In recent years, when criminology is being updated, one can note the increased interest of this science in the study of problems associated with new concepts and terms for it. However, these concepts and terms are not always given the necessary explanations. These are most often such terms as "concept", "concept", "phenomenon", "definition", "paradigm" and many others. We will consider one of them at the very beginning of this book, others - as the text is presented. For criminology, obviously, as well as for other sciences, it is necessary to popularize complex concepts and terms, it is important to ensure their accessibility and bring them to the reader in this form. And criminology itself, as we already noted in the preface of this work, should be popularized.

Studying the history of criminology and problems of social practice, A.M. Yakovlev correctly posed the following questions: what are the categories, concepts, concepts used in criminology? what concepts does this science draw from the bowels of science as a system of knowledge? 1 Yakovlev A.M. Theory of criminology and social practice. M., 1985. P. 3. See also: Kudryavtsev N.I. the science of criminology and criminological knowledge. M., 1996. S. 17-18. According to the fair statement of this author, full and clear answers should be given to these questions. Concepts and terms used in criminology, emphasized A.M. Yakovlev, should be considered popularly and precisely in the context of criminological knowledge.

In general, if we do not touch upon strict assessments, criminology has long been using social science concepts and terms in its research, often in this sense intruding into natural science. She reoriented many of these concepts and terms in a criminological way so much that she sometimes considers them without reservations as her own. However, not everything is so simple and indisputable.

Concepts and terms. When studying criminology as a science, one should proceed primarily from its concept. It should correspond to general scientific categories.

Concepts are the leading form of scientific thinking. In criminology, as in other sciences, concepts reveal the content of complex and especially logical connections of the text of a given science - criminology. Concepts explain the terms "attached" to them.

Here we will talk about what the concept of "term" means. This is a word or phrase denoting the concept of a certain field of knowledge, say, criminological knowledge. This is what the dictionaries say: a term is a word that accurately denotes a certain concept in science and in other fields. Or in a slightly different way: a term is an unambiguous word that fixes a certain concept of science, art, technology, etc. The word "term" is an element of the language of science, the introduction of which is due to the need for an accurate and unambiguous designation of science data. There is a connection between the concept of "term" and such a designation as a concept.

The term "concept" is also used in criminology. In general terms, when problems are related to various sciences, the following explanations are given in the literature.

First of all, attention is drawn to the fact that the terms "concept" and "notion" in real text usage are often used as synonyms, replacing each other in order to avoid monotonous repetition. Although these terms are used interchangeably, they still have differences.

Concept - a category of thought, unobservable. However, scientists admit that there is still no single concept of the word "concept", but this, in their opinion, does not prevent its widespread use in scientific research. Basically, scientists believe that the concept is a phenomenon of the same order as the concept. According to their internal form in the Russian language, the words "notion" and "concept" are the same. But the term "concept" most often refers only to the content of the concept, while this term, being a synonym for the term "concept", also becomes synonymous with the word "meaning". In this case, the concept is the meaning of the word.

Criminology often uses the term "concept", and we say "the concept of crime", while revealing the meaning of this phenomenon, the content of its concept. We also say "the concept of criminological causation". Here, as in many other cases, other terms are intertwined: "definition", "paradigm", etc. But any term should be clear. It must be consistent with the meaning of the study. However, in this case, when we are talking about criminology, the emphasis of this science should be emphasized.

The term “definition” is also associated with the word “concept”, this is the definition of a concept, the disclosure of a concept by listing its features, i.e. by indicating the content of the concept. According to dictionary explanations, a definition is a brief logical definition that establishes the essential distinguishing features of an object or the meaning of a concept - its content and boundaries.

We can conditionally speak about the criminological aspect of the definition. In essence, when in criminology, as in other sciences, we are talking about the definition and disclosure of concepts, we mean the definition. These concepts - definition and definition - are often used by criminologists as equivalent. However, in any science, the term "definition" is most often used as a formulation of the definition of a concept.

Criminologists widely use the term "paradigm". It is mainly used in the philosophy of science and the sociology of science, but it is also widely used in other sciences, in particular in criminology. Criminologists, like representatives of other sciences, use this term to refer to a system of ideas, views and concepts, the initial concept, problem posing and solving them, research methods. The literature also points to the personal paradigm. Perhaps this is said with a certain degree of conventionality. Nevertheless, scientists pay attention to the fact that the personal paradigm is the decision-making by a particular researcher, his point of view, an aspect of his concept. It is not at all necessary that when applying the paradigm, the personal position would correspond to generally accepted provisions. The researcher, defining his paradigm, takes into account his own meanings and personal experience. However, as noted in the literature, he cannot reveal absolutely everything, "no one can know everything about everything."

In criminology, the paradigm, especially the personal one, is most of all used to denote the system of the author's ideas, his views and the concepts he defines.

As you can see, all these terms (“concept”, “definition”, “paradigm”) are closely related to the concept. If the concept, as we have already noted, is the leading form of scientific thinking, then, in addition to everything else, it permeates these terms, their content and definitions as a core.

The concept runs like a red thread through all science. Without it, it is impossible to understand any branch of knowledge.

Science is a form of social consciousness, representing a historically established system of ordered knowledge, the truth of which is checked and constantly refined in the course of social practice. Pointing to this concept of science, philosophers, and with them representatives of other sciences, write about it in a slightly different way: science is a system of objective knowledge about the phenomena of nature and society that is available today, meeting the needs of society and the interests of people, In this case, in our opinion, we can talk about the motivational conditionality of science. However, in a broad sense, science is spoken of taking into account the system of scientific institutions, the entire list of scientists, the scientific budget, and the entire scientific base. But be that as it may, the central link, the core of science is scientific knowledge. Science is independent and independent, but there is also such a thing as science policy. Obviously, her role is quite clear.

Science criminology, like any other science, is a peculiar, special sphere of human activity. It is designed to provide true information about crime as a phenomenon, measures to prevent it. And although it is possible to obtain this information in other (not only scientific) ways, it is the science of criminology that is turned to intelligence and creativity, respectively, to the practice of crime prevention. In any case, the objectivity of knowledge about the phenomena of crime cannot be achieved without scientific criminological knowledge.

