| glossary of terms

What is morpheme and morpheme?

Morphemics(from the Greek morph - ‘form’) is a section of the science of language that studies the composition (structure) of a word. morphemics two main questions are addressed:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. Morpheme- This minimal significant part of a word. Among morphemes prefixes, roots, suffixes, interfixes (connecting vowels), postfixes, endings are distinguished.

In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; a morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.

The minimum unit of audio stream is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish words: pru d a and pru t a. But the sounds do not denote either concepts, or objects, or their signs, that is, they do not matter.

In the course of lexicology, students study the words- grammatically designed meaningful units that serve to name the objects of reality. Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, then they do it more accurately, dissected (cf .: table and desk).

Another important unit is offer. Its difference from morphemes and words is, firstly, that it is a larger unit consisting of words, and secondly, that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication, communication.

A morpheme differs from units of all other language levels: a morpheme differs from sounds in that it has a meaning; from words - by the fact that it is not a grammatically formalized unit of naming (it is not characterized as a dictionary unit belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences - by the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are the “building material” for sentences.

In Russian, the alphabetic and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes. These alternations are not accidental, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times, so the alternations are of a systemic nature.

MORPHEMICS

Morphemics - a section of word formation (sometimes grammar), which studies the minimum significant parts of words and word forms, units that have specific formal and semantic properties.

Morphemic tasks:

1. The study of the principles of allocation of morphemes.
2. The study of the meanings of morphemes.
3. Classification of morphemes according to their characteristics.
4. The study of the functioning of morphemes.

The main unit of morphemic is the morpheme. This is the smallest meaningful part of a word. In this definition, both features of a morpheme are equally important: 1) the obligatory presence of a meaning (as opposed to a phoneme); 2) minimality, i.e., further non-segmentation into meaningful parts (can be divided only into phonemes).

The presence of meaning distinguishes a morpheme from a syllable. Unlike a word, the meaning of a morpheme is rather generalized and is represented not by a set of semes, but by individual semes. Some morphemes (endings) have only grammatical meaning. For example, a carrier is "a person who carries something" (lexical meaning). Morphemic composition: nose-nose-chick -□:

nose - move with the help of something;

chik - a male person performing an action named in the root; □ - m.r., sg., Im.p.

Since morphemes have meaning, they can be:

Synonymous: city-anin, mountaineer, tul-yak, Petersburger;

Homonymous: nose-ovy, nose-it, water-a, water - and-t;

Ambiguous: teacher, switch. Pre - 1) very, 2) close to re-.

By origin, morphemes can be:

Borrowed: anti-scientific, primitivism;

Properly Russian: teach, approach.

A morpheme is a unit of a generalized nature, just like a phoneme, in a language it is realized in the form of specific units, its variants - morphs: br-at, take-y, choose-bir-at, selection; supply-female, supplied-ts-a, supplied-ch-es.

The term "morpheme" was introduced into scientific use by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay in 1877 (“Morpheme is no longer divisible, no longer decomposable morphological element of linguistic thinking. This term is generic, uniting for private, specific concepts like “root”, “prefix”, “suffix”, “ending” etc. Considering such a term as superfluous is the same as considering the unifying term “tree” as superfluous and being content with the private names “oak”, “birch”, “spruce”, “willow”, etc. ”[Baudouin de Courtenay, I. A. Selected Works on General Linguistics - V. 1. - M., 1963. - P. 272. Quoted from: Tikhonov, A. N. Modern Russian language (Morfemics. / A.N. Tikhonov. - M.: Citadel-trade, 2002.]).

Aspects of studying the structural composition of the word

When studying any units of the language, it is necessary to take into account the time aspect. The word-formation structure and word-formation relations between words depend on the temporal aspect in which the structure of the word is considered. The historical aspect - diachrony and the simultaneous aspect of the study of word-building units - synchrony can give different results of the structure of the word and its relationship to derivative / non-productive. This fact was pointed out in F.F. Fortunatov, noting that "it is impossible to mix the facts that exist at a given time, and the facts that are revealed in the study of the history of the language." So, the word haze, privilege in modern synchronous word formation are considered as non-derivative words, in which the stem, root and inflection (ending) are distinguished. Historical studies show that the word haze was formed from the word mga - fog, darkness - with the help of the suffix -l-, and the word benefit - through the suffix -from (a) - from the word lga - freedom, lightness. Therefore, from a historical point of view, these words are divided into root, suffix and ending. Sometimes, depending on the temporal aspect of consideration, the order of production may change: in diachrony, the umbrella T umbrella, in synchrony, the umbrella %1 ! umbrella.

Basic units of morphemic

The basic units of morphemic are the minimum significant parts of the word - morphemes. The minimum significant parts of a word are represented by the following main groups: 1) root - containing the main lexical meaning; 2) affixes - containing derivational and grammatical meaning. In addition to these morphemes, the word may contain auxiliary connecting elements that do not have their own meaning and serve to connect morphemes: two-story, singer.

Morpheme classification

Currently, a stable classification of morphemes has developed based on several features:

1. By the presence of meaning, morphemes are divided into significant (contain lexical, grammatical or word-formation meaning) and asemantic (have no meaning and serve to connect morphemes). These asemantic segments of the word structure differ from affixes that have GP, LP, SZ in that they have no meaning, but are necessary only for morphonological design (phonemic design of the morpheme). Asemantic elements are: 1) verbal vowel stems: -a-, -i-, -e-: chit-a-t, voz-i-t, evening-e-t; 2) connecting vowels necessary for attaching morphemes: dry-o-fruit, four-e-zhdy, two-uh-tiered.
2. By role in the word: obligatory, root morphemes containing the main lexical meaning and affixal, optional, non-root morphemes, having additional lexical and grammatical meanings.

The root - forest - contains the main PL - wild trees. This meaning is preserved in the words forest, forester due to the presence of a root. The words cinema, coat, yesterday, tomorrow and many others have only a root and function in the language without additional affixes, they are optional in the word. Affixes bring additional grammatical and lexical meanings to words. Forest - a sign related to the forest. A forester is a person who is professionally engaged in forestry. There are exceptions when it is suffix morphemes that create the main meaning of the word: interruption, robbery, battle, battle.

Affixes, depending on the place occupied in relation to the root, are divided into: 1) prefixes, or prefixes (they stand before the root); 2) suffixes (stand behind the root, have a derivational or formative meaning); 3) endings, or inflections (they stand behind a root or suffix, are a variable part of a word, convey its grammatical meaning); 4) postfixes (stand behind the root or suffix, have a word-formative or formative meaning); 5) interfixes (connecting elements located between the roots or between the root and the suffix).

3. According to the method of formal (material) expression:

1) materially expressed (graphically and phonetically): country-a, chit-a-t, big; Roots are always materially expressed.

2) not expressed graphically, but expressed phonetically: stories] -i (a), leaves] -i (a), premonitions] -e; only suffixes have this way of expression;

3) not materially expressed (zero) affixes. These are zero endings (inflections): domP, city and zero suffixes sinslP.

Zero suffixes occur:

a) in some forms of the past tense: compare: nes-l-a - nes-gl-P.

b) for words that have passed into another part of speech in an unaffixed way; more often in a creaturenouns, rarely adjectives and other parts of speech formed from verbs or adjectivestelative, in the absence of a materially expressed suffix: beggP, fracturegP, greengP, gold-g-oh, sixth-g-oh.

4. According to the method of conveying meaning, root morphemes can be free and connectednym. Free roots express the main meaning on their own, in the presence of onlyformative affixes: carry, domP, now, cutP. Linked roots express LZonly together with other word-forming affixes: at-vyk-at, from-vyk-at, st-itsa, st-
point, alley-ok.

Affixal morphemes are not free, they are always connected.

5. By function (by participation in word or form production) there can be word-formsvatelnye, formative and word-formative.

Thanks to the lexical and grammatical semantics of affixes, they can participate in the production of new words and in the production of new forms of the same word. Formative (kind - kinder, do - do), word-forming (author - co-author, teach - teacher) and word-forming (write - rewrite).

6. According to the productivity of use, affixes can be productive and non-productive. Productive affixes are involved in modern word and form formation.So, for example, the infinitive suffix -т is productive, new emerging verbsly are formed with this suffix: to invest, to preside. Productivesuffixes are:

Suffix -ist-: avant-garde player, saber player, rugby player, programmer, documentarian, forecaster, saxophonist;

Suffixes -k-, -sh- with the meaning of the name of a female person: foil fencer, handbo-listka, lawyer; cameraman, nurse supervisor, partner and many others.

Unproductive affixes ceased to participate in the formation of words and grammatical forms. For example, the infinitive suffix -ti is unproductive; new verb models are not formed with this suffix.

They are also unproductive: suffixes -b-, -nyak-, -zn-: wrestling, walking, carving; birch, willow; life fear.

