What Alexander III did for the peasants. National and religious policy of Alexander III
Attempts to solve the agrarian issue by Alexander I
Under Alexander1, certain changes took place in the solution of the peasant (agrarian) question.
Decree February 12, 1801 merchants, philistines and state peasants-
we were given the right to buy uninhabited lands (the abolition of the monopoly of the nobles).
1801- It is forbidden to print advertisements for the sale of peasants.
February 20, 1803 d. at the initiative of the count S.P. Rumyantsev decree was issued "About free ploughmen". In accordance with it, landowners could release the serfs
peasants with land on the terms determined by the agreement (for redemption). However, this act was more ideological than real. meaning.
1809- a ban on sending peasants to hard labor and to Siberia.
AT 1804 -5yy.liberation began and in 1804-1818 gg. were peasants freed from serfdom in the Baltics ke (Lifland and Estonia). At the same time, they lost their right to land and found themselves completely dependent on the landowners.
AT 1818-1819 gg. Alexander I ordered A.A. Arakcheev and Minister of Finance D.A. Guryev to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants with the maximum respect for the interests of the landowners. Arakcheev proposed to free the peasants by buying them out from the landlord and then allocating land at the expense of the treasury. According to Guryev, relations between peasants and landlords should have been built on a contractual basis. None of the projects
was never implemented.
RESULTS:
The first step towards the abolition of serfdom was taken.
For all the complexity and inconsistency of the personality of Alexander I and the policy pursued by him, it is difficult to doubt the emperor's desire to carry out liberal transformations in Russia, the basis of which was to be the abolition of serfdom. Why did Alexander I not carry out his plans?
The vast majority of the nobility did not want liberal reforms. In prov-
reforms, Alexander I could rely only on a very narrow circle of higher
dignitaries and individual representatives of the nobility. Disregard opinion.
most of the nobles, Alexander could not, fearing a palace coup.
The agrarian question in the reign of Nicholas I.
Nicholas1 considered serfdom to be evil and the cause of riots, but he was afraid of the discontent of the nobles, as well as the fact that the peasants would not be able to use the freedom provided because of their lack of education. Therefore, the development of projects to improve the situation of the peasants was carried out in the strictest secrecy.
It was forbidden to sell peasants at retail ( 1841
), the purchase of landless peasants
nobles ( 1843
). Decree 1847
the peasants were given the right to redeem on
Liu with land when selling the landlord's estate for debts. AT 1848
a decree followed,
permitting all categories of peasants to acquire immovable property.
The most significant transformations in the peasant question are connected with
the name of the count P.D. Kiseleva. Nicholas I called him "Chief of Staff for
peasant part. Transformations in the state village were supposed to become, as it were, a model for the landowners.
AT 1837-1841. P.D. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of the state
venerable peasants (state peasants lived on state lands,
controlled by state bodies and were considered personally free). She is
included the uniform allocation of land to the peasants, their gradual transfer to
cash rent, the creation of local peasant self-government,
the opening of schools, hospitals, veterinary stations, the distribution of agricultural
ical knowledge. According to most historians, the reform of P.D. Kiseleva,
along with positive aspects, increased bureaucratic pressure on
state village, minimizing the activities of peasant organizations
new self-government, making them completely dependent on the local administrative
walkie-talkie.
1842-Decree on obligated peasants. In essence, this was an addition to the decree on "free cultivators." When released, the peasant received a land plot not in ownership, but in use for duties.
RESULT: Despite the fact that Nikolai1 understood the harm of serfdom, it was not abolished, because the majority of the nobles were still opposed.
The Great Reform of Alexander II
February 19, 1861 G. Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia and a number of "Regulations", explaining the conditions for the liberation of the peasants.
The manifesto dealt with 3 main questions:
personal liberation of the peasants
endowment of land
redemption deal
- they could enter into various transactions in their own name,
- property right,
- open commercial and industrial establishments,
- change place of residence
- move to other classes (philistines, merchants),
- enter the service, in educational institutions,
- to marry without the consent of the landowner,
- defend your rights in court.
2. The size of the allotment, ransom and duties, which the peasants carried before the start of the redemption operation, were determined with the consent of the landowner and the peasant and were recorded in "Statute charter". Monitored the correctness of the transaction conciliator.
The size of land plots was established for each locality with
considering 3 zones:
in black earth zone reduced shower poured from 2.75 to 6 acres,
in non-chernozem zone from 3 to 7 acres,
in steppe areas from 3 to 12 acres.
If the pre-reform peasant land allotment exceeded the post-reform one,
Then the surplus went to the landowner (the so-called "segments").
3. Redemption operation.
Ransom amount:
to the landowner peasant paid 20-25% of the land value.
