live outside society. The desire of a person to stand out, to acquire unique qualities is natural. At the same time, this cannot be done outside of society. The situation of loneliness for a person is no less terrible than the loss of one's personality.

The question why people live together is the first knot of the problem. The second question follows from the first: if people want to live together, what supports their life together, is the basis for integration? Various sociological concepts offer their own approach to understanding the identified problems and issues. However, in any case, this requires consideration of society as a whole, which corresponds to a systematic approach. It allows you to look at society from the outside, from external positions and present it as a whole.

Before turning to various options for a systemic vision of social life, let us consider the concept and types of social systems, as well as the basic principles of system analysis.

The concept of a system was carried over from the natural sciences. Etymologically, it means "whole", "assembly". The first interpretation of the concept is connected with simple, summative systems. Society is defined as the sum of interrelated and interacting elements, the relationship between which can change, move into a new quality.

The second approach involves considering the system not just as a sum of interrelated and interacting elements, but also as a holistic formation that has special qualities that arise when elements are combined. These new qualities, which are not inherent in the elements separately, are called emergent. Sometimes this quality of the system is called a synergistic effect. Holistic or holistic systems fall under this definition.

Man is a complex biological system consisting of interconnected and interacting cells and organs. The systemic quality of a person is life. Society is like a person. The systemic quality of society is social life.

Systems can be considered in the unity of their variability and stability, in statics and dynamics. The nature of the relationship between variability and stability determines the type of system. On this basis, systems are divided into stable (relatively stable) and dynamic (variability dominates in them).

In order to analyze the systemic quality of a society, to determine the type of system, it is necessary to observe the following principles of system analysis:

Take into account the integrity of the system, i.e., the irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its elements.

Describe structurality, i.e., describe the system through connections, interactions, the mutual ordering of its elements.

Consider the interdependence of the system and the external environment (society is "embedded" in a large-scale metasystem, is influenced by it).

Take into account the hierarchy, which means the relationship of subordination between the elements of the system.

Functionality is the requirement to identify the functions of the system as a whole and its individual elements.

The principle of spatio-temporal existence of the system. All connections, both internal and external, all elements exist in certain space-time relations that affect their existence, manifestation and functioning.

The principle of historicity and cyclicity of the existence and development of the system. This principle requires taking into account the development trends of the system, anticipating ups and downs in this development.

The principle of separation of system-forming and system-destroying factors, their fluctuations (mutual transitions and interactions). Both factors objectively exist in the functioning and development of any system.

The principle of communication. It lies in the fact that the elements of the system can constitute integrity only due to social-informational connections.

Based on these universal principles of system analysis, we single out the elements of social life, identify a variety of connections, relationships between them, determine whether the system is summative or holistic. If the system is integral, then we determine its system quality and type.

The system approach acts as a general scientific one. The principles of system analysis were implemented in various sociological concepts that propose to single out various elements of social life, to build in different ways, to emphasize certain determinants, factors of society's stability.

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .3.

2. Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……

3. Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……….

4. Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……….

5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .

6. References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Introduction.

The relevance of the topic of the abstract.

The systems approach has long been used in various fields of knowledge with greater or lesser degrees of success, and the idea of society as a system has entered dictionaries and textbooks and, it would seem, has left the list of topical problems of scientific research. The statement of the heuristic significance of the systems approach and the need to use it has become a kind of cliché that you can’t argue with, but often in socio-philosophical studies its use is limited to a simple mention of it in the section devoted to the presentation of the methodology. This is due to a misunderstanding of the essence of the system approach, reducing the meaning of the concept of "system" to a simple translation of the ancient Greek "σύστημα" - "a whole made up of parts". Proceeding from such an interpretation of "systematicity", it is enough to single out the constituent parts in the object under study - and the systematic approach is applied. Such a primitivization of the systemic approach, which is also inherent in a number of dissertations on social philosophy, makes us once again turn to the analysis of its specifics and the identification of the main characteristics of society as a self-developing system.

At present, the following areas of systems research have been clearly formed: general systems theory, systems approach and systems analysis.

General systems theory is a scientific and methodological concept of studying objects that are systems. It is closely related to the systematic approach and is a specification of its principles and methods.

The systems approach covers the development of a specialized methodology for the study of systems. Its task is to express the principles and concepts of systematic research at the level of a unified general scientific methodology.

System analysis is a scientific method of cognition, which is a sequence of actions to establish structural relationships between variables or elements of the system under study. Relies on a set of general scientific, experimental, natural science, statistical, mathematical methods

The evolution of scientific ideas and the formation of directions in the field of theory and practice of a systematic approach is largely determined by the developments of scientists: Afanasyev V.G., Gvishiani D.M., Golubkova E.P., Valueva S.A., Davydov A.A., Dobkina V.M., Evenenko L.I., Zharikova O.N., Kolesnikova L.A., Milner B.Z., Peregudova F.I., Prigogine A.I., Raizberg B.A., Rapoport B. S, Spitsnadelya V.N., Tambovtseva V.L., Tarasenko F.P. and etc.

A significant contribution to the work on the systematic approach was made by foreign scientists such as Ackoff R., Berman R., Beer S, Wissema X., Drucker P., Klir D., Kunz G., Khol J., Leshchinin M., Mesarovich M. .,

Luman N., Ouchi W., Parsons T., Stefanov N., Hoyer W., Schroeder G.A., Evans D.R., Eklund K., Erhard L., Young S. and others.

The main purpose of my essay is to study the essence of a systematic approach.

Achieving this goal predetermines the formulation and solution of the following tasks:

1. Expand the concept of "society".

2. Determine the content and characteristics of the systematic approach.

3. Reveal the importance of a systematic approach to society.

In accordance with the purpose, objectives and logic of the study, the work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion, a bibliographic list of references.

Chapter 1.

Society as a system

Modern ideas about human society are largely based on a systematic approach to its analysis. A system is usually understood as a set of its constituent elements that are in stable connections and relationships with each other. From a systemic point of view, society is a certain set of people interconnected by joint activities to achieve their common goals. In the process of joint activity, diverse hierarchically built relationships are formed between people, which is the structure of society. Society as a system has another important characteristic - integrity, that is, it has properties that cannot be derived from the properties of individual elements. People die, generations change, but society constantly reproduces itself. The mechanism of reproduction presupposes the presence in the structure of society of such particularly stable relations (invariant of the system) that have significant independence in relation to individual elements and even structural links.

