Meaning of GRAMMATIC MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an additive to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relations (relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, relation to a linden performing an action or other persons, relation of a reported fact to reality and time, a speaker’s attitude to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has the meaning of the feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, book, book, etc. (case values);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (values ​​​​of imperfect and perfect form);

c) accent. Houses. (genus. falling singular) - at home (named after falling. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (values ​​of the form). Good - better (values ​​of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).

The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed with the help of other words with which this word is associated in a sentence. The tram left the depot. - The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, word meanings and what is GRAMMATIC MEANING in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  - a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. AT …
• GRAMMAR
  INTERPRETATION - interpretation of the rule of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words in order to clarify its meaning and content. GT. assumes that...
• MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• MEANING
  content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. Z. of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ...
• MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ...
• MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -i, cf. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, means. 3. look, gesture. Determine h. the words. Lexical…
• MEANING
  LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of the word, reflecting and fixing in the mind the idea of ​​an object, property, process, phenomenon and ...
• MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  SIGNIFICANCE, importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. The content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign ...
• MEANING in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, ...
• MEANING in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  -I'm with. 1) Meaning, content of smth. Gesture value. Meaning of the word. She is disturbed by dreams. Not knowing how to understand it, the dreams of a terrible ...
• MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary:
  
• MEANING in the Russian Thesaurus:
  1. Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ...
• MEANING in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
  meaning, mind; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Real, figurative, direct, own, strict, figurative, literal, broad sense of the word. "This girl...
• MEANING in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
  Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ...
• MEANING in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
  cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ...
• MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
  value, ...
• MEANING in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  meaning, …
• MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
  value, ...
• MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
  meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes the Z. of a look, gesture. Determine h. the words. Lexical words (meaning...
• MEANING in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
  1) importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) The content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ...
• MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
  values, cf. (book). 1. Meaning, what the given object (Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word sick...
• MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
  value cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ...
• MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
  cf. 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence, ...
• MEANING in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  I cf. Possessing the property to express, to mean something, to have any meaning. II cf. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence, ...
• GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
  - interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. this year suggests that in the words ...
• GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
  - see grammatical interpretation ...
• GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
  - interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. This year suggests that in the words ...
• GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the Big Law Dictionary:
  - see Grammar interpretation ...
• TIME GRAMMAR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  grammatical, grammatical category that serves to localize in time the event that is indicated by the verb or predicate of the sentence: temporary forms express the relationship ...
• JAKOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian ...
• INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
  
• INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the Big Law Dictionary:
  - the activities of state bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the generally binding will of the legislator, ...
• JAPANESE LANGUAGE in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
  For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying in the genealogical classification of languages ​​...
• VAK in the Dictionary of Yoga:
  , Vah (Vak or Vach) Oral speech; pronunciation, pronunciation. "Vakya" means a grammatical sentence, and "Mahavakya" means "great speech", ...
• INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  STANDARDS OF LAW - the activities of state bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the universally binding ...
• INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  INTERNATIONAL CONTRACT - understanding the true intention of the parties to the treaty and the actual meaning of its provisions. The purpose of the interpretation is to be as complete as possible ...
• INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  GRAMMATIC - see GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION; INTERPRETATION OF REGULATIONS…
• OFFER in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  the main unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic (the presence of the so-called predication - see below) and structural (choice, location and connection ...
• INVERSION in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  violation of the order of words accepted in colloquial speech and, thereby, the usual intonation; the latter with I. is characterized by a larger than usual number ...
• DIALECTOLOGY in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  department of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the dialect as a whole. So. arr. unlike other departments of linguistics, distinguishing in ...
• GRAMMAR in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  [from the Greek grammata - "letters", "scriptures"]. In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including ...
• ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
  lang. mixed. In its origin, it is associated with the western branch of the Germanic group of languages. (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the …
• FORTUNATOV in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  Philip Fedorovich (1848-1914), linguist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1898). The founder of the Moscow, the so-called. Fortunatovskaya, linguistic school. Since 1876 professor at Moscow University. AT …
• FRANCE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
• FORM OF THE WORD in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  words, 1) a set of morphological and phonological characteristics of a word that determine its grammatical meaning. So, the composition of the morphemes of the word "teacher" (uchi-tel-nits-a) indicates ...