State paid the rest of the amount (75-80%) to the landowner, but the peasant received this amount in the form of a loan and had to return it to the state within 49 years with 6% per annum. These conditions suited the state most of all,
FINDINGS:
- In terms of its influence on the future development of Russia, this was a progressive, indeed Great Reform, as prominent Russian historians and economists called it. She is laid the foundation accelerated industrialization of Russia.
- Great was the moral significance of the reform that put an end to serfdom. influenced the development of social thought and culture .
- Its cancellation paved the way for other major liberal transformations, the most important of which were zemstvo, urban, judicial and military reforms.
- large landownership
- the lack of land for the peasants, which led to lack of land, one of the main reasons for the agrarian crisis of the early 20th century
- the severity of redemption payments interfered with the process of peasants entering market relations
- preserved rural community, which stood in the way of modernization
He became heir to the throne only at the age of 20, after the sudden death of his elder brother. Began hasty preparation of Alexander Alexandrovich for this role. But, having received an army upbringing in childhood, the heir had a great inclination towards military sciences and was engaged in them with much greater enthusiasm than any other. The exception was Russian history, which he was taught by the famous scientist S. M. Solovyov. Alexander III headed the Historical Society, he had an excellent historical library.
In the autumn of 1866, he married the Danish princess Dagmar, who was named Maria Feodorovna at her marriage. Alexander III loved his wife very much, adored children. The emperor was fond of fishing, hunting, was distinguished by his huge growth, dense physique, possessed remarkable physical strength, wore a beard and a simple Russian dress.
Beginning of a new reign
The death of his father shocked Alexander Alexandrovich. When he looked at the bloody "tsar-liberator", who was dying in terrible agony, he vowed to strangle the revolutionary movement in Russia. The program of the reign of Alexander III contained two main ideas - the most severe suppression of any opponents of power and the cleansing of the state from "alien" Western influences, the return to the Russian foundations - autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality.
On March 2, 1881, while receiving members of the State Council and courtiers who took the oath, the new tsar declared that, entering the throne at a difficult moment, he hoped to follow his father's precepts in everything. On March 4, in dispatches to Russian ambassadors, the emperor emphasized that he wanted to maintain peace with all powers and focus all attention on internal affairs.
Alexander III knew that his father had approved Loris-Melikov's project. The heir only had to formally approve it at a special meeting of senior officials and resolve the issue of publishing this draft in the press. M. T. Loris-Melikov was calm, believing that the will of the late sovereign was law for his heir. Among the government officials who gathered on March 8 for a meeting, the supporters of the project were in the majority. However, the unexpected happened. Alexander III supported the minority of opponents of the project, through whom K. P. Pobedonostsev spoke.
Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) Born in the family of a professor of literature at Moscow University. He graduated from the School of Law and in 1859 was invited to the chair of civil law at Moscow University. Soon Pobedonostsev began to teach law to the sons of Alexander II. He developed a warm and trusting relationship with Alexander Alexandrovich.
Emperor Alexander II highly valued the professional and business qualities of Pobedonostsev and sought to use them on a state scale as well. Pobedonostsev held a number of responsible government positions, was a member of commissions for the development reforms in education and justice. And in April 1880 he was appointed chief prosecutor of the Synod and was soon introduced to the Committee of Ministers.
At first, Pobedonostsev was known as a moderate liberal, but then moved to a conservative position. Pobedonostsev disliked those "innovations" that were "written off" from Western European models. He believed that the foundations of European political life were unacceptable in general, and in Russia in particular.
In the very first hours after the assassination of Alexander II, Pobedonostsev made tremendous efforts to impose on the new emperor his own approaches to resolving the problems that had arisen. He wrote to the tsar: “You get Russia, confused, shattered, confused, eager to be led with a firm hand, so that the ruling power sees clearly and knows firmly what it wants and what it will not allow in any way.”
Encouraged by the emperor's support, Pobedonostsev, in secret from the rest of the ministers, compiled the text of the manifesto, with which on April 29, 1881, Alexander III addressed the people "to calm the minds." It followed from it that the tsar considers the main task of his reign to be the preservation of autocratic power "for the good of the people, from any encroachments on it." The hopes of liberal officials to introduce even some semblance of a constitution collapsed. Minister of Internal Affairs M.T. Loris-Melikov resigned. Together with him, the Minister of Finance A. A. Abaza and the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin left their posts.
Nevertheless, the manifesto of Alexander III was imbued with a spirit of respect for the reforms of the past reign.
Moreover, a desire was expressed to follow the reformist path further. This desire was even more clearly emphasized in the circular of the new Minister of Internal Affairs, N. P. Ignatiev, dated May 6, 1881. It stated that the government would work in close contact with representatives of social forces.
In June 1881, the first so-called "session of knowledgeable people" was convened, who were invited to take part in the development of a law to reduce redemption payments. And although "knowledgeable people" were not elected by the zemstvos, but were appointed by the government, among them were prominent liberal figures. The second "sessions of knowledgeable people", convened in September 1881, the question of resettlement policy was proposed.