7. By reproducibility (repeatability), affixes can be: regular and non-regular
larny.

Regular affixes affixes are repeated regularly in the same word-formation models (stupid - stupidity, tender - tenderness, holy - holiness) or in the same word forms: in the endings of verbs of the 1st conjugation: -u (-u), - eat, -et, -eat, -et, -ut (-yut) and 2nd conjugation: -y (-y), -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -at (-yat); in the suffixes of nouns: -chik, -schik, -nick, -tel, -ost, and many others. others;

Irregular affixes are suffixes and endings that occur only in single words. For example, these are the endings of verbs like: -m (eat, give, create), -sh (eat, give, create), -t (eat, give, create); the prefix pa- in modern Russian is used as part of a few words: stepson, flood, stepdaughter, ruin. Irregular affixes include all unifixes.

All unique and irregular affixes are counterproductive. Among the regular affixes there are productive and unproductive. For example, the suffix -ich- in the names of city residents is regular (Muscovite, Kostromich, Vyatich, Pskovych, Vyazmich, etc.). However, he has not formed new words for a long time. This is an unproductive affix.

The main characteristics of the structural parts of the word

The root is the main significant part of the word, which contains the main lexical meaning common to all words with the same root. The root is an obligatory common part of all related words, which is the carrier of the main lexical meaning (water, water, submariner, flood). There are no words without a root.

Most of the roots can be used without prefixes and suffixes, i.e. be free (used independently, without combination with others, except for inflectional affixes). Such roots are called free: pocket - pocket-chik, pocket-ek, pickpocket, pocket-n-th, p-pocket-and-be. Part of the root morphemes is not capable of being used freely in the composition of the word, i.e. no affixes. Such roots are called connected. oh-de-t, na-de-t, one-de-t; sweet-th, sweetness; st-its-a, lane-st-ok; in-key-and-t, you-key-and-t, from-key-and-t. Correctly identifying such roots can only be done by selecting cognate words with other prefixes (often of the opposite meaning) or other suffixes.

Bases with free roots are called free, bases with connected roots we are connected.

The roots can be homonymous: nose-it and nose-owl, p-peace-it and u-peace-at, water-it and water.

In the roots of words, alternation can be observed, for example:

g//f//s: friend - to be friends - friends; k//h//c: cry - click - exclaim; w / / w / / railway: walk - walk - walking; b / / bl: love - love; p//pl: to drink - I drown; v//vl: catch - catch; f//fl: graph - graph; m//ml:break - broken.

Affixes - non-root morphemes in terms of meaning, function in a word and in place occupied in relation to the root, are divided into prefixes (prefixes), suffixes, unifixes, inflections (endings), postfixes and interfixes, affixoids. Affixal morphemes are not in every word, they give an additional lexical or only grammatical meaning to the word, they have a fixed place in the word. Affixes are always attached to the root and are not used freely.

Prefixes (prefixes) - stand before the root. The main function is word-forming. Form a new foundation. Prefixes often form new verbs: come in, leave, get off, less often new words of other parts of speech: author - co-author, moral - immoral. There are more than 70 prefixes in Russian. They can be actually Russian: over-, under- and borrowed: trans-, anti-, archi-.

Suffixes are morphemes that come after the root. They have lexical and grammatical semantics, i.e. perform word-forming and form-forming functions. The word-formation function is associated with the formation of new words, often of a different part of speech: gentle - tenderness, shoot - arrow-b-a, move - transition - g - □. The formative function is performed by suffixes in the formation of the perfect or imperfect form of the verb and its various forms (participles, gerunds, infinitives): toss - toss - tossed - tossing - tossing; in the formation of the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as well as in the formation of the plural forms of some nouns, boldly - bolder, brother - take / I.

Types of suffixes

Suffixes	Function		Examples
Word-building (included in the basis)	serve to form single-root words		master - craftswoman dew - dewy
Form-building (not included in the base)	serve to form grammatical forms of the word		wait fled floating
Past tense of the verb		L-, -g-.		wrote, carried, carried
Participle (special form of the verb)		Ash-, -yash-, -ush-, -yusch-, -sh-, -sh-, -im-, -em-, -nn-(-n-), -enn-(-en-), - t-		running, latecomer, signed, washed
The participle (a special form of the verb)		A, -i, -v, -lice		denoting, speaking, setting up
Degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs		Her, -her, -e, -she, -eysh-, -aysh-		kinder, in short, the greatest, the richest
Plural		-/-//-her, -es-		friend, friends □, heaven

Suffixes do not necessarily have a material expression. A number of suffixes reveal their presence only at the level of meaning. In such cases, it is customary to speak of zero suffixes. Zero suffixes can also be formative and word-formative. The formative r has the meaning of the past tense, stands out as part of the paradigm, where in other forms there is a past tense suffix -l-: soh-l-a, soh-l-o, soh-l-i, sohg □. Carried, carried, carried - carried □. The derivational r stands out in derivative words formed from the stems of other parts of speech, but without material traces of this transition. These are words like: walk - hodg □, break - break □, blue - blue □, deaf - wilderness □, praise - praise a. (Do not confuse: working person - worker (n.), warm summer - summer (adv.)

Unifixes are a special kind of affixes (segments) that exist in single words. Unique affixes, i.e. such affixes that occur only in one word of the language (from uni - a truncated part of the adjective unique and lat. fixus - "attached"). For example, children-thief-a, post-amt, wives-them, fleet-or-I, all-in, love-ov, etc. The main feature is the lack of a produced model, i.e. new words are not formed with the help of these suffixes or prefixes. Words with unifixes are not created in speech, they must be known. Usually, unifixes take the position of suffixes: white-es-th, mach-ex-a, opera-ette-a, but they can also stand in the prefix position: chicken-nose-th, ra-dug-a. The unifying nature of the morph can be lost if new words begin to form with this affix (the uniqueness of the model is lost): space-drome, bicycle-drome, rocket-drome. The suffix -iad(a) was born from the unix, cf.: Olympiad, Spartakiad, Universiade, etc.

Endings (inflections) take a position after the root or suffix. This is the final changeable part of the word, expressing its grammatical meaning: school desk, school desk, school desk, school desk, school desk, school desk, etc. Endings are distinguished only in the word form of changeable words: changeable nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, changeable forms of verbs. There are no endings for unchangeable words and word forms: infinitive (listen, light), gerunds (playing, deciding), adverbs (backward, easy), service words (to, as a result), some unchangeable nouns (cafe, hummingbird) and adjectives (air, beige, more beautiful, more difficult), category of state (sorry, impossible), etc. Usually a word has one inflection. The exception is compound numerals, the case forms of which allow us to distinguish 2 endings: five hundred and sixty, about five hundred and sixty.

Postfixes - a significant part of the word, located after the formative suffixes or endings: some, wait. There are few postfixes in Russian: this is a verbal derivational postfix sya / s: smile, wash and pronominal postfixes -to, -either, nibud: somewhere, someone; inflectional verbal postfix - those that form forms of imperative plural verbs: read - read-te.

Interfixes are affixal morphemes of a connecting type: blue-eyed, dust-proof, oil-producing. In works on word formation, interfixes are interpreted by scientists in different ways. Firstly, interfixes are understood as connecting vowels that serve to form new words, in which case the interfix is ​​interpreted as a morpheme. Such connecting morphemes are found in compound words, usually these are interfixes -o-, -e-: steam locomotive, puppeteer, poultry farm, but there may be others: five-and-wrestler, three-story, two-at-board . Secondly, an interfix is ​​also understood as an intermorphemic spacer, which does not have the status of a morpheme. These are insertions between the root and the suffix, arising for morphological and logical reasons: p-v-ets, zhi-l-ets, highway-th-ny, coffee-th-ny.

Morphemes of an intermediate type are such derivational parts of words that occupy an intermediate meaning between root and affix morphemes. They are affix-like, but not identical to either affixes or roots. For example, -water (reindeer breeder, dog breeder, poultry breeder, etc.), -ved (linguist, local historian, art historian, book historian, etc.), -met (bomb thrower, water cannon, mortar, grenade launcher, etc.), -cut (bread cutter, glass cutter, ice cutter, water cutter, pipe cutter, etc.), floor (y) - (semicircle, low shoes, half-sitting, reclining, half-naked, half-wild, etc.). They are close to the roots by the fact that they do not lose their semantic connections with the same-root words (-cut, water cutter, cutting, cut, cut, cut off, etc.). What makes them similar to affixes is that each of them forms a productive derivational type. Thus, affixoids occupy an intermediate position between the root and affixes, since they contain a distinct LZ and work either as roots, or as prefixes or as suffixes: the floor of the father's house and the half of the house; do not ask for anything beyond and supernatural; I arrived in my car and a fountain pen.

stem

The stem of a word is a special complex unit (an element of the structure of a word), consisting of a root (for non-derivative words), a root and affixes (for derivatives). This is usually a larger, more significant complex unit than the affix. There are two main types of basis: the basis of word formation and the basis of form formation.

The basis of word formation is a part of a word without a word-formative affix and formative affixes. For example: re-pisa -la is formed from the word write -t ​​with the help of the prefix re-; the basis of the word formation of this word - pisa -. The basis of formation or the basis of a word form is a part of a word without a form-forming affix reader - P. Chi-tai -usch-y, love-i-te, high-aish-y, higher-e.

Thus, a derived word can have several types of stems, for example, it was covered: the basis of formation - was covered; the basis of shaping is zavolaki-wa-s; the basis of word formation - zavolakiva -, because. veiled is formed from the word veil with the help of the postfix -s.