Society, like any living system, is an open system that is in a state of continuous exchange with its natural environment, the exchange of matter, energy and information. Society has a higher degree of organization than its environment. And in order to preserve itself as an integrity, it must constantly satisfy its needs, primarily the needs of people, who have an objective and at the same time historically changeable character. The degree of satisfaction of these needs - material, social, spiritual - is the most obvious evidence of the effective functioning of society as a system. If the minimum satisfaction of needs cannot be achieved, then society will inevitably collapse and die. This is a management disaster. In other words, society has not coped with the management of the most complex processes of human activity.

In a word, society as a functioning system has a teleological nature. It strives to achieve a specific goal, which, of course, consists of many sub-goals. Society may not think at all about the existence of such a goal, incorrectly define it or deny its existence. But the very behavior of society, its concrete actions, speak much more about the existence of such a goal than words and theories. The reader, apparently, has already guessed that we are talking about the cybernetic-informational aspect of considering society as an integral self-governing system.

The subject of management, on the basis of the information he has about the state of the environment and the society itself, formulates commands to the object of management about its further actions to interact with the environment. The signals coming from the control subsystem are called feedforward. There is also feedback in the management chain - information about the results obtained and the degree of their compliance with the set goals, which comes from the performer to the subject of management. The fate of society as a system will ultimately depend on how correct his adjustment of goals and practical actions turns out to be.

From such extremely abstract positions, much more can be said about society. There is also a large literature on this subject. However, it is important to clearly understand how a systematic approach contributes to the deepening of the philosophical view of society.

First of all, a systematic approach requires that truly universal aspects, connections and relations of society be identified, that is, those that are inherent in society at all stages of its historical development and, therefore, are necessary and sufficient. The complexity of the implementation of this installation lies in the fact that each of these universal aspects and connections can have a different completeness of historical implementation. For example, science as a theoretical way of describing the laws of the objective world only in the second half of the 20th century began to acquire decisive importance for the existence and development of human civilization. And she is far from fully revealing her capabilities. Philosophy is called upon to show the specifics of the universality of science, as well as all other aspects and connections of social life.

The number and essence of the universal aspects, connections and relations of society is determined primarily by specifically social, human interaction with nature. It is correct, but not enough, to say that society constantly and purposefully carries out material-energy-information exchange with its environment on the basis of feedback. In philosophical terms, we should talk about such different forms or ways of mastering the surrounding reality by society, which in their totality reveal the universal nature of the relationship of society (man) to nature and, accordingly, to himself.

The philosophical thought of the West has been working for a long time on the correct formulation of this problem. I. Kant in his "Critique of Pure Reason" gave the most precise formulation of the three aspects of this problem, which was later adopted: "What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? Subsequently, Kant explained that all three questions can be reduced to one - the question of man.

A social person masters the surrounding reality in three possible ways.

ways. This is sensory-practical mastering, theoretical mastering and, finally, value mastering.

All these three ways acquire their meaning and purpose when society functions, acts, and pursues quite specific goals. A philosophical view of the nature of society should not lose sight of the internal tense connection between the goal aspirations of the system and its present state. This is another requirement of the systems approach, which follows from the recognition of the teleological nature of the system. Thus, a systematic approach allows a deeper understanding of the specifics of philosophy, which is designed to go beyond everyday experience and create ideas about the perfection of the system that is conceivable today. Only with such a view of existence, of the real state of social life, does it acquire philosophical depth and meaning.

Chapter 2

Around the middle of the 1950s. the systematic approach penetrates into a variety of research areas, both natural sciences and social sciences. By this period, there are already various approaches and concepts in management, the “classical” period or the “classical school” of management, the “school of human relations”, “scientific management”, psychological approaches in management theory, motivation theory and a number of others are already clearly marked. In other words, along with the natural sciences, the humanitarian ideal of scientificity penetrates into management, with its characteristic anti-naturalistic, subjectivist philosophical and methodological tendencies.

The history of the development of systemic ideas in management can be divided into three stages, which differ in terms of the underlying philosophical and methodological principles:

1st stage. Formation and development of a rigid systemic approach (mid-1950s-mid-1970s);

2nd stage. Formation and development of a soft systems approach (mid-1970s - present);

3rd stage. Complementarism in management (second half of the 1980s - present). Having more than half a century of existence as a recognized discipline, the systems approach has shown its versatility as a tool for solving practical problems, has demonstrated a powerful philosophical, methodological and ideological potential. However, this development was of a contradictory, non-cumulative nature, which makes the history of the formation and development of systemic ideas in management especially valuable as an empirical material for methodological research in the field of management.

The systematic approach developed, solving a triune problem: accumulation in general scientific concepts and concepts of the latest results of social, natural and technical sciences,

relating to the systemic organization of objects of reality and ways of their cognition; integration of the principles and experience of the development of philosophy, primarily the results of the development of the philosophical principle of consistency and related categories; application of the conceptual apparatus and modeling tools developed on this basis to solve urgent complex problems.

Systems approach- this is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for the study and design of complex objects - systems of different types and classes. A systematic approach is a certain stage in the development of methods of cognition, methods of research and design activities, methods of describing and explaining the nature of analyzed or artificially created objects.

The systems approach in a broad sense includes, in addition, the application of system methods for solving the problems of systematics, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.

The essence of the system approach was formulated by many authors. In expanded form, it was formulated by V. G. Afanasiev, who identified a number of interrelated aspects that, together and in unity, constitute a systematic approach:

System-elemental, answering the question of what (what components) the system is formed from;

System-structural, revealing the internal organization of the system, the way of interaction of its components;

System-functional, showing what functions the system and its constituent components perform

System-historical, answering the question of how, how the system arose, what stages it went through in its development, what are its historical prospects.

The term "system approach" covers a group of methods by which a real object is described as a set of interacting components. These methods are developed within the framework of individual scientific disciplines, interdisciplinary syntheses and general scientific concepts.

The general tasks of systems research are the analysis and synthesis of systems. In the process of analysis, the system is isolated from the environment, its composition is determined,

Structures, functions, integral characteristics (properties)

System-forming factors and relationships with the environment.

In the process of synthesis, a model of a real system is created, the level of an abstract description of the system rises, the completeness of its composition and structures, the bases of the description, the laws of dynamics and behavior are determined.

The system approach is applied to sets of objects, individual objects and their components, as well as to the properties and integral characteristics of objects. The systems approach is not an end in itself. In each case, its use should give a real, quite tangible effect. The systematic approach allows us to see gaps in knowledge about a given object, to detect their incompleteness, to determine the tasks of scientific research, in some cases - by interpolation and extrapolation - to predict the properties of the missing parts of the description.