Attempts to solve the peasant question
After the demonstrative resignation of the leading ministers, the new posts were by no means opposed to any reforms. Minister of the Interior N. P. Ignatiev, the former envoy of Russia in Constantinople, was a supporter of Slavophile ideas. Together with the prominent Slavophile I. S. Aksakov, he developed a project for convening a deliberative Zemsky Sobor. N. X. Bunge became Minister of Finance. He was reputed to be a very moderate, but liberal-minded politician, striving to alleviate the lot of the masses. The new ministers energetically took up the implementation of the bills developed under Loris-Melikov.
On December 28, 1881, a law on compulsory redemption was adopted, which had passed a preliminary discussion at a "session of knowledgeable people" peasants put on. Thus, the temporarily obligated state of the peasants was terminated. The same law included a provision on the widespread reduction of redemption payments by 1 ruble. Later, 5 million rubles were allocated for their additional reduction in some provinces. A preliminary discussion of the question of the distribution of this money between the provinces was left to the zemstvos.
The next reform gradually abolished the poll tax. During its preparation, Bunge experienced conflicting feelings. On the one hand, as Minister of Finance, he understood that with the abolition of the poll tax, the treasury would lose 40 million rubles annually. However, on the other hand, as a citizen, he could not help but see the whole injustice of the poll tax, its grave consequences - mutual responsibility, leading to restriction of the freedom of movement of peasants and the right to choose their occupations.
Bunge significantly streamlined the collection of taxes, which until then was carried out by the police often using the most unceremonious methods. The positions of tax inspectors were introduced, which were responsible not only for collecting money, but also for collecting information about the solvency of the population in order to further regulate taxation.
In 1882, measures were taken to alleviate the shortage of land among the peasants. Firstly, the Peasant Bank was established, which provided soft loans for the purchase of land by peasants; secondly, the lease of state lands was facilitated.
On the agenda was the issue of settling the resettlement policy. But its decision was delayed, as significant differences emerged in the approaches of the government and the specially convened "session of knowledgeable people". The law on resettlement appeared only in 1889 and actually included measures proposed by “knowledgeable people”: only the Ministry of the Interior gave permission for resettlement; settlers were provided with significant benefits - they were exempted for 3 years from taxes and military service, and in the next 3 years they paid taxes in half; they were given small amounts of money.
At the same time, the government of Alexander III sought to preserve and strengthen the peasant community, believing that it prevents the ruin of the peasants and maintains stability in society. In 1893, a law was passed that limited the possibility of peasants leaving the community. Another law narrowed the rights of the community to redistribute the land and assigned allotments to the peasants. According to the new law, at least 2/3 of the peasant assembly had to vote for the redistribution, and the period between redistributions could not be less than 12 years. A law was passed prohibiting the sale of communal lands.
Start of labor legislation
On June 1, 1882, a law was passed prohibiting the labor of children under 12 years of age. The same document limited the working day of children from 12 to 15 years old to 8 hours. A special factory inspectorate was introduced to supervise the implementation of the law. In 1885, the prohibition of night work for women and minors followed.
In 1886, under the direct influence of workers' uprisings, a law was passed on the relationship between employers and workers. He limited the amount of fines. All penalties imposed on the workers now went to a special fund used to pay benefits to the workers themselves. By law, it was forbidden to pay for work goods through factory shops. Special paybooks were introduced, in which the conditions for hiring a worker were entered. At the same time, the law provided for the severe responsibility of workers for participating in strikes.
Russia became the first country in the world to exercise control over the working conditions of workers.
The end of the "Ignatiev regime"
The new ministers continued the undertakings of Loris-Melikov on the issue of reforming local self-government, including peasant self-government. To summarize the material received from the zemstvos, N. P. Ignatiev created a special commission chaired by Secretary of State M. S. Kakhanov, who was Loris-Melikov's deputy. The commission included senators and representatives of zemstvos.
However, their work was soon stopped, as important changes took place in the Ministry of the Interior. They testified to changes in domestic politics. In May 1882, N.P. Ignatiev was dismissed from his post. He paid the price for trying to convince Alexander III to convene the Zemsky Sobor.
Count D. A. Tolstoy, who was dismissed in 1880 from the post of Minister of Public Education on the initiative of Loris-Melikov, was appointed to replace Ignatiev. From that moment on, new features began to appear more definitely in domestic politics, giving the reign of Alexander III a reactionary coloring.
Measures to combat "sedition"
The outlines of the new course were visible in the “Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace” published on August 14, 1881. This document gave the right to the Minister of the Interior and the Governor-General to declare any region of the country in an "exceptional position." Local authorities could expel undesirable persons without a court decision, close commercial and industrial enterprises, refer court cases to a military court instead of a civil one, suspend the publication of newspapers and magazines, and close educational institutions.