grammatical meaning- this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meanings of objectivity in nouns, processivity in verbs), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning inherent in a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical meanings, which are revealed when the word changes its grammatical form while maintaining the lexical meaning. For example, the word table has a number of forms (stola, table, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If the lexical meaning is associated with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their names and the expression of concepts about them, then the grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist in order to distinguish animals by biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. Forms table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, less numerous, form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “compulsory” manner. For example, a Russian speaker cannot "evade" the expression of the category of the number of the verb, an English speaker - from the category of the definiteness of the noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of ways and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number, time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called the grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech- the main lexical and grammatical categories, according to which the words of the language are distributed on the basis of signs: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a x i c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of the word)

. The classification of academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most reasonable and convincing. She divides all words into four grammatico-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Words-names, or parts of speech;

2. Connective, service words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Words-names (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, signs, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech V.V. Vinogradov assigns nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words to the category of state; pronouns are also attached to them.

2. Service words are devoid of a nominative (naming) function. These include connective, auxiliary words (prepositions, conjunctions, proper particles, bundles).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a nominative function, but are more “lexical” than auxiliary words. They express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by the lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive test.

In modern Russian, 10 parts of speech are distinguished: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) category of state, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) union, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of the proposal. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words devoid of a nominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a nominative function and do not act as independent members of the sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, special groups of words are distinguished in the modern Russian language: 1) modal words expressing the relation of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections that serve to express feelings and will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (significant) parts of speech include words that name objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions to independent words, and in a sentence, significant words are members of a sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

	Part of speech	Questions	Examples
	Noun	who? what?	Boy, uncle, table, wall, window.
	Verb	what to do? what to do?	Saw, saw, know, learn.
	Adjective	which? whose?	Good, blue, mother's, door.
	Numeral	how many? which?	Five, five, fifth.
	Adverb	as? when? where? and etc.	Fun, yesterday, close.
	Pronoun	who? which? how many? as? and etc.	I, he, such, mine, so much, so, there.
	Participle	which? (what does he do? what did he do? etc.)	Dreaming, dreaming.
	gerund	as? (doing what? doing what?)	Dreaming, deciding

Notes.

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position in the system of parts of speech of participles and participles. Some researchers attribute them to independent parts of speech, others consider them to be special forms of the verb. Participle and participle really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and verb forms.

Service parts of speech- these are words that do not name either objects, or actions, or signs, but express only the relationship between them.

• It is impossible to put a question to official words.
• Service words are not members of the sentence.
• Functional words serve independent words, helping them to connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
• The service parts of speech in Russian include the following

• pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
• union (and, but, but, however, because, in order to, if);
• particle (would, whether, same, not, even, precisely, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among the parts of speech.

• Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words, and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
• Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use such interjections as ah, ooh, ooh; to express feelings of cold brr, to express fear or pain - oh etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their signs, actions, states, quantity, signs of other signs or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of a sentence in a sentence.

Service parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are invariable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to link words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

Ticket number 8

Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with objective meaning, which have the category of gender, change in cases and numbers, and act in the sentence as any member.

grammatical meaning- part of the meaning (content) of a word or sentence, which receives a mandatory formal expression as part of a word or sentence.

There are two types of meanings of linguistic units in a language: lexical and grammatical. The lexical meaning of a word is the subject of vocabulary, and the grammatical meaning is the subject of grammar. The lexical meaning is the specific, objective meaning of the word. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that this is a reflection of a fragment of the surrounding world in the word (see Lexical meaning of the word).

The difference between the lexical meaning and the grammatical one lies in the greater degree of abstraction of the latter, in its obligatory and regular, fairly standard formal expression in the language. Grammatical meaning is more abstract: it does not name objects, signs, actions, etc., but classifies words, combines them into groups according to certain characteristics, links words in syntactic constructions. Grammatical abstraction is a distraction from a specific meaning, isolating grammatical features and relationships that characterize a whole class of words. Each part of speech is characterized by a specific set of grammatical meanings. For example, a noun has a meaning of gender, number and case, a verb has a meaning of tense, mood, etc.