The science of criminology from "A" to "Z" is a chain of knowledge about crime, ways and means of its prevention.

This is what needs to be promoted.

The purpose of the scientific popularization of criminology is, first of all, the popularization of the foundations of scientific criminological knowledge among readers of all professions and specialists with various degrees of training, for whom the minimization of crime is of interest. The most important thing is to popularize the achievements of criminology among law enforcement practitioners.

In principle, everyone should know criminology, at least have a correct idea about it. Criminology is closely connected with the life of people. This science teaches people to “read” crime correctly, notes the textbook “Criminology”, edited by V.N. Kudryavtseva and V.E. Eminov, and after “reading”, to draw the right conclusions. Continuing their thought, these authors write: “Those who have mastered at least the basics of criminology will never see the problem of crime in a simplified form. He will understand that the most complex social problems cannot be solved immediately. He will understand that the problem of fighting crime is a complex of economic, social, political, educational, legal and other measures.” This is also indicated in the textbooks "Criminology", published under the editorship of A.I. Dolgovoi, N.F. Kuznetsova, V.N. Luneev. Many scientists write about this, but, as they say, it's not for the future. Often there are people who easily talk about criminology and how to fight crime. These people, having no idea about criminology, shamelessly give advice, make suggestions. In essence, they ignore science, deny the importance of criminological knowledge. But why don't people who "know everything" give advice to chemists, physicists, mathematicians, geneticists, biologists? Maybe there is not enough relevant knowledge or none at all? They speak selectively, their "victim" is not only criminology, but also medicine, a number of other "light" sciences. How to treat a person? Here "experts" will give odds to any doctor. They find their "application" in many spheres of life and activity of people. As for criminology, ignoring scientific knowledge, some statements testify to the ignorance of their authors. We must not forget that the modern science of criminology, thanks to scientific achievements spanning centuries, has reached a high level.

There is an opinion that some sciences are born on the vices of man and society, on natural vices, in any case connected with them. One may agree or disagree with this, however, as far as criminology is concerned, this is apparently the case. Crime and criminality are the most serious vices of man and society. Criminology, the science of crime, was born on them. It is possible that other criminal law sciences were born on the same vices. It is with the crime that their beginning is connected.

The roots of criminology are deep enough, they grow on the soil of ancient eras. However, criminology has always been adequate to the same era in which it manifested itself. And of course, in each era, people and society were different; in the transition from one era to another, social relations changed, and crime also changed. Accordingly, the history of criminology was created, which is always connected with the history of crime as a social phenomenon.

We agree that traditionally the subject of the history of any science is mainly a certain chain of interrelated events, each of which is considered as a certain stage in the development of the studied field of knowledge. This, as noted in the book by Yu.D. Bluvshtein and A.V. Dobrynin, also concerns criminology 2 Bluvshtein Yu.D.. Dobrynin A.V. Fundamentals of criminology. Experience of logico-philosophical research. Minsk. 1990, p. 6.. Usually, representatives of this science, dealing with history, search for more and more new bibliographic information, and at the same time they touch upon biographical problems. It is very important for them to mention every researcher who has made at least some noticeable contribution to criminology, about every criminological thought and idea. In this regard, the history of criminology has been studied quite fully. Today it is well known who first discovered the statistical stability of the main indicators of crime, where the anthropological school of studying the personality of a criminal arose, who introduced the problems of predicting crime into practice, who said that it is better to prevent crimes than to punish them, etc. All this can no longer be denied. As Yu.D. Bluvshtein and A.V. Dobrynin in the book cited above, an appeal to the past of criminological theory makes it possible to discover the existence of a number of paradigms. On the basis of each of them, very influential currents of criminological thought have developed over time. But all this is history, we will return to it later.

Problems of criminology. Problem is another term to learn on your own.

Unfortunately, sometimes you can hear surprisingly uneducated words: criminology, they say, has already solved all its problems, and, therefore, now it remains only to deeply comprehend them from the point of view of today's needs and interests and solve practical problems. It would be nice if those who deny the importance of searching for new criminological problems did it themselves. And it would be nice if they themselves, and no one else, deeply comprehended already known problems. But they after all entrust this business to someone. However, there is no point in talking about it.

Criminological research is an ongoing process of bringing forward and resolving more and more new problems. The absence of problems in criminology would lead to its immobility, stagnation, and perhaps even the destruction of this science itself. Well, we can say: no science - no problems, no problems - no science.

Sometimes we do not notice how in scientific activity and in practical work quite often, one might say constantly, the word "problem" is used. This word, or term, means "real obstacle", that is, the lack of an answer, a way out of the situation. A problem is a special kind of knowledge, if it is absent or insufficient, then the problem cannot be solved. The paradox is that the more knowledge, the more new problems arise. The posing of a new problem is the birth of a new idea, and the following must be kept in mind: the idea is not so absurd as to deserve attention.

A problem is an idea that needs to be developed.

Do not be afraid to raise new problems and put forward new ideas. In one of our works, we have already cited the famous words of Humboldt, and we will cite them in this book: “Any truth, a new and at first glance incomprehensible idea in the human mind usually goes through three stages: “What nonsense!”; “There is something in this...; "Who doesn't know that?" Many scientific ideas have gone through these three stages. Many ideas have yet to travel the same path.

Regarding problems and ideas regarding criminology, in our opinion, it is important to emphasize the following: this science itself is a scientific problem, or a system of problems, it is also an idea, or a system of ideas. Problems and ideas are studied according to the subject and method of criminology within the study of this branch of knowledge.

How to define an approach to the study of criminology?

Science as a whole is a system of individual independent sciences.

You can talk about world science, it is permissible to single out the science of any state. We mean our, domestic science. It is unified in our country, integral, therefore, it is also considered as a system.