The most important tasks of a systematic approach include:

1) development of means for representing the studied and constructed objects as systems;

2) construction of generalized models of the system, models of different classes and specific properties of systems;

3) study of the structure of systems theories and various system concepts and developments.

In a system study, the analyzed object is considered as a certain set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. The main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the object under study and in its relationship with the external environment. Significant importance in the system approach is given to identifying the probabilistic nature of the behavior of the objects under study. An important feature of the system approach is that not only the object, but the research process itself acts as a complex system, the task of which, in particular, is to combine various object models into a single whole.

Chapter 3

Society from the standpoint of a systematic approach.

The idea of society as a set of interrelated elements, as a whole, consisting of parts, i.e. as a “system” in the literal sense of the word, were formed quite a long time ago. However, the formation of the general theory of systems and synergetics in the second half of the 20th century made it possible to form clear systemic models of society. The most famous of them are, in particular, the structural-functional concept of the American philosopher and sociologist-theorist T. Parsons and the theory of society as a self-referential communicative system of the German researcher N. Luhmann. T. Parsons characterizes society as a system with a complex structure, each of whose elements performs certain functions and is in a state of active interaction, mediated by the value system, with other elements. He considered the most important properties of society as a system to be self-organization and the ability to restore the disturbed balance. T. Parsons is characterized by a certain absolutization of the normative structure of society, a structured normative order through which collective life is organized. Paying great attention to the mechanisms of social control or "mechanisms of recovery

equilibrium” of society as a system, T. Parsons practically does not consider the mechanisms of self-development, the causes of social dynamics. From his point of view, society as a system strives to maintain a stable state.

According to N. Luhmann, a system is everything that is capable of autopoiesis (autopoiesis), i.e. is self-sufficient and capable of reproducing itself, distinguishing itself from the environment. Society is considered by him as a self-referential social system, able to organize itself, capable of existing and reproducing itself, referring only to its own operations, without going outside. The main feature of society, according to N. Luhmann, is the presence of communication in it, which means the establishment of communication and interaction between people. The autopoiesis of society is a way of processing meaning structures through communication. It is through semantic communication, in his opinion, that society is reproduced.

However, paying much attention to the analysis of connections and relationships within the system, the researcher fundamentally refuses to study the connection of the system with the environment. N. Luhmann writes: "Society is a communicatively closed system. It produces communication through communication. Only it itself can communicate - but not with itself and not with its surrounding world." Although, speaking about the closedness of a system, N. Luhmann means, first of all, its operational closeness, his concept is opposed to the ideas that prevail in systems theory about the openness of the system and its exchange of information, matter and energy with the environment. The researcher does not consider the external relations of society - with the biosphere and geosphere, without which it cannot exist. The survival of society, its stable and dignified existence in the strategic perspective can be realized only with a careful analysis of its external relations, society's dependence on nature.

In domestic science, a systematic approach to the study of society is being actively developed by Doctor of Philosophical Sciences A.A. Davydov. He considers society as a certain type of system, "consisting of heterogeneous interconnected elements and subsystems, properties and relationships, created by individuals on the basis of a feedback mechanism, the purpose of which is the implementation of extreme principles in the life of individuals with the help of laws operating within certain boundaries." From his point of view, society belongs to the so-called nuclear systems, in which there is a coordinating center and non-linear coordination of the functioning of subsystems and elements. Society operates in a specific systemic state of "intermediateness" between order and chaos, as a result of which it is characterized by the property of self-organized criticality and the mode of deterministic chaos. The property of self-organized criticality is manifested in the fact that a slight influence of any internal and (or) external factors can lead to an avalanche-type reaction that can affect all elements and subsystems of society. The regime of deterministic chaos is characterized by a non-stationary structure of dynamics, the presence of global quasi-periodicity in dynamics, fractality (self-similarity) of local fragments of dynamics on different time scales.

In his works, A.A. Davydov is trying to identify the main properties of society, the mechanisms of its functioning and the laws that operate in it. All of them are not indisputable, but the very attempt to

the selection, of course, deserves approval and testifies to a truly scientific approach to the study of social reality. The researcher highlights the system-wide and subject properties of society. He refers to the system-wide property of integrity, which refers to the separation of the system from a more general system, the effect of non-additivity (the whole is not equal to the sum of parts), the dependence of each element on its place and functions within the system, etc. Subject properties are the subjective self-identification of individuals with a particular society, the largest number of able-bodied population employed in any sector of the economy, the property of the political regime, the property of the dominant religion, etc.

The main mechanism for the functioning of society, according to A.A. Davydov, is a system-wide feedback mechanism, according to which society is the result of the interaction of individuals and has a reverse effect on this interaction. The main goal of society, from the point of view of the researcher, is the implementation of extreme principles, i.e. maximization and (or) minimization of the number of elements, values, properties and relationships in the system. Among such principles, he refers to the principle of hedonism, according to which people strive to maximize positive emotions and minimize negative ones; the principle of maximin - the maximum of achievements with a minimum of costs, risk, time; the desire to maximize positive social phenomena and minimize negative phenomena within certain restrictions by changing the elements, connections, properties and relations in society.

One of the tasks of philosophical knowledge of society is to identify the laws operating in it. This is the most difficult task that A.A. Davydov manages to solve only partially. One of the system-wide laws, in his opinion, is the hyperbolic nature of population growth on Earth, leading to a global acceleration of world development. The author refers to the laws of social development, including legal laws, the formation of which, from the point of view of the researcher, is a consequence of the self-organization of society. However, one should not forget that legal laws and moral norms are of a conventional nature and cannot be attributed to scientific laws.

Despite a number of controversial issues, the concept of a self-developing society by A.A. Davydov has a significant heuristic potential and can be successfully applied in social philosophy and sociology. It allows not only to theoretically analyze society, but also to put forward fruitful empirically verifiable hypotheses and solve practical problems.

Conclusion.

The concept of society is of fundamental importance for jurisprudence, and today it is possible to give a scientific concept of society.

There is no free will. Man is not Homo Sapiens, but Homo Publicus - a public man. Human behavior is overwhelmingly socially conditioned.

Moral and ethical attitudes (the so-called values) of a person are an internal reflection of existing social norms, are subject to change under the influence of social factors and determine human behavior under fairly weak social pressure.

Society is by no means the result of the free, conscious and purposeful behavior of people. On the contrary, society is a phenomenon of objective natural nature and is a way of human existence as a biological species. Society is an objective phenomenon, quite accessible to scientific research and the creation of adequate models.