Grammatical meanings are obligatory in the language: this means that they are expressed in a word or sentence without fail, regardless of the speaker's desire. For example, when reporting on an event, a Russian speaker must necessarily indicate whether the event is happening now, it happened earlier, or it can only happen in the future, that is, indicate the tense of the verb. The noun is necessarily masculine, feminine or neuter, has the form of number and case, etc.

Grammatical meaning is always formally expressed as part of a word or sentence. The ways of expressing grammatical meaning can be different.

1. In Russian, grammatical meanings are most often expressed with the help of an ending (inflection): cat - cats (number), cat - cat (case), I go - you go (person), etc.

2. Sometimes the grammatical meaning can be expressed using the alternation of sounds: call - name (category of appearance), run - run (category of inclination).

3. Grammatical meanings can also be expressed with the help of stress: cut - cut (the meaning of the form).

4. Grammatical meanings can be expressed by combining forms from different bases into one paradigm: person - people (number category), I - me (case category).

5. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by repeating the word: kind-kind (superlative adjective).

6. The grammatical meaning can be expressed in functional words: I will read (the meaning of the future tense), I would read (the meaning of the subjunctive mood).

7. The grammatical meaning can be expressed using the word order in the sentence: the mother loves her daughter, the chair scratches the table (subject-object relations are formalized by subject and object).

8. The grammatical meaning can be expressed with the help of intonation: He has come. He came?

The grammatical meaning has standard and regular means of expression, that is, in most cases, homogeneous grammatical meanings are expressed by the same (standard) morphemes. So, for example, the instrumental case of nouns of the 1st declension is represented by the ending -oy (-s): girl, bird, dad, young men, etc., and the instrumental case of nouns of the 2nd declension is represented by the ending -om (-s): boy, hammer, field, etc. The grammatical meaning is expressed, as a rule, regularly, that is, it forms paradigms - patterns of inflection into which you can substitute any word of the same grammatical characteristic and get the correct form (see Paradigm). Therefore, the grammatical system is easily structured and can be presented in the form of tables (for example, tables of declension of nouns or conjugation of verbs).

Grammatical meaning is the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example, the grammatical meaning of words new, old is the general categorical meaning of the feature, as well as particular grammatical meanings - gender, number and case: all these meanings have a standard expression in the language in the affix morpheme th; in English, the grammatical meaning of the plural is regularly expressed using the suffix ~(e)s: book-s, student-s, horses-es). The grammatical meaning differs from the lexical one by a higher level of abstraction, because “this is an abstraction of features and relationships” (A.A. Reformatsky). The grammatical meaning is not individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words, united by a common morphological properties and syntactic functions. Some private grammatical meanings can change in a word in its different grammatical forms (cf. changing the meaning of number and case in nouns or tense in verb forms, while the lexical meaning of the word remains unchanged). At the same time, the possibility of changing the grammatical meaning of a word is limited by the very set of grammatical meanings of a particular part of speech, the “closedness” of their list in each language, while the list of lexical meanings is open, since the lexical system of any language is open, which means it can be replenished with new words and, accordingly, new meanings. In contrast to the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not called the word directly, directly, but is expressed in it “in passing”, in a strictly defined way, with the help of grammatical means (affixes) specially assigned to it. It, as it were, accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

