His son Alexander III (1881-1894) came to the throne. Shaken by the violent death of his father, fearing the strengthening of revolutionary manifestations, at the beginning of his reign, he hesitated in choosing a political course. But, having fallen under the influence of the initiators of the reactionary ideology of K.P. Pobedonostsev and P.A. Tolstoy, Alexander the 3rd gave political priorities to the preservation of autocracy, the warming of the estate system, the traditions and foundations of Russian society, and hostility to liberal reforms.

Only public pressure could influence the policy of Alexander III. However, after the brutal assassination of Alexander II, the expected revolutionary upsurge did not occur. Moreover, the assassination of the tsar-reformer recoiled society from the Narodnaya Volya, showing the senselessness of terror. The intensified police repression finally changed the balance in the social alignment in favor of the conservative forces.

Under these conditions, it became possible to turn to counter-reforms in the policy of Alexander III. This was clearly indicated in the manifesto published on April 29, 1881, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of the democrats for the transformation of the regime into a constitutional monarchy.

Alexander III replaced liberal figures in the government with hardliners. The concept of counter-reforms was developed by its main ideologist - K.N. Pobedonostsev. He argued that the liberal reforms of the 60s. led to upheavals in society, and the people, left without guardianship, became lazy and wild; he called for a return to the traditional foundations of national existence.

To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were combined. They had unlimited power over the peasants.

The “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” published in 1890 strengthened the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.

Seeing the main threat to the existing system in the face of the intelligentsia, the emperor, in order to strengthen the positions of his loyal nobility and bureaucracy, in 1881 issued the “Regulations on measures to preserve state security and public peace”, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, expel without court, bring to court martial, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for fighting the revolutionary and liberal movement.

In 1892, a new “City Regulation” was issued, which infringed on the independence of city governments. The government included them in the general system of state institutions, thereby putting them under control.

Alexander III considered the strengthening of the peasant community to be an important direction of his policy. In the 80s. there has been a process of freeing the peasants from the fetters of the community, which interfered with their free movement and initiative. Alexander the 3rd by the law of 1893 forbade the sale and pledge of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.

In 1884, Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate an intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.

Under Alexander III, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of enterprises and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.

The results of the counter-reforms of Alexander the 3rd are contradictory: the country managed to achieve an industrial boom, to refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension intensified.

Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov
Years of life: February 26, 1845, Anichkov Palace, St. Petersburg - October 20, 1894, Livadia Palace, Crimea.

Son of Maria Alexandrovna, recognized daughter of Grand Duke Ludwig II of Hesse and Emperor.

Emperor of All Russia (1 (13) March 1881 - October 20 (November 1), 1894), Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from March 1, 1881

From the Romanov dynasty.

He was awarded a special epithet in pre-revolutionary historiography - the Peacemaker.

Biography of Alexander III

He was the 2nd son of the imperial family. Born February 26 (March 10), 1845 in Tsarskoye Selo His elder brother was preparing to inherit the throne.

The mentor who had a strong influence on his worldview was K.P. Pobedonostsev.

As a prince, he became a member of the State Council, commander of the guards and chieftain of all Cossack troops.

During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878. he was the commander of the Separate Ruschuk Detachment in Bulgaria. He created the Volunteer Fleet of Russia (since 1878), which became the core of the country's merchant fleet and the reserve of the Russian military fleet.

After the death of his elder brother Nicholas in 1865, he became the heir to the throne.

In 1866, he married the bride of his deceased brother, the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX, Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmar, who adopted the name Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy.

Emperor Alexander 3

Having ascended the throne after the assassination of Alexander II on March 1 (13), 1881 (his father's legs were blown off by a terrorist bomb, and his son spent the last hours of his life nearby), canceled the draft constitutional reform signed by his father just before his death. He stated that Russia would pursue a peaceful policy and deal with internal problems - strengthening the autocracy.

His manifesto of April 29 (May 11), 1881 reflected the program of domestic and foreign policy. The main priorities were: maintaining order and power, strengthening church piety and ensuring the national interests of Russia.

Reforms of Alexander 3

The tsar created the State Peasant Land Bank to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land, and also issued a number of laws to alleviate the situation of the workers.