Thus, only a critically meaningful application of systemic and synergistic approaches to the study of both society as a whole and individual social phenomena and processes makes it possible to solve the problems facing modern sociology. The systemic concepts developed by T. Parsons, N. Luhmann, A. Davydov are successfully applied in sociology, but the construction of a holistic model of society as a self-developing system is a matter of the future. The idea of society as a self-developing system will allow us to analyze social objects as integral, multi-level and dynamic, to trace the mutual influence of various elements and levels of the system, to take into account the influence of the natural environment on the development of society, to study the influence of its past on the current state and to effectively predict the future.

List of used literature

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2. Volkova V.N., Denisov A.A. Fundamentals of systems theory and system analysis. – Ed. 2nd revision and supplementary - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg State Technical University, 1999. - 512 p.

3. Golubkov E.P. System analysis as a methodological basis for decision making.

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5. Korikov A.M., Safyanova E.N. Decree. op. S. 10, 27; Afanasiev V.G. Decree. op.

6. Peregudov F.I., Tarasenko F.P. Introduction to system analysis. - M.: Higher school, 1989.

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Humanitarian social science and systems approach

For the last 250 years the social sciences have lived under the shadow of Kant. No amount of criticism, of which there have been many over the years, has been able to shake this monument. As a result, we have a curious phenomenon: on the one hand, the inviolability of Kant's authority and his concept of human society, on the other hand, modern jurisprudence simply evades the concept of society, despite the fact that law is recognized as a social phenomenon.

The Kantian concept of society is the cornerstone in the foundation of the sciences "of the spirit." According to Kant, human society is the result of the rational activity of people with free will, which they dispose of, guided by values.

free will

The question of free will is one of the central questions of Christianity. The concepts of predestination, sin, etc. are tied to it. After all, if God is omnipotent and omniscient, then everything that happens in the world, including human actions, happens with his knowledge, and a person, accordingly, cannot be held responsible for his actions. And if a person has free will, it means that God is not omnipotent. The history of Western European Christianity is the history of the interpretation of the question of free will. Spinoza believed that "free will does not exist either in man or in God. God necessarily creates the world that actually exists, and no other world is possible." Leibniz also denied the free will of man and God: "God creates the best possible world."

It is not surprising that Kant recognized the existence of free will, and absolute, only in man, since he has reason, which is a constant condition for all arbitrary acts in which man manifests himself. The crown of the universe cannot but possess wonderful qualities that are absolute in nature.

Indeed, at a superficial glance, our direct experience of having freedom gives reason to think that a person’s life is also determined by a constant, every minute free reasonable choice of a solution from a variety of options (one of the favorite topics of existentialists). But this is only at first glance.

Emile Durkheim believed that social facts are objectified outside and not only lead their existence independent of individuals, but also forcibly influence them. “When I act as a brother, spouse, or citizen,” Durkheim writes, “then I fulfill duties established outside me and my actions by law and custom. Even when they agree with my own feelings and when I recognize in my soul their existence, the latter nevertheless remain objective, since I did not create them myself, but they were inspired by my upbringing. Sergei Dovlatov said on this occasion: "My whole life consisted of accidents, developing with an iron pattern."

In fact, a person has the opportunity at any moment to perform an act arbitrarily and unpredictably, but there is no free will, in the Kantian sense. And the answer to this paradox is in the Law of Large Numbers. A person, not only during his life, but during every day, performs a huge number of socially significant actions, starting with the phrase "Good morning", dressing and combing his hair. And one can afford to deviate from the social norms that are in force at a given time in a given place, only in very small quantities. And the general obligatory nature of social norms is ensured by the strongest and differentiated social pressure - from recognition as an eccentric, reproach or tacit censure to isolation in a mental institution, imprisonment or the death penalty.

Values

Kant's free will is realized not randomly, but in accordance with values. Even the supporters of a scientific approach to social phenomena could not get rid of "values". According to Max Weber, the founder of "understanding" sociology, the subject's conscious attitudes to values (moral, political, aesthetic, religious) determine the content and direction of his behavior and activities, "the direction of interest characteristic of the era." Even the positivist and ruthless critic of speculative metaphysics G.F. Shershenevich writes: “The conditions of a hostel are not only a consequence of the blind forces of nature, but also a product of human will ... That is why in the social sciences, and especially in state and legal sciences, a third task is added to the two tasks of natural science (to know and explain - A.N.) : an assessment of the rules of the hostel that operate in life. In Pitirim Sorokin, value is one of the most important concepts that explains the behavior of individuals and groups.

Values are a very important criterion in the metaphysical understanding of social processes, and the value approach is considered the main difference between the humanities and the natural sciences.

Each person has ideas about what is "good" and what is "bad". They depend on many factors - the ethnic and social affiliation of the individual, his age group, cultural and intellectual levels, etc. Exploring the process of developing these ideas and their influence on human behavior, modern psychology operates with the concept of set. Leon Festinger (1964), Allan Wicker (1969) and other psychologists, based on the results of numerous experiments, proved that a person's attitudes are a consequence of his social interaction with the environment, and not vice versa. In social psychology, this effect is called the "Phenomenon" Attitudes - a consequence of behavior ".

The concept of the social nature of the human psyche was also developed by L.S. Vygotsky and J. Piaget.

A person's personality is formed by the social environment. Individual character traits and the level of intelligence determine the path and level of socialization of the individual in society, but not his ethical ideas. Social norms - the rules of generally accepted and expected behavior - prescribe the "correct" behavior, and already the practice of social interaction forms an integral complex of individual moral and ethical norms.

We can say that the moral and ethical attitudes (the so-called values) of a person are an internal reflection of existing social norms, are subject to change under the influence of social factors and determine human behavior with a rather weak social pressure.

It is meaningless to explain social phenomena with the help of "values", since the latter are themselves the product of social factors.

The phenomenon of "Attitudes as a consequence of behavior" discovered by social psychologists looks paradoxical only at first glance. Everything falls into place if we imagine that society is a way of human existence, arising from its very nature. Social norms that spontaneously develop in society as a result of optimizing the numerous interactions of individuals, through social pressure, affect each person and require a certain behavior from him. Of the two factors that determine human behavior - social pressure and internal attitudes - only the latter are subject to a person. Under the influence of the social environment, depending on the method and level of socialization to which the individual is tuned due to their individual characteristics, new moral and ethical attitudes (values) are developed and existing ones are corrected.