The abstracted linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has a different degree of abstraction, i.e. by its nature, grammatical meaning is heterogeneous: it can be more abstract or less abstract (cf. in the word was reading the most abstract is the meaning of the process: it is inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the meaning of the past tense: it is inherent in all verbs in the form of the past tense; the meaning of the masculine gender is more definite and narrow: it is inherent only in the forms of the verb that are opposed to the feminine and neuter forms and combined with the pronoun is he). Depending on the nature of the grammatical meaning, i.e. whether it is inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of objectivity in a noun) or whether it is realized in a word form in a certain context as part of a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of number and case in a noun), non-syntactic or referential grammatical meanings that are internally inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of the gender of nouns), and syntactic or relational grammatical meanings indicating the relationship of the word (or rather the word form) to other words in a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of the gender, number, case of an adjective). Finally, depending on the relationship between the grammatical meaning and the nature of the displayed objects, they distinguish between objective or dictal grammatical meanings that convey objective, subject-independent features and relationships (cf. the grammatical meanings of a feature for adjectives, tense and aspect for a verb) and modal, reflecting the attitude of the speaker to what he is talking about or to whom he is talking (cf. grammatical meanings of subjective evaluation, mood, etc.).

The grammatical meaning of a word is derived from its relation to other units of the same class (for example, the grammatical meaning of the past tense form of the verb carried derived by relating it to other temporary forms -- bears, will bear).

The grammatical meaning of a word often includes its derivational meaning (if the word is derivative), since word formation is part of the grammatical structure of the language. Derivative meaning is a generalized meaning inherent only in motivated words, expressed by word-formation means. It represents a certain semantic relationship between the members of a derivational pair - generating and derived words. Like grammatical meaning, it is not individual, but characterizes entire classes of words belonging to the same word-formation type, i.e. built according to one typed model (which means that all these words belong to the same part of speech, are formed by the same way of word formation, using the same affix from the stem belonging to the same part of speech, and they all have the same derivational meaning, cf., for example, the derivational type "a person performing an action called a motivating word": teacher, writer, builder, investigator etc.). The word-formation meaning has a different degree of abstractness (cf. the different degree of abstractness of the following word-formation meanings: "non-maturity" in words naming animal babies: kitten, wolf cub or "shortness of action" in verbs cry, cry). At the same time, word-building meanings are more abstract than lexical ones, but more specific than grammatical ones (compare, for example, the word-building meaning of "diminutiveness" and the grammatical meaning of "animation").

Since the semantic relations between the generating and the derived word can develop in different ways, several semantic types of word-formation meaning are distinguished: the derived word acts as a carrier of a feature called producing (cf. the subject-characterizing derivational meaning "carrier of an attributive feature" in the word sage), At the same time, the part-of-speech attribution of the derived word may or may not coincide with the generating one (cf. bread--bakery, read--reader)", transpositional type, in which the meaning of the derived word completely preserves the grammatical semantics of the generating word, although it is transferred to another part-of-speech class (cf. the meaning of the objectified action in the word walking or the meaning of an abstract feature in a word wisdom) and the modification type, in which the meaning of the derived word, which receives an additional semantic component, is only modified, since the meaning of the generating word is completely included in the semantic volume of the derivative, the part belonging to which does not change (cf. the meaning of the collectiveness in the word crow or singularity in a word pea).

The material expression of the grammatical meaning of a word in the broadest sense is its grammatical form. In the narrow sense of the word, a grammatical form is understood as one of the regular modifications of a word (for example, any form of a word in its declension or conjugation). Grammatical meaning and grammatical form are inseparable from each other, they are two sides of a linguistic sign. However, the relationship between them is not unambiguous: the same grammatical form can convey several grammatical meanings (for example, the word form brother contains the meanings of objectivity, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case, animation, concreteness) and vice versa, the same grammatical meaning can be conveyed by several grammatical forms (cf. the meaning of plurality contained in the words leaves and foliage, which is transmitted by different grammatical forms, or the meaning of diminutiveness and endearment, transmitted by different suffixes: -ik: house, -ok: town, -ochek: son and etc.). The set of grammatical forms of one word is called a paradigm (cf. im.p. house, genus.p. Houses, dt.p. home etc.). A word may have a complete paradigm, i.e. including all possible grammatical forms in a given language that are inherent in this part of speech (for example, inflected nouns of the Russian language such as table, country, village have a complete paradigm of twelve grammatical forms), an incomplete or defective paradigm in which some grammatical forms are missing (for example, in verbs like win, convince no form 1 l. singular) and a paradigm that abounds in which there are redundant grammatical forms (cf., for example, the paradigms of the verbs drip: dripping and caplet or move: moves and moves).