Alexander 3 pursued a tough policy of Russification, which faced opposition from some Finns and Poles.
After Bismarck's resignation from the post of Chancellor of Germany in 1893, Alexander III Alexandrovich concluded an alliance with France (Franco-Russian alliance).

In foreign policy, for years of reign of Alexander 3 Russia has firmly taken a leading position in Europe. Possessing enormous physical strength, the tsar symbolized for other states the power and invincibility of Russia. Once the Austrian ambassador began to threaten him during dinner, promising to move a couple of army corps to the borders. The king listened in silence, then took a fork from the table, tied it in a knot and threw it on the ambassador's plate. “This is what we will do with your couple of hulls,” the king replied.

Domestic policy of Alexander 3

Court etiquette and ceremonial became much simpler. He significantly reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, the number of servants was reduced and strict control over the spending of money was introduced. At the same time, a lot of money was spent on the acquisition of art objects by him, since the emperor was a passionate collector. Gatchina Castle under him turned into a storehouse of priceless treasures, which later became a true national treasure of Russia.

Unlike all his predecessors-rulers on the Russian throne, he adhered to strict family morality and was an exemplary family man - a loving husband and a good father. He was one of the most pious Russian sovereigns, firmly adhered to the Orthodox canons, willingly donated to monasteries, to build new churches and restore ancient ones.
Passionately fond of hunting and fishing, boating. Belovezhskaya Pushcha was the Emperor's favorite hunting ground. He participated in archaeological excavations, loved to play the trumpet in a brass band.

The family had very warm relations. Every year the date of marriage was celebrated. Evenings for children were often arranged: circus and puppet performances. Everyone was attentive to each other and gave gifts.

The emperor was very hardworking. And yet, despite a healthy lifestyle, he died young, before reaching the age of 50, quite unexpectedly. In October 1888, the tsar's train crashed near Kharkov. There were many victims, but the royal family remained intact. Alexander, with incredible efforts, held the collapsed roof of the car on his shoulders until help arrived.

But soon after this incident, the emperor began to complain of back pain. Doctors came to the conclusion that a terrible concussion during the fall served as the onset of kidney disease. At the insistence of the Berlin doctors, he was sent to the Crimea, to Livadia, but the disease progressed.

On October 20, 1894, the emperor died. He was buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.
The death of Emperor Alexander III caused an echo all over the world, flags were lowered in France, memorial services were held in all churches in England. Many foreign figures called him a peacemaker.

The Marquess of Salisbury said: “Alexander III saved Europe many times from the horrors of war. According to his deeds, the sovereigns of Europe should learn how to manage their peoples.

He was married to the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX Dagmar of Denmark (Maria Feodorovna). They had children:

• Nicholas II (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918),
• Alexander (May 20, 1869 – April 21, 1870),
• Georgy Alexandrovich (April 27, 1871 - June 28, 1899),
• Xenia Alexandrovna (April 6, 1875 - April 20, 1960, London), also Romanova by her husband,
• Mikhail Alexandrovich (December 5, 1878 - June 13, 1918),
• Olga Alexandrovna (June 13, 1882 - November 24, 1960).

He had a military rank - general of infantry, general of cavalry (Russian Imperial Army). The Emperor was of enormous stature.

In 1883, the so-called "coronation ruble" was issued in honor of the coronation of Alexander III.

Counter-reforms of Alexander III (briefly)

Counter-reforms of Alexander III (briefly)

After the assassination of Emperor Alexander II, power passes to his son Alexander III. The period of his reign is called by historians "counter-reforms". This is due to the fact that at this time many of the transformations of the former rulers were revised. The counter-reforms themselves were a response to the anti-government activities of the intelligentsia. The tsar's inner circle included such reactionaries as the publicist M.K. Katkov, D.A. Tolstoy (Minister of the Interior), as well as the notorious K.P. Pobedonostsev - chief prosecutor of the Synod. Along with this, Alexander III managed to pursue a rather cautious foreign policy. During his reign, the state did not enter into major military conflicts. For this, the emperor was nicknamed the “Peacemaker” among the people. Here are the main events of the reactionary direction:

Zemstvo counter-reform. Since 1889, so-called zemstvo chiefs have been introduced in Russia, appointed by the Minister of the Interior from noble candidates who exercised police and administrative control over the peasants. Such power practically returned the rights of the landlords, which they had lost due to the reform of 1861.