Sociology - positive social science

It cannot be said that general scientific methodological principles did not try to take root in social science. Even a special science was born. The term "sociology" was first coined and used by Auguste Comte in his Course in Positive Philosophy. By sociology, he meant "social physics" - the science of society, built on the methodology of natural philosophy. Positive knowledge is not given by abstract and endless conjectures about God, nature, spirit, consciousness, matter and other "original causes", but only by experience and observation. It is necessary to study not the causes of phenomena, but their laws, that is, replace the word "why" with the word "how". Comte was convinced that society is governed by objective laws, which are a continuation of the laws of nature. “The basic character of positive philosophy is expressed in the recognition of all phenomena as subject to immutable natural laws, the discovery and reduction of which to a minimum is the goal of all our efforts, and we consider it absolutely inaccessible and senseless to search for so-called causes, both primary and final.” G. Spencer introduced the term "superorganic". Superorganic phenomena are such forms of life, the functioning of which involves the coordinated actions of many individuals. Spencer adhered to the organismic theory of society, likening society to a living biological organism. Emile Durkheim developed the theory of social realism: social phenomena should be explained only by sociological factors, and not by individual or mental (systems approach!). In relation to individual people, social norms exist objectively, and social facts are a manifestation of group or mass consciousness.

In the 20s of the 20th century, the formation of neopositivism took place. A "standard concept of science" is being developed:

"social phenomena are subject to laws common to all reality - natural and cultural-historical;
the methods of social research must be as rigorous, precise, and objective as the methods of natural science;
subjective aspects of human behavior (motives, value orientations, etc.) can only be explored through their open manifestation;
the truth of scientific concepts and statements must be established on the basis of empirical procedures;
all social phenomena can and must be described and quantified;
sociology as a science must be free from value judgments and connection with ideology"

Pitirim Sorokin believed that: a) There are no "sciences of nature" and "sciences of culture". Sociology should be built along the lines of the natural sciences; b) Sociology must study the world as it is, any subjective explanation from the standpoint of moral, moral and other norms must be banished; c) It is necessary to adhere to the principle of objectivity: one should study only real interactions of people that are accessible to objective measurement and study; d) There should be no speculative constructions; e) Social phenomena should not be reduced to any one principle (the principle of sociological pluralism).

But this approach never became the general methodology of the social sciences. Perhaps because the desire to penetrate precisely into the essence of things, even contrary to common sense and practical benefit, is generally characteristic of Europeans. Norbert Roulan cites the words of an Inuit (Eskimo) he said to the ethnologist K. Rasmunsen: “Too many thoughts give rise to only confusion ... We Inuit do not pretend to give an answer to all riddles. We repeat ancient stories as they were told to us , and the words we remember... You (Westerners) always want supernatural things to have some meaning, and we don't worry about it. We're happy that we don't get it."

public man

Man is a social being to a much greater extent than is commonly believed in Western European culture.

In general, there is no clear line between organismic and collective forms of life. Every higher animal includes in its body a huge amount of bacteria and microbes that are vital to it. Cells have many, if not all, properties of living organisms. There are more surprising examples: "So, physalia ("Portuguese boat") is a complex structure of differentiated intestinal-cavitary polyps, in which individual individuals have undergone various modifications in order to serve the purposes of nutrition, support, movement, isolation and reproduction of the colony as a whole" .

It must be recognized that human society is a phenomenon of objective natural nature and is a way of human existence as a biological species.

Ethology (the science of animal behavior) shows that in the animal world there is a social life with such relationships as love, friendship, etc. The higher animals have such feelings as joy and sadness. Animal communities often have a hierarchical structure with complex internal relationships. The structure consists of social roles, and individuals go through the path of socialization. G.F. Shershenevich does not find anything humiliating for a person in this state of affairs: “If the modern social life of people has left far behind everything that represents the cohabitation of animals, then we should not forget that this is only the result of a long development from such rudimentary forms that are no different from animal coexistence. And such a comparison not only does not degrade the dignity of a person, but can serve as a source of his pride.

Society. Systems approach

Human society is a real-life (not in the imagination) composite object, the components of which (people and social groups) have personal non-deterministic behavior (the so-called "free will") and are in continuous interaction with each other. Society has the property of self-organization, that is, the process of spontaneous ordering due to internal factors. Society is not the sum of the people of which this society is composed. The properties of a society cannot be expressed in terms of the properties of its constituent people.

Society is an objective and natural natural phenomenon, a way of life of a person as a biological species. All processes and phenomena occurring in society and with society occur in a natural and necessary way.

Society is a system:

Dynamic. The behavior of large groups of people is always predictable due to the operation of statistical laws (with a sufficiently large number of interacting individuals). If the system as a whole is stable, then the behavior of individual people can be neglected. But if the system is unstable, then the role of destabilizing fluctuations in it will be played by the unpredictable behavior of individuals (this is to the question of the revolutionary situation and the role of the individual in history);

Complexly organized. The stability of the system is inversely proportional to entropy, that is, the more complex the system is organized, the more significant the heterogeneity of its composition, the more stable the system;

Self-organizing. It is an open system capable of maintaining entropy at a certain level, that is, maintaining an organized state, despite the second law of thermodynamics. In a state of instability, the system tends to one of the stable states;

Adaptive. It has a "safety margin", that is, in response to an external destabilizing effect, if it does not exceed a critical level, the system is able to rebuild, coming to one of the stable states that is less susceptible to this external effect;

Adaptive. By actively influencing the environment and other systems, society brings them (within certain limits) to a state more comfortable for its own existence;

Has a life cycle. Sociogenesis is similar to the life cycle of a biological organism and has all the characteristic stages, starting with "birth" and ending with "death". Development is characterized by an increase in the number of elements and a complication of the structure, degradation - by simplification of the structure, alignment of internal heterogeneity.

Polystructural. The heterogeneity of society is not chaotic, but structured in many ways;

Hierarchical. The structure of society is always hierarchical. Starting from a certain level of development of the social system, the top of the social hierarchy begins to specialize exclusively in management tasks, and a power apparatus emerges as part of society. The interaction of the power apparatus and society as a whole is described by the cybernetic laws of N. Wiener and his followers.

Thought experiment "Desert island"

To understand how a simple set of people differs from society (social group), you can put a thought experiment. Based on historical precedents, cultural experience, as well as on the achievements of psychology, sociology, social psychology, we can quite reliably imagine what will happen to people who are randomly gathered together and forced to live together for a long time.