Conventionally, science is divided into two parts: natural sciences (natural science) and social sciences (social science). All sciences are in society, and therefore are inevitably occupied (some to a greater extent, some to a lesser extent) with the study of man and society, however, from the point of view of the subject of their science and within its limits (boundaries). It is important to keep in mind here that each science has its own independence. The independence of any science is its value.

Criminology is part of the social sciences. Each of these sciences studies a person and society, social relations within the framework of its subject, its needs and interests. Criminology also studies a person and society, social relations, however, in connection with crime, that is, based on its subject. This is its specificity.

It can therefore be emphasized that criminology - social science.

It is known, however, that in the system of social science a certain place is occupied by legal sciences, which include criminology. It is systemically dependent on legal sciences.

Here you can also draw the corresponding conclusion: criminology - legal science.

Further, in the system of legal sciences, criminal law sciences take their place, and criminology is one of them. It is closely related to criminal law, criminal procedure, criminalistics, etc. Here, too, there is a system dependency.

Of course, criminology takes its own place among the criminal law sciences and in this sense is a criminal law branch of knowledge.

Of course, there is a close connection between criminology and the natural sciences: biology, genetics, medicine, etc. We must not forget that criminology also studies a person, and for its study, not only social sciences, but natural ones are needed. In general, criminology is a multifaceted science.

In the field of science, let's say, the criminal complex, criminology, but in the opinion of a number of authors, is most closely connected with criminal law, to one degree or another with the criminal process, forensic science, criminal executive law, and even with operational-search activities. And in the field of sciences, also conditionally say, the cycle of natural science, criminology, from the point of view of some scientists, is most closely connected with biology, medicine (especially psychiatry), genetics, and possibly with some others. Of course, there is a close connection between criminology and sociology, psychology, pedagogy, economics, demography and other sciences from the system of social science. For all that, when criminology is associated with many sciences, it cannot go beyond the scope of those phenomena that are the subject of its study. Criminology receives the information it needs from others and uses it for its own purposes, but it also transfers its knowledge to them. In this mutual enrichment, everyone wins, a common benefit is created.

Here it is important to emphasize the provisions indicated in the literature, to use the idea itself.

A very useful cognitive rule is known: in order to correctly assess the place of any science in the system of sciences, it should be considered, going beyond its limits, that is, included in a more general, broad system of sciences and try to explain the science in question not from itself, but precisely in context of a larger system. In the science of science, in order to explore the concepts of a particular science from broader grounds, they use the concept of a paradigm, that is, a general initial premise from which these concepts are explicitly (or unconsciously) derived. As for criminology, we, bearing in mind the considered position of science of science, not only reveal the initial premise of criminology, but also show the presence of important directions in it (the flow of thoughts and the development of ideas). This allows us to show the analysis of criminological concepts, to explain their place and the place of criminology itself in the system of sciences.

Thesis can be said as follows: criminology is an independent science; it occupies a certain place in the system of sciences; it is a theoretical science; criminology is an empirical science, and it relies on practical experience; it is a practical science, but it focuses on scientific knowledge. Criminology is a science that deals directly with reality. It tries to bring out the realities of the phenomena it studies and to influence them. Particular attention should be paid to conceptual criminology. It reveals the essence of this science, the direction of its development and the purpose of the study and the means to achieve the corresponding concept.

A concept is a system of views on certain phenomena, a way of considering any phenomena, an understanding of something, the general intention of a writer, scientist, etc. In order to understand any science, its design, meaning, phenomena studied by this science, the concept of "concept" is often used. The concept is the main point of view, the guiding idea for the coverage of science, the constructive principle of a certain type of scientific activity. Sometimes this word is understood as a theory, a doctrine. Therefore, this or that science should be considered taking into account the concept.

You can, apparently, talk about the criminological concept. This, of course, is conditional, but the concept in this case, based on its general understanding, is a system of criminological views on the phenomena of crime, a way of considering these phenomena, an understanding of the meaning of the problems studied by criminology, ideas, the meaning of this science itself. The concept helps to define the general idea of ​​criminology, which is associated with the prospect of its development. Finally, guided by the concept of a concept, one can say “criminological point of view”, “conceptual idea”, etc. Each of these expressions has its own conceptual meaning.

Let's specify some provisions.

The concept is of fundamental importance for understanding the meaning and nature of criminology and its place in the system of sciences, determining the independence of this science. The significance of the concept lies in the fact that, deepening our understanding of the phenomena of crime, it serves to further concretize the theory of this science. The concept reveals the scale, complexity and diversity of the tasks facing criminology, it helps to formulate the goals of the study. It provides a theoretical justification for the provisions developed by criminology. Being a generalization of the experience of scientific and practical activities, the concept is an achievement of collective thought. There can be no creative development aimed at building a concept without studying and generalizing experience - both scientific and practical. This is what criminology is armed with.

Science helps to understand how and when criminology arose and, as they say, what it came to. Criminology has its own historical time. Interest in crime arose a very long time ago. The thinkers' observations of this phenomenon dangerous to people were the basis on which criminology later arose. Speaking in the most general terms, criminology began its development with the ideas of Aristotle and Plato, other thinkers of that time. Consistently these ideas developed, determining the path of development of science. Following Aristotle and Plato, there are many names that "created" what today we call the science of criminology. In this work, we will not name all the names and all the stages in the development of criminology. All this is discussed in detail in the literature. 3 Avanesov G.A. Criminology and social prevention. M., 1980. S. 46-72. See also: Criminology. Correctional labor law. History of legal science. M., 1977. S. 5-29.. However, one cannot do without such names as Charles Montesquieu, Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Rafael Garfalo. Criminologists are already accustomed to saying that Garfalo was the first to put the title "Criminology" (1888) on the title page of his book, although it is believed that the term "criminology" was introduced in 1879 by Topinar. We believe that this is not essential. But still, we note that, perhaps, from these years, criminology originates and it was then that it declared that it was a science. Some doubt it, others believe it is true.

Domestic criminology, which we called Soviet in those days, began its countdown from a new era in the history of mankind - a coup in Russia in 1917. Not having time to begin its development, shortly after this coup, by the end of the 1930s, domestic criminology was betrayed oblivion. It is known that this was due to the ongoing repressions. Some criminologists ended up in prison as "enemies of the people". However, that difficult time has passed.