The basis of a word form is a specific linear unit that is isolated in the speech stream when comparing one form of a word with another form of the same word. This is the common part of a word in a paradigm.

The stem (constant part of a word) contains a lexical meaning and a grammatical one, if there are formative (variable) affixes.

Usually, two forms are enough to highlight the basis of nominal parts of speech. However, we must remember that the stems can vary (have phonemic variants). At noun. these are 2 options: herbs -a and herbs "-e, adjectives can have 3 options: clear, clear" - her, clear - □.

Verbs have 2 types of stems: the stem of the present tense: read-t and read-ut and the stem of the infinitive, which often coincides with the stem of the past tense, but: id-ut, go and she-l. There may be 3 varieties of bases: beat, beat, b] - yu.

The bases of names and verbs differ significantly in their structure. For verbs, depending on the variants of the stems, classes of verbs are distinguished, because. the variation of the bases is regular.

Base types

1. Simple, containing only one root, and complex.

The long-awaited steamer arrived at the port in the morning.

2. Intermittent, containing a postfix, and continuous.

Tell me what happened to one of you during the summer.

3. Suppletive, having different material shells. Despite possible
variants, morphemes, as a rule, retain material commonality within the paradigm.
However, sometimes the stems of word forms of individual words retain only the lexical meaning, and
their material community is destroyed: I will depart and, I departed, I will depart.

Roots can be suppletive: bad - worse, good - better, I - me, suffixes: wolf cub - cubs.

4. Derivatives containing, in addition to the root, derivational affixes, and non-
derivatives.

Derivatives contain a root and derivational affixes. Their meaning is motivated. Motivate (have, put forward a motive), boxer (one who boxes). Non-derivatives contain only root=base: draw b, image .

5. Segmented, containing more than one morph, and non-segmented.

Articulated - contain more than one morph. O-free-and-tel-P. Insegmentables contain one morpheme. Day-P At first glance, the concept of segmented / non-segmented coincides with the concept of derivatives / non-derivatives. But it's not. For example, the word dream is non-derivative, but articulated (dream-ah, dream-ah).

Thus, the concept of articulation is broader than the concept of derivation. Articulation is associated with the degree of freedom of the roots, the repetition of affixes. Words with free roots and repeated affixes are easier to articulate.

6. Free, containing a free root, and bound, which contain roots,
not used without derivational affixes.

Loose bases are bases containing free roots: river, grass, blue, turn white. Associated stems contain roots that cannot be used on their own, without other affixes: war-on, war-wat, st-itsa, per-st-ok, about-at, once-at.

Associated roots differ from free ones in that: 1) they cannot be used without derivational morphemes; 2) are necessarily repeated in a number of words.

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics deals with two main questions:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme.

Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-ty.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Prefix- a derivational morpheme that stands before the root or another prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, in some places, re-do).

Suffix- derivational morpheme, standing after the root (table- ik , red- e- t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a derivational morpheme standing after the ending or formative suffix (mind-th- Xia , whom- or ).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

The ending

The ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) And serves to link words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement (new- th student), management (letter brother- y) or connection of the subject with the predicate (I id- at , you go- eat ).

Only modified words have endings. Functional words, adverbs, invariable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Changed words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerund.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- and -st- a , tr- ex -hot-, sofa -bed-, sofa- a -bed- and .

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a table-shaped a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form of a table indicates that this is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information that is meaningful. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

You must not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings - immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are represented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

Most verbs have two different kinds of stem: one is the present/future simple stem, and the other is the infinitive stem as well as the past tense: read j - and chita - , rice - and rice - , run - and running - , dialect - and speak - .

There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( id -ut, id -ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense ( w -l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- th, ter- l-a, tr- ut; weep- th, mok- l-a, wet- ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried ti, carried l-a, carried ut; carried ti, carried l-a, carried ut.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participle forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have a different stem of the past tense) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:
write- t - write- l- (would - write- vsh-th
write y - write usch-th - write and- .

The basis

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.

The basis- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word is the basis, For example: if, coat, yesterday. Changed words do not include endings and / or formative suffixes in the stem, For example: window- about, lying- th, dare- her, read- l-a, did- nn-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -sya ( teach- l-a-s), bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes - something, - either, - anything ( to- hoo), the bases of some compound nouns ( sofa- a- bed- i) and complex numbers ( heel- and- ten- and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its base and ending.
2. Set the lexical meaning of the word and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.

Sample morpheme parsing

carpenter

Sample reasoning:
carpenter - a form of the verb carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).

The basis- carpenter-.

The verb carpentry is formed from the noun carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - ‘to be a carpenter’; the difference between the base carpenter and the carpenter is the suffix -a-, in the bases the alternation of k / h is represented.
The noun carpenter in the modern language is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter / carpenter is the root.

Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating stem, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.

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1. General concept of morphemic

In modern Russian, there are 2 meanings of the term morphemic:

1. This is a collection of all morphemes of the language, taking into account their types and hierarchy, that is, the movement from simple to complex, from higher to lower.
2. This is a branch of the science of language, where the types and composition of morphemes (sound and letter), their meanings (grammatical and derivational), their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole are studied.

Morphemics is a component of the discipline of linguistics, which arose in 1881, thanks to the research of the founder of the Kazan Linguistic School, Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, and also thanks to the works of Vasily Alekseevich Bogoroditsky, Grigory Osipovich Vinokur, Elena Andreevna Zemskaya, Vladimir Vladimirovich Lopatin, Mikhail Viktorovich Panov, Alexander Nikolaevich Tikhonov , Igor Stepanovich Ulukhanov and other domestic scientists.

Morphemics studies the system of minimal, indivisible language units - morphemes, as well as the morphemic structure of words and their grammatical varieties (word forms).

Morphemics is a component of the section of linguistics.

2. Tasks of morphemic

1. The study of the meanings of morphemes and their functions, the patterns of compatibility of morphemes in the composition of a word.
2. Practical application of theoretical provisions in the study of the morphemic analysis of the word.

The basic units of morphemic are morpheme, morph.

3. Definition of a morpheme

As a rule, when getting acquainted with the language, the main attention is paid not only to the sound composition of the word, but to a greater extent to the morphemic structure of the language, i.e. into the shortest units that have a semantic meaning.

K. G. Paustovsky liked to tell a curious story about a little boy who, seeing the sign “Antelope”, exclaimed: “I know what “anti” is, but I don’t know what “lopa” means.

This case convincingly shows that a person seeks to reveal the meaning of unknown words by segmenting them, we compare new words with known ones and try to highlight the familiar semantic parts of the word. This means that most of the words of the Russian language in our minds are divided into parts - morphemes.

Another example. Let's take a computer term archive, for example, we do not know its meaning, but we know what an archive is - 1. an institution where documents of the past are stored; 2. the collection of stored documents itself. As a result, we will understand that to archive a file means to transfer it to the repository, that is, to save it.

Conclusion: by determining the meaning of individual parts of the word, you can understand the meaning of the whole word. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word.

4. How does the morpheme relate to other units of the language?

Morpheme - can be considered in two ways, i.e. it has both form and content.

Form: consists of sounds, which are indicated on the letter with letters; it also has content - it points to a specific subject. By its duality, the morpheme differs from the phoneme and syllable, which have only a form.

As a rule, the morphemic division of a word (pod-sh-l-i) usually does not coincide with its division into syllables (po-came).

Synonymy of words and morphemes is possible: the most beautiful is the most beautiful; rusist - a specialist in the Russian language.

A morpheme is clearly distinct from a word and a sentence. Here are the differences:

1) a morpheme is a minimal unit, and a word and a sentence can be divided into smaller meaningful units;

2) the morpheme is devoid of independence and exists only in the word; outside the word, it can be difficult to determine not only the meaning of the morpheme, but also its relation to roots or affixes (plaintiff, radiant, taxi driver). The word acts as an independent element of the sentence;

3) the location of the morpheme in the word is strictly fixed (forest-ok, not ok-forest), while the word can move relatively freely within the sentence;

4) morpheme - a reproducible unit; the speaker takes them from the "inventory" of language units stored in the memory, and sentences and some words (occasional and potential - prosessed - by V. available with the words: superstar - super success, super car, super fish.

Often, without hesitation, we use morphemes: abbreviated by place of residence - Baku, Muscovite, Italian.

5. Morpheme, allomorph, morpheme variant

A morpheme is a generalized unit that has varieties - morphs.

Morph is related to morpheme as sound is related to phoneme.

Example: to speak, I speak - two morphs of one horse morpheme, in words buy, purchase, purchase - three morphs of one suffixal morpheme.

Different morphs representing the same morpheme are called allomorphs(Greek allos - another, morphe - form).

A morpheme is a series of alternating allomorphs in a strict position. In this case, allomorphs of one morpheme must have:

1) identity of meaning,

2) the proximity of the phonemic composition;

3) non-occurrence in one morphemic environment.

Example: allomorphs love, love- have the same meaning "to feel deep affection for someone, something", are similar in phonemic composition, do not occur in the same morphemic environment: allomorph love - occurs only where in the history of the language the root b met with the phoneme j: love , in love, falling in love. Replacing the morph with any - in these words is impossible.