· Urban counter-reform. Since 1892, the number of voters has been declining due to an increase in the property qualification, and all decisions of the Duma were approved by the provincial authorities. The number of council meetings was also limited. City administration was thus carried out by the government.

· Judicial counter-reform. Since 1887, the educational and property qualifications for jurors have increased. This was able to increase the number of nobles at court. Glasnost and publicity were limited, and political cases were withdrawn from judicial jurisdiction.

· Counter-reforms of the press and education. Control over educational institutions was significantly tightened. The university charter of 1884 abolished all autonomy of universities. Professors and the rector himself were appointed by the government, and tuition fees were doubled. In addition, a special inspectorate was formed to supervise students.

In 1887, a "circular about cook's children" was adopted, forbidding the adoption of children who did not belong to the nobility. At the same time, it was openly declared that it was forbidden to admit children of shopkeepers, laundresses, footmen, coachmen, etc., to the gymnasium.

Censorship is getting tougher. A number of liberal and all radical publications are closed.

The counter-reforms of Alexander III are a set of government measures aimed at changing (conserving) the socio-political life of the country after the liberal reforms of the previous emperor. The main mission to implement these counter-reforms was entrusted to the Minister of the Interior, Count Dmitry Andreyevich Tolstoy.

Reasons for counter-reforms

The reason for the introduction of counter-reforms was the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. Alexander III, who ascended the throne, was concerned about the strengthening of the revolutionary forces and very carefully chose the paths of his new course. The choice was made by supporters of the reactionary ideology K. Pobedonostsev and D. Tolstoy. The priorities were the preservation of autocracy, the strengthening of the class system, traditions and foundations of Russian society and the rejection of liberal reforms.

Another reason for the counter-reforms was that the government was not ready for rapid development and change. And these changes have already begun: the inequality of property in the countryside has increased, the number of the proletariat has increased. The authorities did not always understand the ongoing processes and thought in old terms.

As a result, a program for a new reign was created, which was set out on April 29, 1881 in the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy. The author of the manifesto was K. Pobedonostsev.

K.P. Pobedonostsev

Counter-reforms

Peasant question

Measures were taken to support the nobility. In 1885, the Noble Bank was created, whose task was to subsidize the landowners.

Measures were taken to preserve the patriarchal system in the countryside. Land redistributions and partitions became more complex. The poll tax and communal farming were abolished, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, which was supposed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in the judicial system

The judicial reform of 1864 underwent changes. The judiciary became more complicated and bureaucratized, the competence of the jury was reduced. In the countryside, the magistrate's court has practically been replaced by the arbitrariness of officials. Servants from the local nobility became the head of all administrative and judicial power. They had the right to cancel the decisions of rural and volost gatherings. There were no local councils for them, and they obeyed only the marshal of the nobility.

Revisiting Education Reform

Changes in the educational system were aimed at strengthening control over the secondary school. The adopted circular about "cook's children" did not allow children of commoners to study in gymnasiums. The elementary school was completely controlled by the Holy Synod. In 1884, the University Charter was adopted, which finally abolished university autonomy. The rising cost of education has also kept many young people out of school.

Changes in zemstvos

In 1890, changes were made to the zemstvo reform, in accordance with them, government control over the zemstvos was legalized. The change in the property qualification disenfranchised artisans and local merchants.

I.E. Repin. Reception of volost foremen by Alexander III in the courtyard of the Petrovsky Palace

Police measures

In 1881, the "Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Protection" was adopted, which increased police and administrative pressure. The regional and provincial authorities were given the right to introduce an emergency administration for any period of time and, accordingly, could expel undesirable persons, close educational institutions and the media. A special meeting at the Ministry of the Interior could exile suspicious individuals without trial or investigation and keep them under arrest for up to five years.