This is exactly what happened to criminology in our society.

Domestic criminology as an independent science arose in the mid-60s of the XX century. Actually, a special role in this was played by the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of June 16, 1964 "On measures for the further development of legal science and the improvement of legal education in the country." In accordance with this resolution, criminology was included in the curricula of all law schools and law faculties of universities in the USSR. That is why paramount importance was attached to the teaching of the discipline "Criminology". However, from the very beginning it was clear that the basis of this new course should be scientific criminological research. Research institutes, corresponding laboratories, departments should be created. However, not everywhere they were called criminological, in some cities there were institutes for the sociology of crime. The foundations of scientific criminological research were created by the initiators of the new movement: A.A. Gertsenzon, I.I. Karpets, V.N. Kudryavtsev, A.B. Sakharov, N.F. Kuznetsova, A.M. Yakovlev, A.S. Shlyapochnikov, S.S. Ostroumov, M.I. Kovalev, I.S. Noah. Such prominent scientists as A.A. Piontkovsky, B.S. Utevsky, B.S. Nikiforov, V.I. Kurlyandsky, S.I. Borodin, N.A. Struchkov, V.E. Chugunov, and many others. Young people were especially attracted to this important new business. As a result, a large solid science was created.

Today, criminology is at a fairly high scientific level. However, as scientists write, it does not put forward and study new ideas enough, the problems studied are not always new. Criminology is getting old. The update is slow. Studying the problems of updating criminology, A.E. Zhalinsky, characterizing this science, posed the question: “What kind of criminology does the country need today?” The answer is just updated. In his opinion, it is necessary to move from the established to the new, to a fundamental renewal of the state of criminological science, to the elimination of the “nodes” accumulated in it. A.E. Zhalinsky speaks quite sharply about the state of criminology today, on this occasion he writes the following: and criminal law, and in fact, all branches of legal science and legislation, in a crisis state and the needs of the country does not meet. In practice, criminology turns into a subject of linguistic disputes among narrow specialists and, unfortunately, is losing popularity not only among practitioners, but also among students. 4 Zhalinsky A.E. Renewal of criminology // Russian criminological view. M., 2011. No. 2. S. 165..

Indeed, it is said harshly, but much here is true. Scientists calling for the renewal of criminology also criticize the current state of criminology, but criticism does not slow down science, but develops it. Everything is being done for the development of criminology and its renewal. But we are still studying criminology as it is. As noted in the preface of this work, we conditionally speak of basic criminology, and also conditionally of its "branches". But in any case, we point out that the integrity of criminology is preserved.

Criminological research, we repeat once again, is an ongoing process of putting forward and studying more and more new problems, as well as new ideas necessary for the development of science. Everything is aimed at obtaining new knowledge. Criminology, as already noted, is a relatively independent system of knowledge. Independent, therefore, is the science of criminology itself.

The status of criminology as an independent science has already been firmly established. The value of this independence is undeniable. However, the proof that criminology is an independent science does not in itself reveal the content of this branch of knowledge, the fullness of its subject matter.

The subject of the science of criminology. In the late 60s and early 70s of the XX century, a broad discussion on the subject of criminology was launched on the pages of the central legal journals of the USSR. It was attended by leading scientists dealing with the problems of criminal law sciences. Various points of view were expressed. A.A. Herzenson generally considered criminology to be part of criminal law; it was supposed to supply this science with sociological data. According to this position, supporters of A.A. Herzenzon called criminology "the sociology of criminal law", using the term "criminal legal sociology". With the "light hand" of supporters of sociology, some participants in the discussion began to call criminology "the sociology of crime." Under this name, even research institutes began to be created. V.N. Kudryavtsev, without denying the social properties of criminology, insisting on its independence, categorically assert the importance of the legal side of this science. He said that "criminology is at the intersection of sociology and law." However, V.N. Kudryavtsev did not unequivocally call criminology a legal science. In his article "Criminology - Law or Sociology?" M.N. Kovalev formulated the conclusion: this science is legal. This point of view was shared by almost all the participants in the discussion. I.I. Karpets, N.F. Kuznetsova, S.S. Ostroumov, B.S. Nikiforov, A.B. Sakharov, A.M. Yakovlev, and many other prominent scientists. As a result, it was possible to formulate a conclusion: criminology is an independent science, it has its own subject and method. At the same time, it was also emphasized that criminology is a legal science and it has its place in the system of science as a whole.

It seems that the period of initial discussions about the subject of criminology, when this science itself was still being created, had already “faded away” and receded into the past. This, of course, is not true. In the broad sense of the word and in general terms, the discussion about the subject of criminology, which took place in the late 60s and early 70s of the XX century, is still ongoing from that time to the present day. It seems that thoughts about the subject of criminology are eternal. Ideas about the subject of criminology are constantly expressed, and, apparently, it is impossible to put an end to it.

We would like to specify some of the provisions directly related to the subject of the science of criminology.

1. The main question of a particular science is to what extent its subject is revealed and, consequently, to what extent it is possible to determine and accurately describe it in the process of scientific research. The attitudes from which the subject of science is determined are, at the same time, the initial, fundamental theoretical and methodological aspects of any research in this science. The definition of the subject of science allows us to specifically formulate the goals and objectives of the study. It is also necessary to clarify what constitutes the subject of science and what its method is, which means to answer the question of what phenomena this science investigates and what methods it uses for this.

This is true for criminology.

2. The definition of the subject of criminology is necessary both as an initial prerequisite for choosing an object and organizing research, and as the most important factor in streamlining the system of legal sciences of the criminal cycle. The specifics of the subject of criminology will be more obvious if not only to state what this science studies, but also to reveal its relationship with the system of related sciences.