Another example: nose and porter, here morphs are not defined as allomorphs, since they belong to different morphemes, because morphs do not have an identity of meaning: nose - "part of a person's face", nose "(in the word porter) means to move something, picking it up.

The words go and go, here the morphs id- and sh- have the same meaning of movement, but do not have the proximity of the phonemic composition, therefore it cannot be called allomorphs, these are different morphemes.

If we consider the endings of nouns in word forms doors, doors, then here the morphs are identical in meaning (point to a noun in the plural form, creative case), are close in phonemic composition, but occur in the same morphemic position, at the end of the same part of the word. They are not called allomorphs, but options morphemes.

Conclusion: allomorphs and variants of morphemes have the same meaning and the proximity of the phonemic composition, but variants of morphemes occur in the same position, and allomorphs - in different.

6. Types of morphemes

As part of the word, 6 types of morphemes are possible: root, prefix (prefix), suffix, ending (inflection), connecting vowel (interfix), postfix.

The types of affixes differ according to their place in the word.

All significant parts of a word, except for the root, are called affixes.

The part of the word without an ending is called the stem.

Root- this is the central morpheme in the word, carrying the main, lexical meaning. The common part of related words called one-root.

Affix(lat. attached) - a morpheme that clarifies and specifies the lexical meaning of a word or performs grammatical functions in it.

The main differences between root and affix:

1) the root is always present in every word, there are no words without roots, the affix is ​​optional: there are words that do not have affixes (no, cinema, beige, ay, video);

2) the root necessarily has a meaning, the affix may not have it (five-year-old, high school student);

3) the roots can be in any part of speech (good, kind, kinder); affixes, on the other hand, usually correspond to the words of certain parts of speech: enij – suffix of abstract nouns(mood, achievement, procrastination), aish- adjective suffix in the form of a superlative degree (highest, deepest); -ut - verb ending(write, wave, carry).

The exception here is the suffixes of subjective assessment (uncle, old, modestly);

4) there are much more roots in Russian than affixes.

Example: "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language" A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova has about 5,000 morphemes, of which more than 4,400 roots and about 600 affixes);

5) the roots are replenished with new morphemes, while new affixes almost do not appear in the language;

6) in the text, root morphemes are less common than affixes (So, in the phrase of L. N. Tolstoy “Where love ends, hatred begins” - 6 root morphemes, at least 10 affixes);

7) root morphemes are longer than affixal ones;

8) affixes are zero (brother, said); roots are not null.

Affixes are divided into the word educational and formative (inflectional).

word-building affixes serve to form new words, to form their foundations (live, inhabitant).

Via inflectional affixes form grammatical forms of words (zhi-t, live-ut).

7. Productivity and regularity of affixes

When analyzing the words of the Russian language, one can notice that not all affixes are equally common: some of them take an active part in the word-formation process, others do not participate in word-formation.

From this point of view, affixes are divided into productive and unproductive.

Productive called morphemes that are actively involved in word production and give new words.

In the formation of the names of males, there are over 50 suffixes: chi (architect), -ak, -yak (countryman, fisherman), -ik (historian), -chik / -shchik (scout, nuclear engineer), -ok (rider), -onok, -yonok (granddaughter, cook), -ar, -yar (shepherd, stolYar), -yor (boxer), -ir (banker) ... The entire list of such suffixes can be found in Zinovy ​​Aronovich Potikha's book "Modern Russian Word Formation" .

Unproductive affixes are called, with the help of which new words and forms are not currently formed.

For example: Herald, regular, spyAtai, walker - these are, perhaps, all the words in the language with the suffix -tai/-atai. The same applies to suffixes - ev (brew, glow), -zn (life, fear, illness), -yash (tribe, curly).

The same applies to formative morphemes: all verbs in the 1st person singular. numbers of the present tense have the ending -у / -ю, and only 2 verbs have the ending -m in this form: dam, eat.

In addition to productivity / unproductivity, affixes differ in regularity.

Regularity(lat. regula - law, rule) - this is a regular repetition, reproducibility of the affix as part of a number of words of a homogeneous structure. They form a certain derivational or formative type.

Irregular affixes have a limited (unique) compatibility - with only one specific root; such affixes are also called unifixes: -enyok (hubby), -anek (kumanek), -avets (handsome, bastard), -unok (drawing), -yukh (groom).

The endings -um, -name, -mya are found only in the numerals two, three, four. The prefix ko- is only in the word nook, the prefix mu- is only in the word trash.

All irregular affixes are simultaneously unproductive, but not all regular affixes are productive. For example, the suffix -from - (quickness, cleanliness, kindness) is regular in the SRL, i.e. there is a certain word-formation model: an abstract noun is formed from an adjective with the help of this suffix, but new words are not formed in this way, therefore the suffix is ​​unproductive.

8. Brief description of the types of morphemes

Root- a common indivisible part of related words, capable of attaching other morphemes to itself.

Usually roots consist of 2 - 6 sounds (ber-u, dream-at, weather-a), roots consisting of 1 sound are rare (sh-la, him, y-y-ti).

In morphemic analysis, the root is found in the selection and comparison of related words.

Roots Distinguish free and bound roots, based on the degree of morphemic and semantic independence.

Free roots - act independently, out of combination with other significant morphemes. They themselves form the basis of the word: forest, good, yesterday.

Related roots (radixoids) - used only in combination with other significant morphemes: o-de-t, na-de-t, ob-at-t, raz-at-t, in-do-bav-ok.

Prefix(prefix - Latin attached in front) - an affix that is in front of the root and expresses a word-building or grammatical meaning.

Prefixes in verbs can mean a certain action: In-walk - go out - word-building meaning.

To write - to write - verbs denote one action, but the non-prefixed is a verb of an imperfect form and is formative.

Usually the prefix is ​​in front of the root, but it can also be in front of another prefix: dimensionless, pull-on-pull, think-on-think.

Most often, attachments are simple(without-/bes-, in-/in-, o-/ob-/ob-), but there may be constituent(complex, derivatives) formed as a result of a combination of 2 prefixes. There are few such prefixes: deprive / obes-, under-, nebez- / nebes- (dehydrate, weaken, notorious, not useful, underfulfilled, underperformed).

Before verbs, prefixes usually play the role of an additional meaning: drive, drive, drive, drive.

With mixed structures of complex prefixes (under-, without-, obes-) with simple ones, from the combination of which they are formed, difficulties may arise.

Example: under-looked - i.e. “did not take into account, did not notice, overlooked”; He didn't say something - that is. "hide, hide"

A distinctive feature of the prefix is ​​not its holistic, independent character, often words with this prefix are not used without non-: underestimation, misunderstanding, malnutrition, underestimation, omission, thoughtlessness, misunderstanding. Remember!

Compound prefix heaven-/heaven- is used to form adjectives and denotes incompleteness, a weak degree of quality: not harmless - not entirely harmful, not useful - to some extent useful, not unreasonable - having some reason. Notorious - to some extent known, not obscure - known, because. here does not completely deny the unknown.

Suffix- this is an affix that is before the ending and serves to form new words or their grammatical forms.

Usually the suffix is ​​found after the root or another suffix: guest-and-t, successor-ova-tel-nitsa.

Characteristic features of suffixes:

1. Merging a suffix with a specific ending. In linguistic literature, suffixes and inflections are often given as a whole: -nie, -ification, -stvo. Such combinations of suffix and ending are called formants.

2. The suffix has the ability, together with the ending, to refer words to one or another part of speech: -nits (a) (ink, bread box) - predetermines the relation of the word to feminine nouns. The suffix -sk (y) (urban, rural) - to adjectives, the suffix -nu- - to verbs of the I conjugation (push, shout).

3. It is necessary to distinguish suffixes from prefixes, suffixes are attached not to the word as a whole, but to the basis of the word form: the noun friendship is formed from the verb to be friends with the suffix -b-, the adjective long is formed from the noun length.

In Russian there are native Russian suffixes and borrowed suffixes.

Suffixes are divided into derivational and inflectional(shaping).

Derivational suffixes change the lexical meaning of a derived word.

Example: nouns wardrobe, newspaper have the meaning of objectivity, and those formed from them with the help of the suffix -chik / -shchik newsboy, cloakroom attendant already have the meaning of a person in relation to an object, an instrument of action.

In Russian, word-building suffixes are predominantly used.

In morphemic parsing, there may be the following difficulties:

1. In possessive adjectives like foxes, the morpheme -y is a suffix, not an ending, therefore, in the form of foxes, the zero ending, the ending-letter appears in such an adjective when the form of the word changes: fox, fox. And the vowel is fluent in the suffix –iy.

2. With the same graphic representation of suffixes and endings: sem-her-th, blue-her. Here, too, you need to compare the parsed form with others, and only after that decide what is in front of you: a suffix or an ending.

3. It is difficult to distinguish one suffix from another (dreamer, insensibility, predecessor): 1) select all this as one suffix, 2) select as many suffixes as possible.

In such cases, it is necessary to build a word-building chain, decide what the given word is derived from, and motivate your decision.