In the future, the political system of the Russian Empire began to acquire all the new features of a police state. In the 80s. there were Departments for the maintenance of order and public security - "Okhranka". Their task was to spy on the opponents of the authorities. The amount allocated to the police to pay secret agents increased. All these measures destroyed the foundations of legality, proclaimed during the reforms of the 60-70s.
Education and press policy
Having become the Minister of the Interior, D. A. Tolstoy decided to complete what he did not have time in the previous reign - to “put things in order” in the Ministry of Public Education. In 1884, the new Minister of Public Education, I. I. Delyanov, introduced a university charter, according to which the universities were deprived of autonomy, and the ministry got the opportunity to control the content of education in them. Tuition fees have almost doubled. It was decided to take students into "hedgehogs" by banning any student organizations. Those who showed open discontent were given to the soldiers.
Being engaged in secondary school, Delyanov "became famous" by the order of June 5, 1887, which received from the liberals the name of the law on "cook's children." Its meaning was to make it difficult for children from the lower strata of society to enter the gymnasium in every possible way. It was proposed to accept in the gymnasium "only such children who are in the care of persons who provide sufficient guarantee of proper home supervision over them and in providing them with the amenities necessary for their studies." This was done in order to “free themselves from the admission of the children of coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people into them, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong. ". For the same reason, tuition fees have increased. In gymnasiums, the number of lessons devoted to the study of religious subjects and ancient languages was increased.
Pobedonostsev also made his contribution to the school business. He spoke out against zemstvo schools, believing that the children of peasants did not need the knowledge they received there, which was cut off from real life. Pobedonostsev contributed to the spread of parochial schools, obliging each parish to have them. The only teacher in such a school was the parish priest. However, the poorly educated, financially unsecured local clergy were not particularly happy about this additional burden. Teaching in most parochial schools was at an extremely low level. In 1886, at the insistence of Pobedonostsev, the Higher Women's Courses were closed.
Prohibitive measures were also taken in relation to the press. In 1882, the Conference of the Four Ministers was formed, endowed with the right to prohibit the publication of any printed organ. Only in 1883-1885. by decision of the Meeting, where Pobedonostsev played the first violin, 9 publications were closed. Among them were the popular magazines "Voice" by A. A. Kraevsky and "Notes of the Fatherland" by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
The year 1884 brought another “novelty”: for the first time in Russia, a “cleansing” of libraries was carried out. 133 titles of individual books, collected works and journals previously allowed by censorship were considered "inadmissible for circulation" in public libraries and public reading rooms.
Strengthening the position of the nobility. Attack on local self-government
The appointment of D. A. Tolstoy as Minister of the Interior evoked approval from the conservative-minded nobles, who now hoped to restore their former position in society. In 1885, the opening of the Noble Bank took place. Its task was to provide soft loans to support the landowners' farms. In the manifesto on this occasion, the wish was expressed that henceforth "the Russian nobles retain their leading place in military leadership, in matters of local government and the court, in spreading by example the rules of faith and fidelity and the sound principles of public education."
On July 12, 1889, a law on zemstvo district chiefs was issued. He abolished positions and local institutions based on non-estate and elective principles: peace mediators, district presences for peasant affairs and the world court. In 40 provinces of Russia, 2,200 zemstvo sections were created. They were headed by zemstvo chiefs, who had broad powers, which were previously exercised by the institutions listed above. The zemstvo chief controlled the communal self-government of the peasants, instead of a magistrate, he considered minor court cases, approved the sentences of the volost peasant court, resolved land disputes, etc. Only nobles could occupy the positions of zemstvo chiefs.
This law solved several important tasks for the authorities at once. Subordinating peasant self-government to zemstvo chiefs, he strengthened the position of the local government and provided the nobles with the opportunity for prestigious service. The power of zemstvo chiefs became a kind of similarity to the pre-reform power of the landowners. The peasants, in fact, were placed in personal dependence on the zemstvo chiefs, who received the right to subject them to punishment without trial, including corporal punishment.
On June 12, 1890, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were published. In it, zemstvo self-government was considered as part of state administration, a grassroots cell of power. When zemstvos were elected, the estate principles were strengthened: the landowning curia became purely noble, the number of vowels from it increased, and the property qualification decreased. The electoral qualification for the city curia increased sharply, and the peasant curia practically lost independent representation, since peasants were now allowed to elect only candidates at volost meetings, who were then approved by the governor.
On June 11, 1892, a new city regulation was issued. It significantly increased the electoral qualification, formalized the practice of government interference in the affairs of city government. Mayors and members of councils were declared to be in the civil service.
National and religious policy of Alexander III
One of the main tasks of the national and religious policy of Alexander III was the desire to preserve the unity of the state. The way to this was seen primarily in the Russification of the national outskirts.