3. The subject of criminology covers many different issues. At the same time, it should also be taken into account that this question (the question of the subject, as well as the subject of science itself) cannot always remain unchanged. In the early stages of the development of criminology, it was noted in the literature that this science studies three areas of phenomena: crime, its causes and crime prevention. Later, accepting attention to the identity of the criminal, and it was included in the subject of criminology. They began to talk about the subject of criminology somehow freely. Some wrote that the subject of criminology includes criminogenic factors, because they form crime (AB Sakharov). Others insisted that in addition to criminogenic factors, the subject of criminology should also include anticriminogenic factors (A.G. Lekar). It was proposed to include many other things in the subject of criminology: crime forecasting, the social consequences of crime, etc. Maybe there is some sense in all this, but there are also elements, as we have already noted, of liberties. In our opinion, it is unacceptable to dissolve the subject of criminology in countless problems, one way or another related to crime. We agree with the statement of the Hungarian criminologist Miklós Vermas about the subject of criminology: “It is unacceptable to dissolve the subject of criminology in countless problems, one way or another connected with crime. We must not forget that the exact definition of the concept and scope of the subject of science is very important, since in this case the scope of the study, its reasonable boundaries, are outlined, and the non-distribution of the study to such phenomena that can lead away from the true target setting is ensured. 5 Vermash M. The main problems of criminology. M., 1978. S. 182-183. Compliance with this requirement specifies criminological research. These studies, we repeat once again, close on the subject of science, and with the help of the subject, the limits (boundaries) of criminology are still determined.

4. Presenting the problem in a broader sense, it should be said that the subject of criminology is, first of all, the study of the role and place of this science in the life of society, its goals and objectives, functions, participation in the formation of social relations, and influence on social policy. However, the subject of criminological science is a specific area of ​​social relations that have such content that makes it possible to distinguish them from other social relations. These are relations related to crime, its causes and conditions, the personality of the offender and criminal behavior, the prevention of crime and the prevention of crime. It is these relationships that constitute the core of the subject of criminology and determine the features of this science.

These are traditional, well-established concepts.

But the updated criminology in the subject of criminology also includes other relations related to criminal (antisocial) behavior, deviant behavior, and criminally punishable victim behavior. These social relations can be represented quite broadly. Of course, both considered types of social relations do not coincide in their content. By nature, they are close, but not identical. From the point of view of the subject, one can speak of their unity only conditionally. The subject of criminology, emphasizes the Hungarian criminologist Miklós Vermes, must be strictly concretized. It is protected by its own “shell”, and therefore free interpretations about it are unacceptable.

5. We draw attention to the fact that when defining the concept of criminology, as well as its subject, one can argue, as the Polish criminologist Brunon Holist does, as follows: to give a definition not by listing the elements of the subject of science, but, emphasizing a qualitative point, indicate that criminology studies the patterns of crime. It is possible to combine in one definition the qualitative characteristics of an object with the disclosure of all its elements. It must be said simply: the subject of the science of criminology is crime and its patterns. This is the quality of the subject of science. We can say that this is also the concept of the subject of criminology and its concretized thought.

In addition to the subject, there is also a criminological problem. This is a circle of problems arising from the subject of criminology, when this circle corresponds one to one to the limits (boundaries) of criminology. When going beyond these limits, the problems lose their criminological meaning.

The subject matter of criminology is related to its method. The method of science cannot be developed without its connection with the subject, since it is the latter that determines the features of the former. Developing this idea, scientists write that the subject of criminology can be finally determined only in the process of applying the method of this science - such is their dialectical connection.

Method of criminology includes techniques and methods for studying the phenomena included in the subject of this science, systematization, correction of data obtained in the course of this study. It systematizes and corrects not only new data (knowledge) obtained in this case, but also previously obtained information (knowledge).

Here we are talking about the method of criminology as a set of basic techniques and methods for obtaining new data (knowledge) and methods for solving problems within the framework of this science.

Accordingly, it is noted in the literature that inferences and conclusions are made using rules (a system of norms developed by science) and principles of reasoning based on empirical (observed and measured) data on the object of study. It is further indicated that the basis for obtaining data (new knowledge) is observation and experiment. Criminology, as a rule, uses general scientific methods, sociological techniques and methods that it rebuilds in its own way. The problem of explanation becomes special. As a result, everything general scientific "is transformed into a method of criminology" 6 Kuznetsova N.F., Ostroumov S.S. Methodological problems of criminology // Jurisprudence. 1971. No. 3. S. 105.. All the methods of the social sciences, some of the methods of the natural sciences, presuppose a connection with each other. The basis of everything is the universal method of cognition.

The universality of the scientific method is a philosophy. However, this method does not provide criminology, as well as other specific sciences, with ready-made solutions to the issues that this science deals with, but equips it (criminology) with a correct theory of thinking and a method for finding these solutions. In the field of criminology, philosophy focuses scientific thinking on an increasingly accurate understanding of criminological ideas and thoughts, and in connection with this, the phenomena of crime in all their objectivity, reality, concreteness, and inconsistency. It is clear that in the updated criminology, philosophical problems should be significantly expanded. This will testify to the growing interest of criminology in the new. It is important to note that the nature and scope of the renewing criminology, the problems that contribute to its development, put the methodology of this science in the foreground. All this is connected with the use in criminology of the universal method of knowledge - philosophy.

In general, speaking in the language of philosophy, crime is known through thinking. It must cover all crime in its movement, and for this, thinking must be quite concrete. Here, movement refers to any change in crime. Concreteness, which we are talking about in this case, is, as noted in philosophical literature, the pure movement of thought in concepts. At the same time, immutable, eternal, unquestioned "authoritative" concepts of crime are rejected, no matter how worthy they may seem. Again, focusing on the updated criminology, it should be borne in mind that development should be carried out in the direction from what has already become familiar and ordinary, to what looks unusual and unusual. These concepts inevitably evolve and change. In this context, we are talking about the problems of criminological thinking. It is always connected with the processes of criminological knowledge. Here it must be borne in mind that philosophy as a general method of cognition runs like a “red thread” through all criminology. Accordingly, all other methods of this science are determined and developed. These are the methods used by criminology of social, sometimes natural sciences. As a rule, these include: observation, fixation, interviewing, study of experience, practice, experiment, psychodiagnostic testing, etc.