Dreamer - a woman dreamer, we can distinguish the suffix -nits-. A dreamer is one who dreams, one can single out the suffix -tel. To dream - to have dreams in your head - select the suffix -a-.

The Russian language is distinguished by a wide variety of suffix systems, which contributes to the variety of shades of meanings, the subtlety of stylistic shades. Example: girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl, girl.

There is another feature of suffixes in Russian: diminutiveness.

Diminutive suffixes are often used in colloquial speech, which are a manifestation of the informal style of speech.

For example: A bench is an official language, a label in a store, on a sales list, in legal usage. The diminutive "bench" is the usual, general literary and neutrally colloquial. BUT twice diminutive“bench” is emphatically colloquial, a sign of informal, friendly relations with the interlocutor.

Hence the double or even multiple diminutiveness of many words and a huge supply of suffixes: k, ik, ok, chik, check, ochk, echk, ichk, ushk, ishk, yshk, itza, itse ... One and the same word can be reduced to all frets: room - room - room - room; hand - pen - hand - hand - hand ...

The diminutive suffixes of adjectives acquire a special connotation. They smooth and, as it were, average out those estimated values: handsome, kind, smart, and now - with diminutive suffixes: pretty, kind, smart. In a diminutive form, they begin to sound somewhat condescending, praise is moderated, sometimes even turns into a mockery.

9. Postfix

Postfix(lat. attached) - an affix located after the end at the absolute end of the word.

There are 5 postfixes in Russian: 2 verbal(-sya / -s, -te: fight, fight, teach) and 3 pronouns(-something, -either, -someone: someone, some, someone).

The above affixes are derivational.

So, the postfix - sya gives the verbs to correspond, quarrel the meaning of reciprocity, and pronouns and adverbs with postfixes -something, -either, -nibud (someone, somewhere, someday) have the meaning of uncertainty.

The postfix –sya / -ss performs an inflectional function: it is used to form forms of the passive voice. For example: Workers are building a house. The house is being built by workers.

The inflectional postfix - those in the form of the imperative mood of the verb expresses the grammatical meaning of the plural: think - those, remember - those.

Postfixes combine the signs of prefixes and suffixes. Verbs remain verbs, pronouns remain pronouns (begin - begin, which - any).

10. Interfix

This word refers to related, but not identical concepts:

1. connecting vowels in compound words;
2. intermorphic spacers.

The main connecting vowels -О-, -Е-, also -И-, -EX-, -УХ-, -У-: daredevil, four-story, two-story, penumbra.

Intermorphemic spacers - provide compatibility of morphemes and are more often located on the border of the root and the suffix. In morphemic analysis, in this case, one can single out the suffix -shn-, which is a variant of the suffix -n-, or one can single out the suffix -n- and the interfix -sh-.

For example: Kazan, Saratov, Oryol, Gorky.

11. End

The ending(inflection - lat. bending, transition) - a variable part of the word form, which serves to express grammatical meaning and indicates the syntactic relations of words in a sentence.

The ending occupies the final position in the word, the exception applies only to indefinite pronouns, reflexive verbs and complex numerals (for someone, I return, three hundred).

The ending is used to express the meaning of gender, number, case or person. For example: in the word form country -a expresses the meaning of f.r., singular, im.p.; cheerful th - the meaning of m., cf. r., units h., r. P.; we look - them - the meaning of the plural, 1 person, i.e. The ending is complex.

In some cases, the ending is also a derivational tool: godfather - godfather, spouse - wife, fox - fox, Alexander - Alexandra.

12. Affixoids

By function affixoids close to affixes. They are part of a compound or complex abbreviated word that regularly participate in word formation and thus approach in their role to affixes - prefixes and suffixes.

Examples of prefixoids: bio- (biology, biochemistry, biotechnology), pseudo- (pseudo-democrat, pseudo-culture), suffixoids: -log (political scientist, geologist, philologist), -tech- (film library, file cabinet, library).

13. The basis of the word

stem- this is an obligatory and constant element of the morphemic structure of the word, which is a means of expressing its lexical meaning.

In Russian, there are 2 main types of morphemic structure of the Russian word:

1. base + inflection (city, country, said);
2. words equal to the stem (fun, khaki, coat).

Rarely, in the formation of a word, heterogeneous (suppletive) stems are used: a child - children, a person - people, good - better, I - me.

Bases can be segmented and non-segmented.

Articulated stems are called, consisting of at least 2 morphemes, 1 of which is root: degree-nick, on-so-n-th.

Indivisible the bases are equal to the root: red, go-ti.

The basics can be simple, i.e. containing 1 root, and complex containing 2 or more roots (agricultural, Russian-German-French).

14. Historical changes in word structure

The morpheme structure of a word can change, which include:

1) re-decomposition- a change in morphemic boundaries in a word, as a result of which the stem of the word is divided into morphemes differently than before. Example: the former articulation of livestock was replaced by articulation of livestock, rod: rod-lisch-e (to fish); earlier: udi-l-isch-e (bit, cf .: bite the bit).

2) simplification- the transformation of an articulating base into an indivisible one (in the word taste, the prefix v- is no longer distinguished, earlier this word was related to the words bite, piece).

3) complication- the transformation of a previously non-derivative base into a derivative (book - book, leg - leg).

4) substitution- replacement of one morpheme by another without changing the general meaning of the word: solyanka - sol- originally looked like a villager (rural food) - village-.

15. Morphemic parsing

The order of the school analysis by composition:

1. Determine the part of speech of the word being analyzed.
2. For modified words, change the form of the word, highlight its ending.
3. Build a word-building chain, highlight suffixes and prefixes.
4. Pick up words with the same root, make sure that the rest is the root. Remember that there can be alternations at the root.

Sample school analysis by composition:

1) participated - verb,

2) participated, participated - ending -and,

3) participated - form past. temp. from the verb to participate - suffix past. temp. - l,

4) to participate is to show participation in something - the suffix -vova-.

5) Participation, participant - the root of participation.

The order of university morphemic analysis:

1. Part of speech- mutable (how it changes) / immutable.

2. Feature graduation:

• by the nature of the formal expression (materially expressed or null),
• by the nature of the grammatical meaning.

3. Feature basics:

• segmented / non-segmented,
• simple / complex,
• intermittent / continuous.

4. Feature root:

• by degree of independence (free / bound),
• by the nature of the meaning (subject / verbal / indicative: qualitative and quantitative sign),
• by the presence of alternations.

5. Feature suffixes:

• by function (inflectional / derivational),
• by value.

6. Feature prefixes:

• by structure (derivative / non-derivative),
• by function (inflectional / derivational),
• by value.

7. Feature postfixes:

• by function (inflectional / derivational).

8. Feature interfix: a connecting vowel that contributes to the formation of a word / an insignificant padding that ensures the compatibility of morphemes.

Sample morpheme parsing

1) co-labor-nickname - noun, change in numbers and cases.

2) The ending zero, expresses grams. value of m. kind, unit numbers, im. pad.

3) The basis collaborator articulating, simple, continuous.

4) Root- labor - free, objective, alternation d // w // railway (labor - work - bother).

5) Suffix- nik - materially expressed, derivational, has the meaning "the name of persons in relation to some object."

6) Prefix so-non-derivative, derivational, has the meaning of "compatibility".

16. Subject and tasks of word formation. The relation of word formation to other sections of linguistics

It is necessary to strictly distinguish derivational links between modern language and real way of education words in the past, as well as to consider the word-formation means of the modern language in terms of their productivity.

Productive affixes used to form new words are called (with the help of suffixes –nij-, -chik-/-schik-, -ant, -k-: landing, space pilot, locator, informant, handball player).

Word formation has a special place in the system of linguistic disciplines, the connection of word formation with grammar and lexicology.

Word formation is considered as a special section of grammar, along with morphology and syntax.

Grammar is the structure of a language. The language has: a sound side (phonetics / graphics), a semantic side (lexicon) and a structure (word formation, morphology, syntax).

word formation- a separate section of linguistics, has its own subject of study: morphemic and derivational; their tasks:

1. the study of the minimum significant parts of the word - morphemes
2. learning how words are formed
3. study of word-building resources
4. the study of the word-formation system of the Russian language, the main development trends
5. mastering the methodology of word formation.

Communication with morphology It manifests itself in the fact that new words are usually formed according to the models existing in the language, arranged according to the grammatical categories of the language (part of speech, constant and non-constant signs).

Word formation and syntax the connection is reflected in the word-formation possibilities, the semantics of words derived from it. Let's consider this phenomenon on the example of the word "teach".

* teach - in the sentence is a predicate

Accordingly, from this verb is formed:

• action name (doctrine)
• current name (teacher)
• name of the direct circumstance of the action (student)
• name of indirect circumstance of action (textbook)
• name of the place of action (school).

Word formation and phonetics

The phonetic and morphological structure of the Russian language are closely interconnected in the structure of the word. In the process of word formation and form formation, the same morpheme can change in its sound composition and differ in morphs.

morph- a specific representative of one morpheme in a word.

Word formation and derivation

Derivation- the process of formation of language units of any level (morphemes, syllables, words, etc.).

The science of word formation is called derivatology. This includes the processes of formation of language units as a whole (words, phrases, sentences).