Despite the fact that the grammatical meaning is, as it were, a secondary meaning of the word, it plays an essential role in creating the integral meaning of the sentence (cf. I put a gift for a friend... and I gave a gift to a friend..., changing the grammatical meaning of a case in a word friend leads to a change in the meaning of the sentence). A vivid illustration of this provision can serve as a proposal drawn up by JI.B. Shcherboy of meaningless, but grammatically correct and interconnected words that convey a certain grammatical meaning and even form some sense of the sentence: The glistening kuzdra shteko has bobbed up the beak and curls the beak. Each word in it contains morphemes, the meaning of which is easily deduced from the relationship of words to each other (cf. the feminine meaning, which is conveyed by inflections -aya (gloky),-a ( Kuzdra and budlanula), the meaning of time -- past -- suf.-l ( budlanula) and present - flexia -it ( curls), the meaning of immaturity -- suf.-onok (bokrenka), the meaning of animation is inflection -a ( bokra and beakrenka), the meaning of a one-time action is suf. -well ( budlanula) and etc.).

Grammatical and lexical meanings: gradation and transitions

Grammatical and lexical meanings are the main types of the plan for the content of language units. These are some kind of poles in the semantic space of the language. At the same time, there is no insurmountable abyss between them. In a word, they act as a unity, and for some categories of words they are simply inseparable. For example, about the semantics of pronouns, it can be argued that it has an intermediate, transitional character between vocabulary and grammar.

On the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings, the functional classification of word elements is based - morphemes. However, the division into roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections, etc. requires a more detailed differentiation of meanings. In particular, grammatical meanings are divided into proper grammatical (inflectional) and lexico-grammatical (classification). The former form a semantic characteristic of the form of the word, the latter characterize the whole word as a whole, as its permanent feature (i.e., they attribute the lexeme to a certain grammatical class). An example of the former may be in the Slavic languages ​​the person of the verb, the case of a noun, or the degree of comparison of an adjective; an example of the second is the aspect of a verb, the gender of a noun, or the quality of an adjective. However, both meanings are transmitted through grammatical morphemes, sometimes even simultaneously, in a complex (such, for example, is inflection -a in the word winter).

Intermediate between grammatical and lexical meanings are derivational meanings. These meanings are inherent in entire groups of lexemes and, moreover, have their own formal (intra-word) expression. In principle, derivational and, for example, inflectional meanings can again be expressed by the same morpheme (Russian -oy in gold, capital letters, etc.).

The listed types of meanings, lining up according to the degree of their abstractness and the breadth of coverage of the vocabulary in “inflectional - classificatory - derivational - lexical”, in a particular case form a unity. For example, the Polish form przerabiasz "remake*" contains the following heterogeneous meanings in the complex: lexical (to make), derivational (repetition, multiplicity), classificatory (imperfect form, transitivity), inflectional (2nd person, singular, present tense).

The relativity of the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings is also evidenced by such a characteristic manifestation of linguistic evolution as grammaticalization. This is a process in which the meaning of some linguistic element, word or morpheme, changes its status: from lexical it becomes grammatical. There is nothing surprising in the fact that such an element becomes a regular means of expressing a grammatical category. In particular, synthetic, or simple, verb forms of the future tense in the modern Ukrainian language go back to the combination of the infinitive with the verb (i) mati "to have": the pisatimu "I will write" arose from pisati + imu; pisatimesh "you will write" -- from pisati+imesh; write "he will write" - from write + name, etc. And in similar forms of the Serbo-Croatian language, the verb hteti "want" that has lost its original meaning is included as an indicator of the future tense: ja fly write (or simply nucahy) "I will write ", you write (or write) "you will write", he writes (or nucahe) "he will write"...