We have already said, but we will repeat it again with reference to the German criminologist Hans Joachim Schneider: “Criminology has so reoriented the methods of cognition of other sciences for its own needs that we can already talk about criminological methods proper.” If a particular science does not have its own methods in the literal sense of the word, then it is forced to use general scientific methods: sociological, psychological, etc., and, if necessary, the methods of biology, medicine, genetics, etc. But all these methods must take into account the specifics of criminology. When using them, it is precisely criminological thinking that appears. The data or information obtained during the study should be presented as criminological knowledge. Everything must be imbued with a criminological spirit. The main thing is also that all research is necessarily carried out within the limits (boundaries) of criminology and corresponds to the subject of this science.

Thus, the subject and method of criminology determine its desire to present the knowledge necessary for theory and practice. The subject and method of criminology correspond only to the knowledge of this science and cannot be considered outside its limits (boundaries). Let us repeat "irritatingly" that all this can only be deeply understood on the basis of criminological thinking. “In order to see, highlight and correctly understand criminology in the mass of sciences,” Ghane Joachim Schneider writes in the above-mentioned book “Criminology”, “one must be a criminologist and think like a criminologist, and not as a representative of this mass of sciences.” This is what helps the criminologist correctly distinguish his science from other sciences and correctly use their methods and achievements.

Criminology as a science, studying the problems included in its subject, carries out research with the help of its method, implements all its functions. This science is characterized by a system of functions.

Criminology is a multifunctional science. In practice, three main functions are usually implemented: descriptive (or collective), explanatory (it merges with theoretical) and prognostic (predictive), or the function of scientific foresight. You can also designate "working" (practical) functions. They include everything related to practice: crime management, crime prevention, etc. The main functions indicated with are always distinguished in criminology. According to these functions, it is conditionally possible to distinguish three stages, or three stages, of research: descriptive (which is often called diagnostic, collective, empirical), when the researcher finds out how this or that process proceeds; explanatory (also called theoretical), when the researcher seeks to find out why this process proceeds this way and not otherwise: prognostic (predictive, or foresight function), when the researcher seeks to look into the future and reveal the prospects for the development of the phenomenon or process under study. As a result of the study, according to these three stages (stages), the possibilities of criminology itself as a science are revealed. The named functions (stages, stages) of criminology are always combined, and when they are combined, they can be represented in unity as a cognitive function.

Description - this is the stage of scientific research, which consists in the formation of observational data using certain designations accepted in science. The description is made both by ordinary language (simple and understandable) and by the language of a specific branch of knowledge, in this case we mean the language of criminology. As a rule, the description is a transition to a theory, that is, to an explanation. Description and explanation are closely related to each other. A close connection also exists in criminology when problems related to its subject are studied. Without a description of these problems, it is impossible to explain them.

Explanation is also a stage of scientific research. In criminology, as in other sciences, explanation is the disclosure, based on empirical data and the theory of this science, of the essence of the object of study. Accordingly, this object is analyzed. The basis of an explanation is often an entire scientific theory: "a theory is the best basis for an explanation" 7 Sociologist's workbook. M.. 1976. S. 188. See also: Explanation in science. M., 1989. S. 44.. Therefore, one of the main tasks solved by criminology is the task of explaining the problems included in the subject of criminology. The description associated with the explanation, the theory of criminology, the analysis are carried out on the basis of scientific foresight.

Forecasting, or prediction, scientific foresight, is the stage following the description and explanation, although here everything is interconnected and represents a single analysis of the past, present and future, and its goal is to obtain information about the prospects for the development of science. The goals of the study, the tasks of the future are determined. In criminology, everything corresponds to criminological forecasting.

All these functions of criminology, corresponding to its subject and method, determine the limits (boundaries) of this branch of knowledge.

It should be emphasized that the limits of criminology (sometimes called the boundaries, frontiers, horizons of science) are not important in themselves. This is not just a field of criminological research, a "criminological framework of research". This is something more important. Sometimes it is very difficult, even impossible, to establish them absolutely precisely, to strictly outline them, establishing “one's own field of activity”.

In our previous works we have given a peculiar example concerning the limits of criminology. We present it in this edition.

Let us imagine a fairly large "sociological lake" and conditionally call it also a "lake of social sciences". Let's throw an absolutely complete criminological stone into the center of this lake. The circles from the thrown stone spread throughout the lake, and the closer they take their place to the stone, the more criminological they are, and behind them - sociological, psychological, etc. Where is the circle that will set the limit of criminological influence on the lake? In our opinion, there is no such circle and cannot be. The transition from one circle to another is the same as the transition from one color of the rainbow to another. Consequently, the limits (boundaries) of criminology can only be spoken of conditionally.

It is possible that some vaguely expressed criminological circles, more associated with sociology or psychology, some other science, are of significant interest specifically for criminology. The problems chosen by the researcher, regardless of the fact that they affect vaguely expressed criminological circles, in the process of research, a truly criminological essence is revealed. The semantic meaning of the problems under study determines its limits (boundaries) and, in accordance with the goals of the study, expands them. Any criminologist can be convinced that the research he has begun as a criminological one, having gained activity, can take him out of the zone of criminology and lead him into the sphere of sociology or psychology, other sciences, but will retain the criminological principle in its basis, that is, in the end it will remain the same as it was started. Research can always move from the limits of one science to the limits of another, but one science always dominates, which is the base for the researcher. All this once again suggests that (we repeat once again) that the limits (boundaries) of the science of criminology are determined conditionally.

Criminology has its own scientific, research base. These are crime, its causes and conditions, the identity of the offender and the prevention of crime. In the system of any criminological research, these problems dominate, they determine the subject of this branch of knowledge.