Word formation studies the following sections:

1. morphemic - studies morphemes, their meaning
2. section of the structure of the Russian word (about the basics)
3. morphonology (considers morphs of various types)
4. etymology (the origin of the word-formation structure of the word)
5. proper word formation (methods, types, word-formation chains and nests)

17. Word formation in the market world

Knowledge of word formation in the modern world is used everywhere.

A philologist is a very “broad” specialty, a philologist can be found everywhere: not only in an educational institution, kindergarten and library, but also in a printing house, a company of any profile, city and regional administrations - literate people are needed everywhere.

18. The concept of derivative

Productivity- the basic concept of word formation, formed between cognate words, when the form and meaning of one word are directly predetermined (motivated) by the form and meaning of another word (river ← river, ChSPU ← Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University).

All words of the Russian language are divided (from the word-formation point of view) into derivatives and non-derivatives.

Derivatives- words formed from other words: spring, stream. The words river, river, small river are derivatives, and the word river for them is generating.

Derivative words (derivative) are the basic minimum unit of the word-formation system of the language. For example: Snowflake ← snow

Productivity happens the only and multiple. With a single derivative, there is only one option for motivating a derived word: student ← student, store manager ← store manager.

With multiple production (multiplicity of motivations), a word can be equally correlated with several generators:

unhappy ← fun redistribution ← distribution

← unhappy ← redistribute

non-derivative words that are not formed from other words are called. There are 2 groups of words. One includes changeable words, consisting of a word and an ending: spring, stream, sun.

The second group consists of invariable words like bra, coat, there, scat. The words of both groups have an indivisible stem, which is equal to the root.

19. Motivating and motivated word. Word-building formant

The words "producing word" and "producing basis" are close, but not identical.

Motivating word is the deriving word from which the parsed word is actually formed. For example: for the word extortion, the word extortionist is producing and motivating: extortion is the action that the extortionist performs.

Motivated word- this is a derivative word, the meaning of which can be explained (motivated) with the help of a single-root word, simpler in composition.

Motivating and motivated words are connected by relations of word-formation motivation.

Motivating and motivated words make up a word-formation pair. A motivated word in this pair is a word that is formally and semantically more complicated than a single-root one. For example: A baker is a bakery. The word pek-ar-n-ya, for example, is formally longer (in suff. –n-) and semantically more complicated: it includes the “place” component, which means that the word bakery is motivated.

When interpreting derivative words, you can use typical definitions: one who; what; such that.

A motivated word always consists of 2 parts: the basis of the generating word and the derivational formant.

Word-building formant- this is the means by which the derived word differs from the generating one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya). - this is the means by which the derived word differs from the generating one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya).

In Russian, word-building formants are:

a. affixes,

b. reduction of the generating base (specialist → spec),

c. addition or fusion into a single (instant, dining car),

d. a change in the system of grammatical forms of the word (during its transition from 1 part of speech to another: ice cream: adverb → noun), the participle had a non-post. category: frozen meat, frozen fish, frozen zucchini; the genus of the noun became fasting. category - cf. R.

20. Derivational meaning

Derived words express a wide range of derivational meanings of different types. For example: face meanings (flatterer, pilot, conductor - highlight the formants that express this meaning), object meanings (engine, counter, boiler - formants), meaning of the scene or container (locker room, winter hut, stable, sugar bowl, coffee pot), meanings femininity, immaturity, collectiveness or singularity (cashier, fox cub, clientele, pea), a variety of evaluative meanings: diminutive, magnifying, petting, derogatory (house, domina, little dog, little mind) and many other meanings.

21. Methodology for choosing a generating word and compiling a word-formation pair

There is a certain method for choosing a generating word and compiling a word-formation pair:

1. Determine the lexical meaning of the derived word.
2. Compose a motivational paraphrase (descriptive expression) to the derived word.
3. Make a word-formation pair, highlight the derivative and the generating stem.
4. Determine the derivational formant and its meaning.

For example: Charm is a property of a charming person.

Charming ← charming.

The derivational formant - the suffix -ost, gives the meaning of an abstract entity.

22. Derivative nest

derivational pair form generating and derived words. A word-formation chain can form from them: blue → turn blue → turn blue → turn blue.

All derivative words formed from the same root are derivational nest: Bor (pine and spruce forest) → borok

→ boron

→ upland → boletus → boletus

Word-building nests vary in size:

1) zero nest – represented by only 1 word

2) weakly deployed nest, including the top and 1 derivative: mayonnaise - mayonnaise;

3) highly expanded nest of 3 or more words

23. Derivational type

The word-formation type is the basic complex unit of the word-formation system.

The word-formation type includes 3 components:

• common part-of-speech attribution of generating words;
• common part-of-speech attribution of derivative words;
• common derivational formant and derivational meaning.

For example, a baby elephant, a bear cub, a Negro baby are created on the basis of a word-formation type (word-formation model), i.e.

1. The basis of the noun. + -onok / yonok = noun. with meaning cub.

2. Greenish, bluish, pinkish are created on the basis of the word-formation type of the stem adj. + -ovat-/-evat- = adj. with meaning color tint.

The word-formation type shows the structure of the words existing in the language and gives a rule for the formation of some words from others.

24. Method of word formation

Way of word formation- 1 of the central concepts in word formation. It can be considered in terms of diachrony and in terms of synchrony.

With diachronic point of view, the method of word formation fixes the history of the birth of a word in one of the periods of its development. For example: goalkeeper ← vrata (suff. way, through the formant -ary); now ← this hour (fusion of 2 significant words).

With synchronous point of view, the method of word formation determines by what means the word-formation meaning of the word is expressed.

In many cases, the word-formation meaning of collectiveness is expressed in a suffixal way using the formants –j-, -v-, -n-, -estv-, -nyak, -at. For example: animals, foliage, relatives, students, birch forest, headman.

To determine the method of word formation, it is necessary to identify the generating stem and the word-forming formant.

To land← earth (morphol., adj.-suff.-postfix.).

25. Morphological ways of word formation

At morphological morphemes are used in word formation.

In such word formations, the structure of the derivative word differs from the motivating base (producing word or phrase): spring ← spring, snowdrop ← snow.

At non-morphological methods do not use affixes and are not accompanied by a change in the appearance of the producing unit.

Pure affix methods include prefixation, suffixation, postfixation.

Prefix - formation of a word with the help of prefixes: sing → sing, always → forever. Often used with verbs.

Suffixation- the formation of a word with the help of suffixes, this is the most common way of Russian word formation, characteristic of different parts of speech, primarily for nouns and adjectives.

Blue → blue → blue

Zero suffix - used in the field of verbal nouns (talk → talk, answer → answer, run → run, walk → absenteeism), nouns formed from adjectives (green → greenery, quiet → quiet, new → new), and evaluative nouns with the meaning of person (suck up → lick, bully → bully).

Postfix - affixal method, in which a postfix serves as a means of expressing a derivational meaning.

The postfix, like the prefix, is attached to the word as a whole and does not change the part of speech of the formed word.

There are also combined affixal ways: prefix-suffix, prefix-postfix, suffix-postfix, prefix-postfix-suffix.

Let's consider these methods.

1. Prefix-suffix way . In this case, the word-building formant is a combination of 2 affixes - a prefix and a suffix ((snow → snowdrop, Ural → Trans-Urals).
2. Prefix with zero suffix . Prefixation and zero suffixation is a method typical for the formation of adjectives motivated by nouns from the meanings of a part of the body or a detail of appearance: eyeless, legless, armless.
3. prefix-postfix mainly used with verbs. The combination of the prefix and the postfix -sya, -sya is used as a means of expressing the word-formation meaning: to get through, to starve, to blather. The formant is attached to the whole word - the verb.
4. Suffixal-postfixal mainly used with verbs. As motivating words, nouns and adjectives act: vanity → fuss, proud → proud, need → need.
5. Prefix-suffix-postfix method. It is used mainly with verbs, motivating words are nouns, adjectives and verbs: bankrupt → go bankrupt, generous → become generous, whisper → whisper.

Addition - one of the common phenomena in word formation.

When adding, the basis is a stable order of components, a tendency to a single stress, an interfix.

Compound words have a special type of word-formation meaning - a connecting meaning associated with the combination of motivating bases of different semantics into one integral unit: north, east → northeast.

Addition includes several varieties.

1. Composite method- the addition of independent words without the help of an interfix: a dining car, a raincoat, a stop crane. Each word has its own meaning.
2. pure addition- the formation of a derivative word by connecting with the help of an interfix 1 or several bases with an independent significant word: forest-steppe, black and white. Words can be both equal and unequal semantic relations (white-pink ← white and pink, waterproof ← impervious to water).
3. Education compound words with 1 immutable related component international nature: air, television, bio, video, rock (airmail, TV show, bioadditives, video duo, rock concert).
4. Compound suffix way. The word-formation meaning is expressed by a combination of addition and suffix. Word-building formants are interfix, suffix. This method is common in the field of the formation of nouns and adjectives: fire extinguisher, full moon, fifth grader, three-story, Western European, Far Eastern.
5. Complex prefix method: pacify, blue-black.
6. Prefix-compound-suffix: everyday, ubiquitous, Black Sea region.

truncation- abbreviation of the generating base by type of abbreviations (regardless of the morphemic seam): specialist - specialist, deputy - deputy.