Not without the influence of Pobedonostsev, the Russian Orthodox Church was placed in an exceptional position. Those religions that he recognized as "dangerous" for Orthodoxy were persecuted. The chief prosecutor of the Synod showed particular severity towards sectarians. Often, children were even taken away from sectarian parents.
Buddhists (Kalmyks and Buryats) were also persecuted. They were forbidden to build temples, to conduct divine services. Particularly intolerant was the attitude towards those who were officially listed as converted to Orthodoxy, but in fact continued to profess the former religion.
The government of Alexander III showed a harsh attitude towards adherents of Judaism. According to the Provisional Rules of 1882, the Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside cities and towns, even within the Pale of Settlement; they were forbidden to acquire real estate in the countryside. In 1887, the Pale of Settlement itself was reduced. In 1891, a decree was issued on the eviction of Jews who illegally lived in Moscow and Moscow province. In 1887, it was determined what percentage of the total number of students in educational institutions could be Jews (percentage rate). There were restrictions on certain types of professional activities, such as advocacy. All these oppressions did not extend to Jews who converted to the Orthodox faith.
Catholic Poles were also subjected to persecution - they were denied access to government positions in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Western Territory.
At the same time, the Muslim religion and Muslim courts were left intact in the lands of Central Asia annexed to the Russian Empire. The local population was granted the right of internal self-government, which turned out to be in the hands of the local elite. But the Russian authorities managed to win over the working strata of the population, by lowering taxes and limiting the arbitrariness of the nobility.
Alexander III refused to continue the liberal reforms begun by his father. He took a firm course in preserving the foundations of autocracy. Reformatory activity was continued only in the field of economics.
The reign of Alexander III and the counter-reforms of 1880 - 1890s
As you already know, from this topic, that after the murder of his father, his son Alexander III came to the throne. The death of Alexander II shocked his son so much that at the beginning of his reign he began to fear various revolutionary trends, and therefore it was difficult for him to decide on a political course. But in the end, Alexander III succumbed to the influence of such reactionary ideologists as K.P. Pobedonostsev and P.A. Tolstoy decided to preserve autocracy and dislike for liberal reforms in the empire.
And since, after the brutal assassination of Alexander II, the public lost faith in the Narodnaya Volya with their terror and police repressions, the society changed its views towards conservative forces and counter-reforms.
Literally a month after the assassination of the emperor, Alexander III publishes the Manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy." In the published Manifesto, Alexander III declares that he decided to preserve the foundations of autocracy in the state. With this Manifesto, he practically revived the order of Nicholas I, thereby strengthening the regime of the police state.
First of all, the Emperor dismisses M. Loris-Melikov, who was the main reformer during the reign of his father, and also replaces all liberal rulers with more cruel supporters of the chosen course.
K.N. became the main ideologist in the development of counter-reforms. Pobedonostsev, who believed that the liberal reforms of Alexander II did not lead to anything good, but, on the contrary, only caused upheavals in society. In this regard, he called for a return to the more traditional canons of national life.
To further strengthen the autocracy, changes were made to the system of zemstvo self-government. After that, the zemstvo chiefs received unlimited power over the peasants.
By issuing the "Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace", Alexander III expanded the powers of the governors and thereby allowed them to declare a state of emergency, expel without trial or investigation, bring them to a military court, close educational institutions and fight in the liberal or revolutionary movement. . Severe censorship was also introduced and all major liberal publications were closed.
All city self-government bodies and state institutions were under strict control.
The emperor also made his changes to the peasant communities, thereby forbidding the sale and pledge of peasant lands, which nullified the successes of his father's rule.
To educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities, the university counter-reform was also adopted. Strict discipline was introduced in all universities. For admission to the university, it was necessary to provide recommendations on the political reliability of students. In addition, people pleasing to the government were appointed to all significant university positions.
A Decree was also issued under the title "On Cook's Children". According to this Decree, it was forbidden to accept children, footmen, laundresses, coachmen and other people who belonged to the lower class in the gymnasium.
Factory legislation was amended to prohibit workers from asserting their rights.
In addition, the policy towards the peasants was also tightened. They were canceled any benefits related to the redemption of land, and peasant allotments were limited in size.
During the reign of Alexander III, they tried in every possible way to stop admiration for the West, the ideas of a special Russian path and the identity of Russia were planted. In addition, the term tsar was returned and the cult of the monarch and the monarchy was spread everywhere.
The fashion of those times dictated the wearing of caftans, bast shoes and a beard.
And if we sum up the results of the counter-reforms carried out by the policy of Alexander III, then it can be considered rather contradictory. On the one hand, under his rule, the country experienced an industrial boom and a peaceful existence without wars from outside. But on the other hand, discontent among the population grew, tension appeared in society and social unrest intensified.