Crime is the subject of criminology and no other science, but not only the social sciences, but also the natural sciences are interested in it. Criminology, being a science that studies crime and its patterns, causes and conditions, perpetrators of crimes, crime prevention, cannot but be interested in sciences that study society and social relations, a person and the diverse manifestations of human activity, human behavior, his motivation and much more . Crime is a socially dangerous phenomenon, it harms all people. The study of crime by various sciences, the knowledge obtained on the basis of this study, influences social policy, they can provide the key to discovering new approaches to solving many social problems, social reality, new ideas and thoughts regarding crime prevention. Crime concentrates various sciences around itself, and criminology becomes the core of their system. This science is the center of knowledge needed to minimize crime. Here, of course, one can try to define limits (boundaries). However, does it matter in this case? There is an interweaving of various sciences around criminology, and this should be perceived and recognized as such.

Criminology is a science designed to understand and explain crime - an essential social phenomenon of our society. Criminology is not a simple science, it requires reflection, the assimilation of new concepts that have not yet entered the usual range of criminological categories. But it doesn't always go smoothly. A.E. Zhalinsky, in his article cited above, essentially noted the crisis of criminology. It is possible, of course, that this is not a crisis, but simply the lag of science behind life. And this, perhaps, is due to the imperfection of the knowledge necessary to update criminology. Perhaps it is not worth talking about it, maybe it will offend someone, but still we note: the current generation of criminologists probably does not want, and most likely cannot create anything new in criminology. Backlogs happen in different sciences, they concern also criminology. The oldest criminologists are concerned about this and admit that over the past 10-20 years or so, criminologists have not been able to add much to the knowledge base of criminology that was accumulated by their predecessors. In conversations on this topic, one can hear that thoughts and ideas penetrating deep into criminology as a science ended after L.A. Gertsenzon, I.I. Karpets, V.N. Kudryavtseva, N.F. Kuznetsova, A.B. Sakharov, other elders and their immediate followers, students. If from the period when criminology first acquired a clear theoretical and methodological apparatus and stood steadily on its feet, when the theoretical provisions of criminology were actively developing, when this science as a whole developed on an increasing basis, then, as we have already said, over the past 10-20 years, the process her cultivation stopped, weakened. In the same conversations on the topic of criminology that has “stopped” in development, the oldest criminologists offer different versions of why this happened: economic, social, demographic, etc. One of the reasons is perestroika, which began just over 20 years ago. After the accomplishment of this revolution (perestroika), the general attitude towards science changed for the worse. People have changed. It is impossible not to believe biologists that the human brain has already reached the limit of its cognitive abilities. This is a public problem. It directly concerns the problem of human intellectual development.

Above, we touched on the problem of generations of criminologists. We will conditionally designate these generations.

Domestic criminologists of the first generation. Individually, they began to manifest themselves shortly after the coup of 1917. However, in the 30s of the XX century they were “stopped”, all the “joy” of science was suppressed by the dictatorship, and most criminologists were “transferred” from scientific institutions to numerous camps . Criminology has fallen into oblivion. Only in the 60s of the XX century was criminology revived, and officially (we have already indicated this above). Until the 1960s, any attempt to get into criminology was a threat to prison. Our criminologists of the first generation lived through a harsh life. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the first "squad" of criminologists appeared. It was they - the criminologists of the first generation - who created the Soviet, domestic criminology. By the end of the 1970s, they had created a fairly solid scientific school of criminologists. Almost all criminologists of this generation were scientific supervisors of their followers, who, on the “shoulders” of the first generation of criminologists, “driven” into science and continued the great work of their teachers. They are no longer with us, they left a great scientific legacy to the successors of their work.

Domestic criminologists of the second generation. Their time is from the mid-70s of the XX century to the present day. They, in fact, mixed into one whole with their predecessors, communicated quite closely together, created together, jointly held seminars, conferences. There was a large friendly "detachment" of criminologists. They have done a lot together, they have opened topical areas in criminology, and an improved scientific school has been created. At this time, criminology moved to a new stage of development. Some scientific works of that time can truly be called discoveries, a serious contribution to science. At this time, the prestige of our domestic criminology has grown quite high. Soviet criminology was on the rise. Many scientific works were translated into foreign languages, the demand for these works was huge, individual works (both books and articles) were published directly abroad. Books at that time were literally "piece". It was very difficult to publish, and therefore each edition was considered a rarity. The most important thing, which cannot be ignored, is that between the first and second generations of criminologists there are heartfelt friendly relations, mutual assistance, sincerity, kindness, devotion. The second generation lived and worked under the auspices of the first. The mentoring was exemplary.

Young criminologists, if they really want to become scientists, should study deeply the writings of first and second generation criminologists. This is, I dare say, a classic.

Domestic criminologists of the third generation. Their time began in the late 80s - early 90s of the XX century, it continues to this day. This generation works closely with the second generation, in most cases under their scientific guidance. In general, all this is true, but third-generation criminologists, unfortunately, still cannot create an independent single scientific block, there is no scientific community.

Organized in Moscow, as they say, from scratch, the "Criminological Club" is the result of fruitless efforts. He is not able to fulfill the tasks of the science club. The organizers of the "Club" themselves cannot make it accessible to people involved in science, intelligibly explain the purpose of this institution. Created “yesterday” from scratch, the “Club”, unable to withstand itself, “today” is already being destroyed.

The majority of third-generation criminologists work honestly and hard, studying scientific works that are distinguished by novelty. Life, however, has developed in such a way that they have almost no followers. Basically they work individually.

Will there be a fourth generation of criminologists?

Even a simple analysis shows that in recent years criminology has been increasingly strengthening its interdisciplinary ties with other branches of scientific knowledge. The independent areas of criminology are especially distinguished, forming a system of criminological knowledge as a whole, which gives a proper idea of ​​how wide the connections of this science are. Criminology, as already noted, is associated with all social sciences, and selectively - with a number of natural sciences. First of all, it is necessary to indicate the connection of criminology with philosophy and biology, and then the connections (also very significant) with sociology and medicine, psychology and genetics, etc. are put forward. All connections of sciences are presented in a single complex. It is on their basis that independent areas of criminology are distinguished, presented in the form of textbooks: "Family Criminology", "Penitentiary Criminology", "Victimology", "Military Criminology", "Juvenile Criminology", "Motivational Criminology", "Genetics and Behavior", "Criminology and Biology" and others. All of these manuals are located in the criminological field, or space, within (boundaries) of criminology. All these cases have their own specifics. All these independent areas of criminology are in a state of information interaction between social science and natural science.