The stems of nouns and adjectives are truncated: specialist - specialist, manager - head, naive - naive, intensive - intensive. Truncations can also be motivated by the phrase: decree - maternity leave, fictitious - fictitious marriage, synchronous - simultaneous translation.

Truncation can be complicated by suffixing: vidic, great, cartoon, comp.

Semantic inclusion(univerbation) - a way of forming a word based on the phrase: reading room → reading room, record book → record book.

This is a very common way of modern word formation, they form colloquial words: minibus, public, devitietka, three-liter, hundred-meter, passbook, five hundred.

26. Morphonological phenomena in word formation

In morphological word formation at the junction of the generative stem and the affix, there are various sound changes. For example, when the root ruk- is combined with the suffix –n-, an alternation of phonemes k // h is observed in the root, and when the same root is combined with the suffix –ast-, there is no alternation in the root: manual - handy.

Morphemes can adapt to each other using the following derivational means:

• insertion of interfixes, thanks to this, it is possible to avoid unpronounceable combinations of phonemes on a morphemic seam (skyscraper, biennial);
• superposition of morphemes- partial combination in the word structure of 2 neighboring morphs (taxi + ist → taxi driver; coat + ov → coat, pink-ov-th + ovate → pinkish).
• truncation morphemes - this is a reduction of part of the root or affix under the influence of the attached affix (coat - coat, Italian - Italian);
• buildup- a complication of the basis of the word when derivatives or word forms are formed from it: heaven - heaven, daughter - daughters, time - time, mother - maternal.
• alternation phonemes and combinations of phonemes.

Major historical alternations

1. e // and (unlocked - unlock)

2. o // s (ambassador - send)

3. o // a (burn - cinder)

4. e // o (carry - cart)

5. i // y (tinkle - sound)

6. e // i // a // and (sit down - sit down - sit down - sit down)

7. e // ǿ (day - day)

8. o // ǿ (sleep - sleep)

9. and // her // ǿ (pour - pour - pour)

10. s // oh (wash - mine)

11. uy // ov (sui - poke)

12. uy // ev (chew - chew)

13. I // them (understand - understand)

14. a // in (start - start)

15. oro // ra (turn - rotate)

16. re // re (tree - tree)

17. olo // la (cold - cool)

18. olo // le (milk is a mammal)

19. g // w // s (friend - friends - friends)

20. k // h // c (face - personality - face)

21. g // w // h (shore - saves - saves)

22. g // w // u (I can - can - power)

23. x // w (dry - to dry)

24. s // w (to wear - I wear)

25. d // w // railway (walk - walk - walking)

26. t // h // u (light - candle - lighting)

27. t // u (eat - food)

28. st // u (let in - let in)

29. sk // u (to drag - I drag)

30. d // s (lead - lead)

31. t // s (weave - weave)

32. any acc. // ǿ (vede - led, metu - chalk)

33. b // bl (love - love)

34. p // pl (sculpt - sculpt)

35. m // ml (terrestrial - earth)

36. in // ow (catch - catch)

37. f // fl (graph - graph)

Causes of morphological phenomena

1. Historical processes in the field of phonetics (alternations with hissing caused the laws of palatalization, the fluency of vowels is a consequence of the fall of the reduced ones): crumb - tiny, love - love, sleep - sleep.
2. Operation of the principle of saving speech efforts: truncation, overlay and haplology, for example: brown - brownish, curious - curiosity, Chekhov - Chekhov.
3. The desire to preserve the transparency of the word-formation and morphemic structure of the word: airplane, tyuzovsky.
4. Operation of the law of euphony.
5. Action of the law of analogy (truncation, superimposition, haplology, interfixation): Eagle - Orlovsky.

27. Non-morphological ways of education

Non-morphological methods of formation - methods of formation of derivative words that are not accompanied by a change in the external appearance of the generating unit.

Non-morphological methods are divided into lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic and morphological-syntactic methods.

Lexico-syntactic way(fusion, fusion) is the creation of a new word based on the phrase as a result of the merger of 2 or more words: today, crazy, instant, above.

1) adverb + adjective or participle: evergreen, instant, books with little high artistic value.

2) noun + adjective or participle: phosphorus-containing, nitrogen-containing, insane.

When a word is formed in a lexical-syntactic way, only 1 part changes: evergreen, evergreen, evergreen.

Compound nouns like the restaurant car are formed by addition, because in many of them both parts are inclined: in the restaurant car, to a rematch, from a hairdressing salon, from an international journalist.

Morphological-syntactic way. Transition from one part of speech to another.

Often in Russian, words can go into all parts of speech. The productivity of these processes is not the same.

Productive processes include substantiation, adjectivation, adverbialization, predicativation, prepositionalization, and interjectivation.

1) Substantiation(lat. substantivum - noun) - nouns are formed from adjectives and participles: confectionery, vacationers.

Substantiated adjectives and participles are diverse in semantics: they designate persons (sick, ordinary, scientist, counter), premises (bathroom, dining room, living room, reception, operating room), abstract concepts (future, beauty, main thing), dishes, meals, medicines ( hot, hot, sleeping pills), money, payments (tips, travel allowances).

2) Adjectivation- the transition of words into adjectives (first row - first student = best).

3) Pronominalization- word transition pronouns, adjectives(famous artist - a certain amount of freedom = some), numerals(plant one tree - Only people lived in the old days = some, some), communion(the assignment given to me is to speak out on this issue = this).

4) adverbialization- the transition of words into adverbs, nouns pass into adverbs (to live very close = close).

5) predicativation– the transition of words into words of the state category. This phenomenon is subject to adverbs and short adjectives(hazy hint - foggy morning - foggy in the morning) and nouns (A dull time! Eyes of charm!).

6) Prepositionalization- the transition of words into prepositions. Goes into prepositions nouns(during the river - during the day), adverbs(stand around - stand around us) gerunds(thanks to a comrade - thanks to the help of comrades = because of).

7) conjunctionalization- the transition of words into conjunctions. Move to unions adverbs(We followed the signs exactly. - Eyes shone like stars) and pronouns(I did not know what to take with me. - Involuntarily, the thought came to mind that the stars were rustling - Paust.).

8) Interjection- the transition of words into interjections (carry guard - Guard! Rob).

Morphological ways of word formation as word-building formants use morphemes.

The main methods of morphological word formation

Morphological ways:

1. Affixal:

1) suffix - eared - ears

2) zero suffixation - run - run

3) postfix - learn - teach

5) prefixed-suffixal - boletus - aspen

6) bailiff. - suff. - postfixal - become generous - generous

7) suffixal-postfixal - ear - ear

8) prefixed-postfixal - to shout - to shout

9) prefix with zero suffix - frost - frost

2. Addition

1) pure addition - bakery, bread, factory

2) composite method - dining car, car, restaurant

3) addition with elements of the international. character - bioadditive, bio, additive

4) addition + suffixation - puzzle ← break your head

5) addition + prefixation - pacify, peace, create

6) addition + pref-i + suff-i - half a turn, half a turn

3. Abbreviation

1) alphabetic - ChGPU

2) sound - UN

3) syllabic - trade union committee

4) syllabic - salary

5) mixed - IMLI

6) telescopic moped

4. Truncation

specialist ← spec

5. Semantic inclusion

record book ← record book

Word-building analysis

In word-formation analysis, it is necessary to determine the direction of derivation and the establishment of a motivating word, to consider the relationship between the motivating and motivated words in the formal and semantic terms.

In the process of analysis, the generating stem and the word-forming formant are singled out, the word-forming meaning of the derivative is revealed, which is expressed by the way of word formation.

For word-formation analysis, it is necessary to take only derivative words, and only in the initial form.

Scheme of word-formation parsing

1. Motivating word.
2. Motivation.
3. Manufacturing base.
4. word-formant.
5. Way of word formation.

A sample of university word-formation analysis

call back ← call

1. The motivating word is to call.
2. Motivation: call back - periodically call each other.
3. Producing basis - call.
4. Word-building. formant - a combination of prefix re-, suffix -iva-, postfix. - (ORAL)
5. The method of word formation is morphological, pref.-suff.-postf.

Sample school word-formation analysis

Plumbing ← conduct water (addition)

Snowdrop ← snow (additional-suffixal method).

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

A morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.

For example: Return

WHO means "reverse action" or "direction of movement". The action is usually directed towards a subject or an object.

ROTATING- Roundabout Circulation

EIJ- a process conceivable objectively

E- cf., singular, im.p.

Just like a phoneme, a morpheme is a structural element of a word. Since the morpheme is a linguistic unit, we observe in it the same systemic features as in the phoneme. A morpheme is an invariant (sample, standard), and variants of a morpheme are called morphs.

For example: FRIEND - FRIEND, DRUZ ', FRIEND, FRIEND [K], FRIEND [SH]

Morphs of the same morpheme in relation to each other are called allomorphs. Even if the morpheme is equal in structure to the phoneme, for example, Oh, S, K it still matters.