Questions and tasks
1. What circumstances had a decisive impact on the domestic policy of Alexander III?
2. Highlight the main directions of the domestic policy of Alexander III.
3. Compare the domestic policy of Alexander II and Alexander III. Where do you see the fundamental differences? Can you find commonalities?
4. What innovations of the previous reign were subjected to revision by Alexander III and why?
5. Give an assessment of the social policy of Alexander III. What do you see as its advantages and disadvantages?
6. Give an assessment of the national policy of Alexander III.
7. Do you agree with the statement that the period of the reign of Alexander III was a period of counter-reforms, that is, a period of liquidation of the reforms of the previous reign?
Documentation
From the note of Count N.P. Ignatiev to M.T. Loris-Melikov. March 1881
No matter how criminal the actions of fanatics may be, the fight against any even fanatical opinion is possible and successful only when it is not limited to one impact of material force, but when the right thought is opposed to error, to this destructive idea - the idea of a correct state order. The most stubborn, most persistent, most energetic pursuit of sedition by all the police and administrative means at the disposal of the government is undoubtedly the urgent need of the moment. But such persecution, being a cure for the inner side of the disease, is hardly a fully effective means of struggle. Achieving the ultimate goal and eradicating evil is conceivable only under the indispensable condition - simultaneously with such a persecution - of the steady and correct direction of the state on the path of peaceful development by continuing the reforms and undertakings of the last reign ... Now ... is the most convenient moment to call for assistance to the government of the zemstvo people and offer to them for a preliminary discussion all those draft reforms that all of Russia is looking forward to with such impatience.
What is the Constitution? Western Europe gives us the answer to this. The constitutions that exist there are the instrument of any untruth, the instrument of all intrigues... And this falsehood, according to the Western model, unsuitable for us, they want, to our misfortune, to our destruction, to introduce in our country. Russia was strong thanks to the autocracy, thanks to unlimited trust and close ties between the people and their tsar ... But instead of that they propose to set up a talking shop for us ... We already suffer from talking ...
In such a terrible time ... one must think not about the establishment of a new one, in which new corrupting speeches would be made, but about deeds. We need to act.
Document questions:
1. What was the essence of the programs of Ignatiev and Pobedonostsev?
2. Which of them was adopted by Alexander III? Why?
Expanding vocabulary
Inspector- an official who checks the correctness of someone's actions.
Sedition- conspiracy, rebellion, something forbidden.
Resettlement policy- the movement of the population for permanent residence in the sparsely populated outlying regions of Russia - in Siberia, the southern Urals, the North Caucasus, Novorossia, the Lower Volga region, and free lands.
police state- a characteristic of the political system, in which the suppression of internal opponents is practiced by the methods of political violence, surveillance and investigation by law enforcement forces. In such a state, there is control over the location, movement, behavior of citizens, information is being collected about obvious and probable opponents of the authorities.
Reaction- the policy of active resistance to progressive changes in society.
sectarians- members of religious groups that do not recognize the teachings of the main church.
Circular- order of the authority to subordinate institutions.
Pale of Settlement- the territory on which it was allowed in 1791-1917. permanent residence of Jews in Russia. Covered 15 provinces.
Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009. - 287 p., L. ill., maps.
Russia has always been several years behind Europe in development. This was also reflected in the fact that in Russia there was still a feudal-serf system when the whole world was switching to capitalism.
In the first half of the 19th century, Russia was still an agrarian country. Peasants made up the majority of the population, and the economy was based on subsistence farming. However, a sharp increase in the population led to the fact that agricultural resources were gradually depleted and there was an urgent need in the country to transfer the economy to a more progressive basis - capitalism.
A necessary condition for the transition to an industrial society is the solution of the peasant question.
The liberation of the peasants and the stages of solving the peasant question in Russia
The first attempts to resolve the peasant issue were made under Paul 1, who issued a series of laws that weakened the influence of the feudal lord and gave the peasants a certain freedom. However, only Alexander 1 began to seriously deal with peasant issues.
Peasant question under Alexander 1
1801 - a decree giving landowners, merchants and specific peasants outside the cities to buy land.
1803 - the decree "on free cultivators", giving the right to the peasant to leave the service of the master (to become liberated) along with part of the land. The peasant had to pay a large ransom for the land, but this was already a big step, since the peasants ceased to be unconditionally dependent and had a chance to gain freedom.
1809 - a decree forbidding landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia without trial.
According to scientists, Alexander even ordered his legislators to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. Unfortunately, the difficult economic situation in 1810-1816 led to the fact that some of the laws were canceled, and the sale of peasants between landlords resumed with renewed vigor.
Despite the fact that many laws were repealed, Alexander's reforms nevertheless gave the first impetus to the abolition of serfdom and the solution of the problems of the peasant question. The progressive part of the population was engaged with might and main in the problems of solving the peasant question and proposed various measures.