Results of the counter-reforms

Indeed, the counter-reforms of Alexander III slowed down the development of the revolutionary movement a little and “froze” social contradictions, but did not make them less explosive. There were fewer protest movements, and there were practically no terrorist acts until the beginning of the 20th century. The counter-reforms were supposed to strengthen the class of landlords, whose position has recently been noticeably shaken.

The authorities failed to carry out the program of counter-reforms in full. Already in the mid-1890s, the rise of the revolutionary movement began. The leading place in the revolutionary struggle was occupied by the proletariat.

After the sudden death of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III took the throne. His policy was far from ideal, and the ongoing reforms caused the crisis of royal power that the country faced in the 20th century. Many close associates of the emperor believed that he was wasting money on illogical and often contradictory reforms, but the ruler himself preferred not to hear murmurs. Nicholas II will have to pay heavily for such an attitude of monarchs. Despite the fact that the reforms of Alexander III raised many questions, the monarch had a clear algorithm of actions, which he preferred to follow. The transformations of the emperor often directly contradicted the measures of Alexander II, which clearly demonstrated the conflict between father and son.

The desire to stop the terror of Narodnaya Volya and to establish order in the country explains the transition of Alexander III in 1881 to a policy of counter-reforms.

The "New Deal" was intended to strengthen the power of the nobility in the field. Reforms of the 1860s and 70s did not develop, but were conserved and even truncated. The rejection of liberal reforms, the national-chauvinistic course of the government slowed down the process of economic and social development of the country (B.V. Ananyich, V.G. Chernukha).

Step back, stall “For 13 years, Alexander III sowed the wind. His heir will have to do everything so that the storm does not break out.	Streamlining reforms, a step forward "The policy of Alexander III was aimed at stabilizing society, strengthening the Russian state, it was based on historical traditions
Promulgation of the Manifesto "On the Inviolability of Autocracy"	In 1881 all former landowning peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, the temporarily obligated state was canceled, and redemption payments were reduced.
1881 "Regulations on measures for the protection of state order and public peace": local authorities received the right to arrest "suspicious persons", exile them without trial for up to five years in any locality and bring them to a military court, to close educational institutions and press organs, suspend the activities of the zemstvos	Establishment of a peasant bank (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. 1883-1885 the poll tax from the peasants was reduced and then abolished.
1882 "Temporary rules" on the press were introduced, strengthening administrative control over the content of periodicals and tightening punitive censorship. Many liberal publications were closed.	1882 The Law on Prohibition of Labor of Minors (Under 12 Years of Age) was passed and a Factory Inspectorate was established to supervise its implementation 1897 - the maximum working day was limited: for adult men it should not exceed 11.5 hours In 1885, the Russian government was forced to pass a law banning night work for women and teenagers as a result of workers' strikes (1885 - Morozov strike)
1884 – new university charter; 1887 - The "Circular on Cook's Children" recommended not to admit children of "coachmen, lackeys, laundresses and the like" to the gymnasium and progymnasium	Customs protectionism, preferential loans and concessions, support for domestic industry, encouragement of the creation of large plants and factories
City regulations (1892) excluded clerks and small merchants from the list of voters.	Major railway construction
Repetition of the path of the Slavophiles + the rights of persons of non-Orthodox religion (especially Jews) were limited
Introduction of the institute of zemstvo chiefs (1889)

M.N. Katkov is a well-known conservative publicist, one of the ideologists of the counter-reforms of the 1980s. 19th century, editor-in-chief of the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper.

Foreign policy

Bulgarian affairs occupied an important place. The struggle to strengthen the Bulgarian statehood ended in failure in 1887. - Neutrality of Russia and Germany (Bismarck's goal is to prevent Russian-French rapprochement).

Conclusions on the reforms of Alexander III

During the reign of Alexander III, the country developed one-sidedly. Despite the fact that heavy industry and railway construction made a big step forward, the social reforms of Alexander III cannot be called logical. The emperor continued to work on the peasant reform, trying to rebuild the state on a new model of social perception of classes. However, many actions of Alexander III in this direction were illogical and incomplete. The economic transformations of the monarch can also be called illogical. The successor, Nicholas II, had to reap the fruits of the restless counter-reforms, simultaneously fighting the growing wave of popular discontent.