Let us suppose that the passengers of a large sea-going vessel are shipwrecked and landed on a deserted island. Suppose also that nature on this island is favorable and abundant in food. The number of passengers and their diversity in sex, age and professional skills allows them to form a viable colony and live on the island for many years. There is no communication with the outside world - XIX century. Suppose that the national and cultural composition is as diverse as possible - Europeans, Latin Americans, Australian Aborigines, Massai, Pygmies, Evenks, etc. That is, they initially have a minimum of common cultural and social norms.

The composition of the people who landed on the island is random. Before they had no connection with each other. For the first time after disembarkation, they form a simple aggregate.

After some time, the colony will turn into a full-fledged society. Within the colony, social roles will be distributed, leaders, elites and scum will stand out. There will be certain rules of conduct. As the colony grows and the need to solve common problems, a control apparatus with a system of legitimation of power is formed. Some part of social norms will be provided by this power apparatus. To influence the unconscious members of this society, a system of coercion will arise.

How will this colony differ from it in the first hours after landing? All members of this society are differentiated and each play their own social role. Society will be structured and hierarchical.

The organization of this society has developed spontaneously and is maintained in a stable state. And all this will happen not according to someone's will and understanding.

What is the reason that makes people self-organize and maintain an organized state? If we measure, weigh, test, interview every member of this colony, we won't find the answer. The emergence of this order and the need to maintain it, the people themselves will explain with legends (epos).

With sufficient development of this thought experiment based on common sense, the history of mankind and modern achievements in sociology (patterns of behavior of social groups) and social psychology (mechanisms for the emergence of social norms), it is possible to create a completely reliable model of the process of formation of society, the emergence of legal norms and the legal system, the emergence and development of the state.

findings

The concept of society is of fundamental importance for jurisprudence.

Today it is possible and necessary to abandon the Canto-Hegelian speculative metaphysical philosophy and give a scientific concept of society.

There is no free will. At least in the sense that Kant put into it. Man is not Homo Sapiens, but Homo Publicus is a public man. Human behavior is overwhelmingly socially conditioned.

a) Society as a system is a combination of the following main types of organization of social life: social ties and relationships, social institutions, social communities, groups, strata, social organizations, as well as social values, norms, roles.

Rice. 5. Graphic representation of the concept of "Society as a system"

where 1 - social institutions; 2 - social connections and relationships; 3 - social communities; 4 - social groups, strata; 5 - social organizations; 6 - social norms; 7 - social roles; 8 - social values.

b) A systematic approach to society. A holistic system has many connections, interactions, relationships.

Consider the basic principles of a systematic approach to society. To do this, it is necessary to define the basic concepts. A system is a set of elements ordered in a certain way, interconnected and forming a certain integral unity. The internal nature, the content side of any integral system, the material basis of its organization is determined by the composition, the set of elements.

The social system is a holistic formation, the main element of which are people, their connections, interactions and relationships. These connections, interactions and relationships are stable and are reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.

Social connection is a set of facts that determine joint activities in specific communities at a specific time to achieve certain goals. Social ties are established objectively, and not at the whim of people. The establishment of these links is dictated by the social conditions in which individuals live and act. The essence of social ties is manifested in the content and nature of the actions of people who make up this social community. Sociologists single out connections of interaction, relations, control, institutional, etc.

Social interaction is a process in which people act and are affected by each other. The mechanism of social interaction includes individuals who perform certain actions, changes in the social community or society as a whole caused by these actions, the impact of these changes on other individuals that make up the social community, and, finally, the feedback of individuals. Interaction leads to the formation of new social relations. Social relations are relatively stable and independent ties between individuals and social groups.

So, as a result, society becomes an integral system with qualities that none of the elements included in it separately have. As a result of its integral qualities, the social system acquires a certain independence in relation to its constituent elements.

4. The concept of "social"

"Social"- the original and central concept of sociology. When solving the problem of "social", the emphasis is most often placed on the fact that "social" is an effect resulting from the coordinated interaction of individuals.

From the point of view of another approach, "social" is interpreted as a kind of equivalent to the manifestation of a feeling of affection, attraction.

M. Weber, highlighting as the quintessence of social life "expectation" (i.e. orientation to a response), or more precisely, "waiting expectation expectation", understood the social as a kind of emergent (emergency) (i.e. suddenly emerging) reality. Whether we go to work or shop in the store, we consciously or unconsciously constantly realize our own expectations that other people will perform certain actions, obligations. And they, in turn, expect that they are expected to perform these functions. Going to work, we hope (more precisely, we are so sure that we don’t even think about it) that public transport workers will fulfill their professional duties. A scientist writes a book, conducts experiments - he expects that his efforts will be appreciated by colleagues. Can more or less significant regular actions take place at all if a person cannot expect, predict with sufficient certainty that other people expect such an action from him and are ready to respond to this action in the way the person himself expects. It is the conjugation of mutual expectations as a kind of obligations that creates predictability for the life of a particular individual, the necessary stable reliable conditions for existence and development in society. It is in the network of such interconnected mutual expectations that one can make plans, raise and educate children, create, and solve personal problems.

Due to the regulation of life activity on the basis of mutual expectations-obligations, the following arise:

a) predictability, predictability;

b) stability, reliability of the position of the subject in the "environment of their own kind."

And, conversely, where there is no predictability, where there is no stability, a situation arises in which a person loses the advantages that he could count on in society. Breaking the threads of mutual expectations-obligations, strengthening the element of unpredictability, instability leads to the loss of the necessary social conditions for individual development. People feel insecure, they lose incentives to be active, it is difficult for them to plan, to count on something, there comes a decline in moral and creative forces.

But even in a fairly stable network of mutual expectations-obligations, there are reasons for uncertainty, anxiety, anxiety.

Each member of the community, carrying out his actions, takes into account, among other things, the reaction of others, consciously focusing on the norms, principles, and laws accepted in the community.

Thanks to this, social society in its developed
forms has a unique integrity, integration, stability, but at the same time mobility, the ability for self-development. It has a high degree of adaptation.

With all the differences in the approaches to interpreting society on the part of the classics of sociology, the common thing for sociologists is that everyone considers society as an integral system of elements that are closely interconnected. This approach to society is called systemic.

O. Comte, for example, considered society to be a functional system, the structure of which is the family, classes, the state, and which is based on the distribution of labor and solidarity. E. Durkheim considered society as a supra-individual reality based on a system of collective ideas and values. According to M. Weber, society is a system of human interactions, which is a product of social, i.e. people-oriented actions. T. Parsons defined society as a system of social actions and relations between people that unite individuals on the basis of common norms and values.