The morpheme differs from the units of all other language levels: from sounds a morpheme differs in that it has a meaning; from words- the fact that it is not a grammatically designed unit of the name; from offers- the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are the “building material” for sentences.

Morpheme and word

General: presence of meaning, reproducible, impenetrable, constancy of sound and meaning. Both words and morphemes are made up of phonemes.

Features:

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root (affixal). Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and formative (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root morphemes

Root morphemes include ROOT, AFFIXOID.

Root- the common part of related words, which expresses the main real meaning of the stem.

The root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes (table) and without endings (kangaroo).

The definition of a root as "a common part of related words" is correct, but is not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik'small table'. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning - 'children's holiday' - is not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, above, if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-tee.

The root stood out when comparing the words of one derivational nest.

At the root, historical alternations are most often observed.

Roots are of 2 types: free and connected.

loose root- this is a root, which is able to act without affixes as part of indivisible stems (meeting without prefixes and suffixes).

For example, WATER, WATER- free root

Related root known only as part of articulating stems and cannot be used without affixes.

For example, RAGPizza, RAG, RAG, RAG

affixoid is a morpheme of transitional type between the proper root and the affix. On the one hand, the affixoid carries the same real meaning as the root, on the other hand, the affixoid creates a word-formation model like an affix, i.e. being a serial element, creates a series.

For example, GARDENER, POULTRY GROWER, FLOWER

-VOD- affixoid "one who is engaged in cutting something, someone"

Affixoids are divided into prefixoids (before the root) and suffixoids (after the root) depending on the location.

Affixal morphemes

- morphemes that create word-building models and clarify, complement the meaning of the root. Affixal morphemes are common to a number of non-single-root words.

For example, URAL, LENINGRAD, AMERICAN -"inhabitant of a locality" - EC-

Affixes include: PREFIX (), SUFFIX (), INTERFIX (), ENDING (FLEXION), POSTFIX ().

Affixes perform either derivational (word-forming) function: morphemes are used to create new words; or relational (shaping) function: morphemes of new words do not create, but create the form of the same word.

For example, TEACHER– 4 affix morphemes

I, TEL- derivational f-ya

BUT- shape. f-i

NIC - word-figure. f-i + shaping. f-i

However, there are morphemes that perform both functions simultaneously. They are called syncretic.

Affixes can be productive and unproductive.

Productive called affixes, to-rye used in modern. stage of language development to create new words or forms of a single word: COPY- productive.

Unproductive affixes - affixes that are not currently used to create present. words: back street, simplicity, warmth- unproductive

Affixes can be regular or irregular. Regular - often found (-n-, -to-), irregular - rarely found in words (-their-).

There are suffixes that occur in 1-2 words: postAMPT, BUGLE, APPLAUSE.

Like words, morphemes can be native Russian and borrowed.

For example, weirdo, fisherman (-ak-); pie OK, man OK (-ok-)- originally Russian

TRANS-, DEZ-, A-, SUPER-; -IROVA-, -FITSIROVA-, -IZM- borrowed

Suffix -

An affixal morpheme, which comes after the root and serves to form new words and grammatical forms.

SEA + -SK- → MARINE - word-figure. suffix

SON - SONJYA- grammatical. the form

DRAW - draw- shape. suffix

There can be several suffixes in a word, but word-forming, i.e. the one that creates the given word will always be the last suffix.

For example, TEACHER ← TEACHER (TO TEACH + -TEL-) + SC

Suffixes can be different in structure. They can be simple: -IST-, -ISM-, -I-, -TEL-, -SK-, and can be complex (composite): -NICHA-, -FITSEROVA (TH)-

Suffixes are materially expressed and zero.

For example, withered, withered, withered, withered

Prefix (prefix) -

An affixal morpheme, which stands before the root, and serves to form new words or forms of the same word.

For example, Listen ←listen- word-forming

write→Write- shaping

Prefixes cannot create words of other parts of speech. There is no prefix zero, it is always materially expressed (unlike suffixes and endings)

Prefixes: simple (o-, on-, pro-, for-); complex (negative, under-); native Russian and borrowed

Interfix

In derivative words, there is a morpheme, which does not quite correspond to the characteristics of a given unit of language, since it has no lexical or grammatical meaning, but is used to create new words or forms of one word.

Not all scholars recognize the interfix as a morpheme, and call this formant a morphemic spacer.

Interfix can combine stems in compound words: esophagus, daredevil.

Interfixes include frozen endings inside complex derivative stems: crazy.

Do not confuse interfixes and suffixes within compound words. Wed: evergreen(suffix) , fruit and vegetable(interfix).

An interfix can combine a root and a suffix: yalta + -ets- + IN → Yalti

Flexia (end)–

Meaningful morpheme in inflected words.

The ending always indicates the possibility of replacing this morpheme with another sound complex. The list of possible changes is determined by the part of speech.

For example, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER - 12 paradigms; book - 24 paradigms.

The entire list of grams. forms of one word is called the paradigm of this word, and the paradigm is formed by changing the endings.

Remains unresolved. the question of whether the ending is only a formative morpheme, or it can be recognized that it is also a word-forming morpheme.

Postfix -

An affixal morpheme, which stands after inflection and is used to create new words or forms of one word. Postfix is ​​observed in discontinuous stems.

For example, spinning - derivational

SYa is a shape. in forms suffer. pledge to suffer. structures.

Wed: The crane lifts the load. The load is lifted by a crane.

- SOMETHING, - EITHER, - ANYTHING, creating an unpredictable pronouns are postfixes.

Form-forming yavl-Xia morpheme THOSE in the forms of the imperative mood of verbs and has grammatical. plural value numbers: go

Not everyone unequivocally evaluates this morpheme: some consider THOSE postfix, because this morpheme comes after another formative morpheme And; others consider it to be a suffix.

The base of the word

this is the part of the word that precedes the ending and expresses the lexical meaning of the given word. The basis of inflected and invariable words is different. In inflected (inflected or conjugated) words, the stem is defined as part of the word without the ending and formative suffixes : window about, sadness ny, drove Xia. To highlight the basis of the word, it is necessary to discard the ending and formative suffixes. The stem of immutable words is equal to the word: sad , to my mind , khaki .

Many words of the Russian language have a primary character, that is, they are not formed from any other words. The basis of such words is called non-derivative, for example: grey, black, forest, water-a, grass-a. The non-derivative stem is always indivisible, that is, it cannot be divided into morphemes; it consists only of the root. Various derivational affixes (prefixes,

suffixes, interfixes, postfixes), as a result of this, new words with a derivative stem appear, for example: mountain-a - mountain-th - horn-o-ski-n-th; brother - brother-sk-th - brotherly. Thus, derivative basis- this is the basis of words formed from any other words by adding various morphemes.

As part of the derivative base, in addition to the root, there may be:

1) one or more suffixes ( male-estv-o, male-estv-enn-th, male-estv-enn-ost);

2) only prefixes ( for-husband, not-friend, great-grandson);

3) various combinations of prefixes and suffixes ( in a husband-sk-i, air-husband-a-t, air-husband-a-l-th).

The derived stem is segmentable, that is, in addition to the root, other morphemes are distinguished in it; the derivative base can be continuous ( fish, tables, dream) and discontinuous ( meet, carried away).

Each derived base has its own generating base. The generating basis is the basis of the word from which the given word is formed. For example: water -> water-yang-oh - watery - wateriness.

4) combination of prefixes, suffixes and postfixes ( for-doh-well-t-sya, o-dum-a-lice-s).

Those derivational affixes with the help of which the given word is produced are attached to the generating stem.

As a result, various word-building chains arise, which are based on a word with a non-derivative stem. All words in the chain are cognate (related) words.

22. Word formation. Derivative word. Ways of word formation in modern Russian.

word formation is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways of forming words of a language.

Word formation studies the structure of the word (what parts it consists of, what is the meaning of these parts, what position they occupy in the word) and ways of forming words.

Word formation is connected with lexicology, since newly formed words replenish the vocabulary of the language and new words are formed on the basis of words already existing in the language according to the models of this language.

Word formation is also associated with morphology, since the newly formed word is formed according to the grammatical laws of the given language.

Word formation connection with syntax manifests itself in the fact that syntactic transformations are determined by the word-building potential of the word.

New words appear by 2 types of word formation:

1. morphological; 2. non-morphological.

With morphological word formation a new word is created by adding / truncating morphemes, i.e. some operation is performed with the morpheme. These include private methods of addition and affixation.

Non-morphological methods- ways where the formation of a new word is associated with changes in its semantics. New morphemes are not added, and even sometimes the structure of the stem does not change.

Non-morphological ways of word formation include:

Lexico-semantic way

Lexico-grammatical method (morphological-syntactic)

Lexico-syntactic way

Non-morphological types of word formation

Lexico-semantic

A new word appears as a result of semantic changes in a word that has already changed in the language. Those. initially, polysemy (polysemy) develops and a new meaning breaks away, turning into a homonym.

For example, pioneer (discoverer) → pioneer (member of a children's organization); plant (enterprise) → plant (plant); scapula (tool) to scapula (bone)

The morphemic structure has not changed, part of the word has not changed, the semantics has changed!!!