The peasant question under Nicholas 1
The next emperor, who breathed new life into the solution of the peasant issue, was Nicholas 1. The peasants again received the right to redeem themselves with part of the land, a ban was introduced on the expulsion of peasants to hard labor, and in general the situation of the serfs improved. It was under Nicholas 1 that the foundation was laid for the future final solution of the peasant question and the abolition of serfdom.
1837-1841 - reform of the state peasants. The reform improved the legal and financial situation of serfs, giving them the right and opportunity to become independent. Bodies of peasant self-government were created.
1841 - a law prohibiting the sale of peasants alone or together with the estate.
1842 - the law on "free peasants". The landowners could now, at their own discretion, free the peasants and give them land without demanding money in return. However, the peasant was obliged in return to work off the debt on the land given to him.
1843 - landless nobles no longer had the right to buy serfs (liquidation of slavery).
The peasant question under Alexander 2
As a result of the revolution, bourgeois and industrial, the emperor signed a decree according to which serfdom was considered an obsolete system. Serfdom was completely abolished in 1861.
Here it is appropriate to say that if war did not break out in Europe in 1891 and peace was restored for many years, then this is, first of all, the merit of the Russian emperor. Austria, preparing for war with Russia, counted on Italy and Germany, that is, on the triple alliance, but when Wilhelm II declared his commitment to the Triple Alliance, Alexander concluded an alliance with France.
The situation of workers and peasants under Alexander III
Alexander paid great attention to the peasants, and the cabinet of ministers of Alexander III was actively involved in the peasant issue. In 1883, peasants began to receive passports, thanks to which they had the opportunity of free movement, including resettlement in cities. Those who were richer became entrepreneurs, the poor went to work in factories and factories, replenishing the class of workers.
By the end of the XIX century. the number of workers was about 3 million people. The number of workers grew mainly due to the peasants.
Some measures were taken to improve the living conditions of the workers. On June 2, 1882, a law was passed to limit the hours of the working day for child workers. To supervise the implementation of this law, factories introduced a special inspection. But the measures taken were not enough. The working day in factories reached 14 - 15 hours. The salary in Russia was much lower than in Europe and even more so in the USA. A common occurrence was the sale of food on credit in factory shops, as wages were often delayed. The prices in the shops were too high.
The workers lived in factory barracks, which were divided into separate closets for family living. Sometimes two families lived in one closet. For highly skilled workers, the salary allowed them to rent an apartment and even buy a house.
The accumulated discontent, reinforced by the peasants who settled in the city, resulted in strikes. In 1880 there was a strike at the factory of the Khludov merchants in the Smolensk province. The strike was crushed by the called-in troops. Unrest was in the Moscow province, and in St. Petersburg.
In June 1884, a law was passed for the schooling of children working in factories, and the following year, a law forbidding night work for women and children.
1885 was marked by the Morozov strike. A crowd of weavers smashed the apartments of the director and some craftsmen and a food shop. The workers demanded higher wages and reduced fines. As a result, the leader of the weaver Volkov was arrested, many workers were sent to their villages.
In 1886, a law was adopted, according to which participation in a strike was punishable by arrest for up to a month, but it was also forbidden to collect fines above the established amount at enterprises.
The unrest of the workers subsided with the onset of the industrial upsurge in 1893.
"Frugal" economy and economic recovery
Alexander II accepted Russia with an upset economy and a budget deficit. Alexander II was not helped by the sale of Alaska, the money from which did not greatly reduce the crisis.
Alexander III was forced to strictly limit spending in order to eliminate the budget deficit. Strict control over expenses also affected the ordinary life of the royal court. The emperor severely cut the expenses of the palace department. He reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, reduced the number of servants and introduced strict control over the spending of money in his family and in the families of the Grand Dukes. The emperor forbade the purchase of foreign wines for his table, replacing them with Crimean and Caucasian ones. Balls, masquerades and other court entertainment events ceased to be magnificent and were not encouraged by Alexander III, and their number was limited to four per year.
Military spending was cut to the limit, although the reorganization of the army continued and rearmament with new modern weapons was in progress.
Carrying out military reform, Alexander III abolished the beloved parades that were so often held on the Field of Mars, and with it the solemn divorce of the guards.
Alexander preferred to invest savings in industry, construction of ports, factories, railways, which led to the growth of industry and the stabilization of the economy. The number of factories and plants by the end of the reign of Alexander III reached 22,483 and employed about 500 million people.
Alexander III himself wore clothes until they were completely worn out, and then he repaired and patched them, and his clothes were very simple: soldiers' boots, a jacket made of coarse cloth, shirts made of canvas. And he did not live in the luxurious apartments of the Winter Palace, but in Gatchina in the premises where servants lived before him.