Systems approach - a comprehensive study of the object under study as a single whole from the standpoint of system analysis. All interconnections of individual structural parts are taken into account, identifying the role of each of them in the overall process of the system functioning, and, conversely, identifying the impact of the system as a whole on its individual elements.

The main task of the systemic approach is to explain how society works, how it functions and develops, and why it collapses.

System- this is a certain way ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a kind of integral unity.

Social system - a holistic education, the main element of which are people, their connections, interactions and relationships, social institutions and organizations, social groups and communities, norms and values.

Each of these elements of the social system is interconnected with others, occupies a specific place and plays a certain role in it. These connections, interactions and relationships are stable and are reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.

The study of society requires looking at its elements through the lens of their relevance to the whole. It is necessary not only to state the plurality of the structural elements of society, but to isolate the stable, repetitive from the episodic, insignificant, random, i.e. elements that reproduce society as a whole.

The social system, based on structural and functional analysis, can be represented in five aspects:

1) as an interaction of individuals, each of which is a carrier of individual qualities;

2) as social interaction, which has as its consequences the formation of social relations and the formation of a social group;

3) as group interaction, which is based on certain general circumstances (city, village, labor collective);

4) as a hierarchy of social positions (statuses) occupied by individuals included in the activities of a given social system, and social functions (roles) that they perform on the basis of these social positions;

5) as a set of norms and values that determine the nature and content of the activity (behavior) of the elements of this system.

The first aspect that characterizes the social system is associated with the concept of individuality, the second - the social group, the third - the social community, the fourth - the social organization, the fifth - the social institution. Thus, the social system acts as the interaction of its main structural elements.

Individuals and groups of individuals into a single functional whole, i.e. various forms of social ties unite in a social system. Communication is defined as such a relationship between objects, when a change in one object or element corresponds to a change in other objects that make up this object.

The starting point for the emergence of a social connection is the interaction of individuals or groups of individuals to meet certain needs. Interaction is any behavior of an individual or a group of individuals that is significant for other individuals and groups or society as a whole at the present moment and in the future. The category "interaction" expresses the nature and content of relations between people and social groups as constant carriers of various types of activities, differing in social positions (statuses) and roles (functions). The mechanism of social interaction includes: individuals performing certain actions; changes in the outside world caused by these actions; the impact of these changes on other individuals and, finally, the feedback of individuals who were affected.

In society, the standardization of certain types of interactions inevitably takes place, which is expressed in the emergence of status-role standards of behavior. Status-role positions are the basic components of sustainable social interactions and constitute the first level of society. Any society can be represented as a set of status-role positions, and the more of them, the more complex the society. The organization and orderliness of status-role positions is ensured by more complex structural formations - social institutions, communities, organizations - that connect these positions with each other, ensure their reproduction, create guarantees for their stability and constitute the second, institutional level of society.

The third level is societal, it ensures the reproduction of connections that are significant for society as a whole - this is its main difference from the institutional level, which regulates group or specialized types of interactions. The normative and regulatory impact of the societal level is characterized by: versatility, those. universality. Almost all institutional formations and social groups fall into the zone of ordering influence of the societal level, and, consequently, almost all status-role positions; integrativity. This level ensures the "retention" of institutional formations in a single complex. It subordinates to its logic not only previously established social institutions, groups, but also each new type of them, does not allow society to disintegrate as an integrity into its constituent structural elements, to restrain centrifugal tendencies

Principles of a systematic approach to society:

1. Society cannot be considered as the sum of individuals, their connections, interactions and relationships. Society is not a summative, but a holistic system. This means that at the level of society, individual actions, connections and relationships form a systemic quality.

System quality - it is a special qualitative state that cannot be considered as a simple sum of elements.

2. Social interactions and relations are supra-individual, transpersonal in nature, that is, society is some kind of independent substance, which is primary in relation to individuals. Each individual, being born, constitutes a certain structure of connections and relations and is included in it in the process of socialization.

3. A holistic system has many connections, interactions and relationships. The most characteristic are correlative links, including the coordination and subordination of elements.

Coordination- this is a certain consistency of elements, that special nature of their mutual dependence, which ensures the preservation of an integral system.

Subordination- this is subordination and subordination, indicating a special specific place, the unequal value of elements in an integral system.

Each social system has a structure, that is, a certain order, a way of organizing and connecting its parts or elements of a social system into a single whole. The main types of structure of the social system are as follows:

1) ideal, including beliefs, convictions and ideas of people;

2) normative, including values, norms, as well as social roles;

3) organizational, which determines the way of interconnection of social positions and statuses of individuals, and also determines the nature of the reproduction of the system;

4) random, consisting of elements included in its functioning at the moment.

The most important elements of society as a social system are its economic, political, social, spiritual (ideological), and legal structures, which, due to the interaction of people, are institutionalized into social subsystems. Each of these subsystems occupies a decisive place in society and performs well-defined functions in it. For example, the economic subsystem performs the function of production, exchange and distribution of material goods, the social one - the function of the socialization of individuals, the political one - the function of social management and control, the spiritual one - the function of the production of spiritual values. These elements of society form a hierarchical dependence, in which the economic subsystem is decisive, and the political and spiritual derivatives of it. These subsystems interact and influence each other.

When considering society as a system, it is necessary to understand what kind of connections are established between the elements, on what principles their organization takes place. Here the systematic approach is complemented by deterministic and functionalist ones.

The fundamental difference between the deterministic and functionalist approaches is that determinism consists in recognizing one of the functions of subsystems as the most important, determining all others. Functionalism believes that all functions are equally important, which is the law of the stability of society. Depreciation or elevation of one of the functions of subsystems is fraught with negative consequences for society.

Deterministic approach, namely economic determinism most clearly expressed in Marxism. From the point of view of this doctrine, society as an integral system consists of subsystems: economic, social, political and ideological. Each of which can be considered as a system. In the relationship between these subsystems, cause-and-effect relationships play a dominant role. This means that each of these systems does not exist on its own, but is in a causal dependence on other systems. All these subsystems represent a hierarchical structure, i.e. are subordinate, in the order in which they are listed. Marxism clearly points to the dependence and conditionality of all systems on the characteristics of the economic system, which is based on material production based on a certain nature of property relations.

K. Marx considered society as a system consisting of two subsystems: the base (economic subsystem) and the superstructure (political subsystem). The main thing in this case is the definition of the leading subsystem, a change in which can cause changes in the entire system. For Marx, such a subsystem was the economy, consisting of two blocks: productive forces and production relations. “In the social production of their lives, people enter into certain, necessary, relations independent of their will - relations of production, which correspond to a certain stage in the development of their material productive forces. The totality of these production relations constitutes the economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure rises and to which certain forms of social consciousness correspond. The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general.