On the other hand, some grammatical meaning may, over time, losing its obligatory nature and narrowing the scope of its application, turn into a lexical one. An example has already been given above with a dual number: now in most Slavic languages ​​this meaning has become lexical. In the course of language development, one or another form of a word can turn into a separate, independent word - this process is called lexicalization. An illustration of such a phenomenon in Russian can be the formation of adverbs such as winter, around, groping, below, etc. If we consider a separate grammatical morpheme, then here it is not difficult to find examples of how a morpheme changes its status, gaining the rights of a root. So, in a number of modern European languages, the suffix of Greek-Latin origin -ismus gave a root with the meaning "social trend, direction" (compare the Russian expression "different isms", etc.). Another, no less famous example. The modern English root bus "bus", which arose as a result of the contraction of the word omnibus, goes back to inflection - (оbus in the Latin pronominal form: omnis "every" -- omnibus literally "for everyone".

In general, despite all the borderline and transitional cases, lexical and grammatical meanings retain their global opposition in the language system.

Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.

Lexical meaning words are a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).

grammatical meaning words is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table- masculine noun), as an element of the inflectional series ( table, table, table etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with other words ( table leg, put the book on the table).

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in the given word and by this delimits the given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical .

Compare words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.

An important sign of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the meaning of the lexical one, is the obligation of the expression: we cannot use the word without expressing its grammatical meanings (with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.). So, speaking the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.

Pronouncing the word form table (for example, in a sentence Blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express grammatical meanings instrumental case (cf. endings used to express case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. table-ami). The lexical meaning the words table- "a piece of home furniture, which is a surface of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on it" - in all case forms of this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root table-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.

TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANINGS OF WORDS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By way of nomination direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.

For example, words table, black, boil have the following main meanings:

1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

2. "Colors of soot, coal."

3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

Portable(indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

Yes, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. "Item of special equipment or part of a machine of similar shape": operating table, raise machine table.

2. "Food, food": rent a room with a table.

3. "A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs": information desk.

At the word black such portable values:

1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white": blackbread.

2. "Taking a dark color, darkened": blackfrom sunburn.

3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): blackhut.

4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": blackthoughts.

5. "Criminal, malicious": blacktreason.

6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): blackmove in the house.

7. "Physically heavy and unskilled" (long form only): blackJob etc.

Word boil has the following metaphors:

1. "To manifest in a strong degree": work is in full swing.

2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong extent": boilindignation.

As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Portable meanings can preserve figurativeness: black thoughts, black betrayal, boil with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.

In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock and under. In such cases, they speak of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word, dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation values ​​are highlighted unmotivated(non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word, and motivated(derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. Words canteen, desktop, canteen, completion, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness motivated meanings are inherent, they are, as it were, “produced” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family ties of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to highlight the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag(envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation of one or another meaning of the word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.

3. Possibly lexical compatibility the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first are based only on the subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink combined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the "freedom" of the compatibility of words with unrelated meanings is relative.

The non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win matches with words victory, top, but does not match the word defeat. One can say bow your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can't lower your hand» ( leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend(you can not swap the elements of these phrases).

Syntactically conditional values words are realized only if it performs a syntactic function unusual for itself in a sentence. Yes, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, they get the meanings " stupid man"; "stupid, stupid person"; "sluggish, uninitiated person, bungler". V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of values, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.

As part of the syntactically conditioned meanings of the word, there are also meanings structurally limited, which are implemented only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction. For example, the word vortex with a direct meaning "gusty circular motion of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case gets a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events- "the rapid development of events."

4. By the nature of the functions performed lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is the nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature is predominant. For example, in the phrase A tall man word tall indicates great growth; this is its nominal value. And the words lanky, long combined with the word Human, not only indicate a large growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among expressive synonyms for a neutral word. tall.

5. By the nature of the relationships of some values ​​with others in the lexical system of the language can be distinguished:

1) autonomous the meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;

2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,

3) deterministic values, i.e. such, "which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ...". For example: nag(cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), beautiful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

Thus, the modern typology of lexical meanings is based, firstly, on the conceptual and subject relations of words (i.e. paradigmatic relations), and secondly, derivational (or derivational) connections of words, thirdly, the relationship of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). The study of the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand the semantic structure of the word, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.