The reign of Alexander III was marked by an economic boom. There have been advances in agriculture. Settlers began to develop new lands in Siberia and the Far East. Russia now produced almost 15% of the world's wheat and was able to export grain to other countries.
In 1882, the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition was held in Moscow. The exposition occupied eight pavilions. All buildings were glazed, magnificent fountains operated at the locations of the pavilions.
At this exhibition, domestic trams were launched for the first time. They consisted of four six-seater trailers that transported visitors from one pavilion to another. The fare was two kopecks. This money went to the Red Cross fund.
The Parisian magazine Revue de Le Monde then wrote: “The newspapers claimed that Russia was in its death throes. We took a trip to see for ourselves, and found a large exhibition. There is no doubt that ... in a quarter of a century, Russian manufacturers will raise their fatherland to the proper level and will withstand foreign competition, but for now they are challenging the markets in Asia.
In 1893, state revenues exceeded expenditures by 100 million rubles, and the ruble became a hard currency. Thanks to the stable state of the economy, the well-being of the people grew.
New uniforms in the army
Alexander III, while participating in hostilities, became convinced of the inconvenience of beautiful, but impractical old uniforms in the army and personally took up changing clothes in the army and navy. He instructed Minister P.S. Vannovsky to make the form of a military uniform simpler and more convenient. The uniform had to be easily adjusted to the figure of a soldier. This was important, since the lower ranks were issued a ready-made uniform.
Simplifying and making the form more convenient, Alexander also pursued another goal - to make the form national. The new form consisted of semi-caftans and trousers, girded with a sash, and lambskin hats.
In 1881, duffel and bread bags were introduced, as well as waterproof canvas boot covers, convenient cartridge bags and wooden flasks with straps to carry over the shoulders. The set included tinned copper cups. A canvas tent was introduced. Pegs were attached to the canvas.
The duffel bag contained two undershirts made of cotton, canvas pants, two pairs of footcloths, a pair of mittens, mittens, a towel, a hood, toiletries and accessories for cleaning weapons, as well as a boot case for a pair of boots.
The bread bag contained 2.5 kg of crackers, a bag with 50 g of salt and a copper drinking mug. The overcoat roll and the canvas of the tent were fastened over a bread bag.
Alexander III demanded that army uniforms be practical and consistent with the Russian national spirit.
The guards and cuirassier regiments that served in the capital and suburban royal palaces remained privileged. They flaunted in bright and expensive clothes. These regiments were patronized by the imperial family, and they were located in Tsarskoye Selo and Gatchina. Guards and cuirassier regiments, in addition to everyday life, also had a court, exit uniform, in which they danced at balls.
Alexander III improved the financial situation of the officers by increasing their maintenance and housing salaries, and the barracks began to be built more suitable for housing.
On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because. the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.
In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the starving. When he was before accession to the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops, chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.
The historical portrait of Alexander III was more like a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of the empire. He possessed heroic strength, but did not differ in mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.
In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmar, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.
Domestic policy of Alexander III
The beginning of the reign of Alexander III fell on the period of the struggle of two parties: the liberal (desiring the reforms initiated by Alexander II) and the monarchist. Alexander III abolished the idea of the constitutionality of Russia and set a course for strengthening the autocracy.
On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law "Regulations on Measures to Protect State Order and Public Peace." To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.
Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country come from the freethinking of subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father's reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.
Universities were considered the main center of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and student courts were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.
changes in the Zemstvo reform under Alexander III:
In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of the zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was taken under the strict control of the governors. Merchants and officials sat in the city dumas, and only wealthy local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.
Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:
In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, the world courts were practically eliminated.
Changes in the peasant reform under Alexander III:
The poll tax and communal land use were abolished, and compulsory land redemption was introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.
Changes in the military reform under Alexander III:
The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.
Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created, reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.
To conduct combat in mountainous areas, batteries of mountain artillery were created, mortar regiments, siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.
In 1892, mine river companies, serf telegraphs, aeronautic detachments, and military pigeon houses appeared.
Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, for the first time non-commissioned officer training battalions were created, which trained junior commanders.
A new three-line rifle was adopted, a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been changed to a more comfortable one. The order of appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.
Social policy of Alexander III
"Russia for the Russians" is the emperor's favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian, all other religions were officially defined as "non-denominational confessions."
The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.
Foreign policy of Alexander III
The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname "Peacemaker".
Economic policy of Alexander III
Under Alexander III, cities, factories and plants grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and the construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled in Siberia and Central Asia.
In the late 1980s, the state budget deficit was overcome, and revenues exceeded expenditures.
The results of the reign of Alexander III
Emperor Alexander III was called "the most Russian Tsar." He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.
As a result of the measures taken in Russia, a rapid industrial boom took place, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.
Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also engendered in the Russians a revolutionary spirit that would break out under his son Nicholas II.
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