The position of economic determinism has been repeatedly criticized: it was difficult to explain the reasons for the stability of some societies and the collapse of others solely by the influence of production relations. Therefore, along with economic determinism, there are schools and trends that develop political and cultural determinism.

Political determinism in explaining social life, he gives priority to relations of power and authority. An example of political determinism is the concepts of society by E. Shils and R. Aron. The latter points out: “Modern industrial societies, which have many common features ... differ primarily in the structures of state power, and the consequences of these structures are some features of the economic system ... In our century, everything happens as if it is politics that determines the possible specific options for an industrial society.”

Despite the opposite views of K. Marx and R. Aron, they are united by an attempt to explain society by the mutual influence and interdependence of its subsystems. Currently, scientists refrain from unambiguous assessments of the dominant role of a particular social subsystem, but the very approach that allows interpreting the functioning of the system through the logic of the interaction of its subsystem has been preserved.

Supporters cultural determinism assert a priority role in the society of culture. Cultural determinism, as a rule. It is characterized by an extremely broad interpretation of the concept of culture, which is usually understood as “a set of commonly shared symbols and meanings”, which include functional social ideas and values, customs and traditions.

Cultural determinism originates from the works of M. Weber on the sociology of religion, in which the development of society was made dependent on the religious values that dominated it. In the modern variety of cultural determinism, the emphasis is on the decisive role of communication, the core of which is the exchange of information. In N. Luhmann's concept, culture is viewed as a system of translation of collective experience relatively autonomous from the individual, a flow of messages that transmit social information. Society in this case appears as a stream of self-reproducing information messages. Man, from this point of view, appears as a product of cultural production. Thus, a reverse perspective is created: people form the "environment", "background", "context" of society, which exists as a system of reproduction of culture through communication.

From point of view functionalism, society combines its structural elements not by establishing causal relationships between them, but on the basis of functional dependence. Functional dependence is what gives the system of elements as a whole such properties that no single element possesses individually.

Functionalism interprets society as an integral system of people acting in concert, the stable existence and reproduction of which is ensured by the necessary set of functions. The system creates, maintains, preserves and develops only what it needs for normal functioning. Functionalism recognizes that each social entity performs a function useful to society.

Basic principles of the functional approach:

1. Just like the supporters of the systemic approach, the functionalists considered society as an integral single organism, consisting of many parts: economic, political, military, religious, etc.

2. But at the same time, they emphasized that each part can exist only within the framework of integrity, where it performs specific, strictly defined functions.

3. The functions of the parts always mean the satisfaction of some social need. Yet together they are aimed at maintaining the stability of society and the reproduction of the human race.

4. Since each of the parts performs only its inherent function, in the event of a violation of the activity of this part, it is more difficult for other parts to make up for the violated functions, since the functions of the parts differ significantly from each other.

In the future, the ideas of functionalism were developed within the framework of structural functionalism T. Parsons and R. Merton. The essence of this approach lies in the fact that society, a social community or a social process is considered as an integral structure, the individual elements of which penetrate each other and thus perform a service (functional) role in relation to each other and the system as a whole. Functioning is maintaining balance in relations with the environment.

T. Parsons, having developed the method of structural functionalism, formulated the basic functional requirements, the fulfillment of which ensures the stable existence of society as a self-regulating and self-reproducing system. The main condition for the self-preservation of society is the obligatory fulfillment by it of four functions:

1. Adaptations. It is provided by the economic subsystem. Society must be able to adapt to the environment and independently influence it, adapt to changing conditions and the growing material needs of people, be able to rationally organize and distribute internal resources.

2. Goal achievement. It is provided by the political subsystem. It consists in the ability of the system to maintain its integrity. It should be goal-oriented, able to set the main goals and objectives and to support the process of achieving them.

3. Integrations. It is provided by legal institutions and customs. It lies in the ability of the system to integrate neoplasms, to subordinate them to its own logic.

4. Sample maintenance, i.e. the ability of the system to reproduce its elements, maintain the internal structure and relieve tensions in the system. This function is performed by a subsystem of beliefs, morality, agents of socialization, including educational and family institutions.

The logic of classical functionalism, which explains the connectedness of all elements of society, is not flawless. It is based on the assumption that people are aware of useful functions and do everything possible to preserve and reproduce them. Within the framework of this approach, it is difficult to explain the cause of the crisis, conflicts, and the collapse of the system. To solve this problem, the efforts of R. Merton were directed, who made a number of clarifications to this concept:

1) As one phenomenon can have different functions, so the same function can be performed by different phenomena.

2) Merton introduces the concept dysfunction, those. destructive function. He argues that the same elements can be functional in relation to some systems and dysfunctional in relation to others.

3) Merton introduces a distinction between explicit and hidden (latent) functions. Explicit function- this is the effect that is caused intentionally and recognized as such. latent function- this is the effect that it was not the intention of the actor to cause, and he does not know what caused it.

Thus, society is dynamic the system, that is, is in constant motion, development, changes its features, signs, states. The change of states is caused both by the influences of the external environment and by the needs of the development of the system itself.

Dynamic systems can be linear and non-linear. Society nonlinear system. This means that at different times the processes occurring in it under the influence of different causes are determined and described by different laws. They cannot be put into one explanatory scheme, because there will certainly be such changes that will not fall under such an explanation. That is why social change always contains an element of unpredictability.

Society - oh open system. This means that it reacts to the slightest influence from outside, to any accident. The reaction manifests itself in the occurrence of fluctuations - unpredictable deviations from the stationary state, and bifurcations - branchings of development trajectories. Bifurcations are always unpredictable, the logic of the previous state of the system is not applicable to them, since they themselves represent a violation of this logic. These are, as it were, crisis moments of a break, when the usual threads of cause-and-effect relationships are lost and chaos sets in. It is at the points of bifurcation that innovations arise, revolutionary changes take place.

According to the modern sociologist N. Luhmann, society is a self-differentiating and self-renewing system. The social system has the ability to distinguish itself from others. It reproduces and defines its own boundaries separating it from the external environment. In addition, according to Luhmann, a social system, unlike natural systems, is built on the basis of meaning, that is, its various elements (action, time, event) acquire semantic coordination in it.

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This topic belongs to:

Sociology

Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after Mikhail Tugan Baranovsky.

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