Currently, there are many textbooks in various areas of criminology: pedagogical, psychological, statistical, mathematical methods, etc. There are textbooks on criminology that are intended for students of higher educational institutions of various profiles. We partly talked about this in the preface of this work, but we repeat: in such textbooks, the specificity of precisely those criminological knowledge that is associated with the sphere of future professional activity of students is revealed.

We highlight the most significant part of criminology - the general part. This is essentially the criminological theory. These are the foundations of the theory of criminology and theoretical knowledge.

The foundations of the theory of criminology, the general part of this science, are decisive for all criminology. A given science, investigating the questions included in its subject, develops its own concepts corresponding to these concepts, concepts, etc.; indicates their place in the general part of science. Assessing criminology as a whole as a science, one must keep in mind that its system highlights the foundations of the theory, or criminological theory. All this theory, however, is concentrated in the general part of science. Yet this part cannot be isolated from criminology as a whole. The development of the criminological concept and its fundamental concepts is a condition for the successful development of this science as a whole, and not just its general part. Meanwhile, criminological theory and its foundations are concentrated in the system of the general part of science. This is in general the very theory of criminology as a science; these are the theory of crime, the theory of the causes and conditions of crime, the theory of the personality of the offender, the theory of criminological prevention and prevention of crime. All this, called the foundations of the theory, penetrates into a special part of criminology, into its other areas, but is strictly limited to the subject of this science. There is only one criminological theory, also called the foundations of the theory, which is concentrated in the general part of criminology, everything else is already other concepts: theoretical positions, theoretical developments, etc. In general, a special part of criminology is a conditional name, not only does it constantly change as a result of criminalization and decriminalization, it can generally be separated from criminology, appear as parts: “Criminal Economics”, “Juvenile Criminology”, “Motivational Criminology”, etc. Apparently, a criminological classification and criminological typology are simply necessary, depending on the goals of the study, individual crimes can be studied, if necessary. Also, if necessary, criminal violence, mercenary criminal passion, etc., could be distinguished according to the objectives of the study. It all depends on what the Criminal Code will be.

It is necessary to firmly know that under any conditions and circumstances, theory is the basis of everything, it plays a leading role. Without theory, practice is also impossible. That is why the need for criminological theory is closely related to the needs of practice.

Theoretical and empirical criminology. The theory of criminology always depends on empirical criminology, that is, evidence, facts, statistics, etc. The use of these data by criminology involves the interpretation of the theory in the light of new, previously unknown material. The connection between theoretical and empirical criminology is determined by the unity and difference inherent in scientific knowledge.

Insufficiently educated people are skeptical about the theory. Come on, they say, all practice, we can do without theory. Of course, the development of theory is not an end in itself. Scholastic theorizing can only slow down progress; it is an empty flower in science. However, not only theory, but also practice should be closely connected with life.

When studying criminology, we constantly repeat the words: there is nothing more practical than a good theory. This idea is confirmed every day by our life. Constantly working with students, giving them new knowledge of criminology, namely theoretical knowledge, we introduce through their consciousness the possibilities of practical problem solving during their work in the future

How do we provide training?

1. What personnel do we need, not only today, but also in the coming time? Suppose we need investigators and we select applicants of the appropriate level for our universities.

2. What knowledge do they need to be given? this is the knowledge necessary for the investigator: criminal law, criminology, etc., but the main thing is that full specialization in the criminal process is necessary. The sciences that raise their culture, the general level of upbringing and education are very important.

3. How to transfer the knowledge they need to future specialists? This is a high level of teaching staff, lectures, seminars, practical classes.

4. How can you apply the knowledge gained during your studies in practice? Here, special techniques are needed that will meet the necessary requirements.

In these cases, theory plays a major role.

It is important to assimilate the following thoughts of A. Clarke: “Everything that is theoretically possible will certainly be realized in practice, no matter how great the difficulties, you just need to really want to. The phrase "This idea is fantastic!" cannot serve as an argument against any intention." This idea of ​​A. Clark extends to all types of theory and practice. The field of criminology is no exception.

The peculiarity of criminological theory is that it forms the basis of practical actions in the field of crime prevention, more fully and specifically defines the ways of these actions. This means that theoretical activity is becoming one of the most important factors contributing to increasing the effectiveness of the practice of preventive impact on crime, the practice of its prevention.

Research of this kind stimulates the formulation of new scientific and practical problems and contributes to the development of a creative attitude towards practical activity. In this regard, we are talking about the rise of the science of criminology, the strengthening of its role and significance in practice.

Criminological theory equips scientists and practitioners with scientific knowledge about crime and related phenomena, reveals the sources and mechanisms of the relevant processes. It creates the prerequisites for understanding the phenomena of crime.

Practical (or Applied) Criminology. The practical tasks facing criminology are varied. The main practical task of this science is to carry out effective crime prevention in the country. Solving its tasks, criminology is not limited to theory, but, creating its foundations for the organization of applied activities, it touches on a wide range of issues related to the practice of their solution.

Practice is the main criterion for the truth of any theory.

Today it is imperative that the practice of crime prevention becomes not only an application of the achievements of criminological theory, but also an essential component of scientific knowledge in this area, a kind of experimental field of this science. It is precisely through this that the arsenal of scientific ideas should be developed, the methods of practical activity and scientific research should be improved.

The practical level of criminology, considered to a certain extent in combination with specific studies and private theories of this science, can be combined into one concept - applied criminology. The recognition of such criminology has now become urgently needed. This is primarily due to the fact that in recent years criminology has lagged behind its influence on practice, in fact, has ceased to influence decision-making in the applied field of crime prevention.

Applied criminology has been promoted to one of the first places in the system of criminology by life itself. Such criminology, with its edge, is aimed at the practical study of crime, its study using specific methods, the causes and conditions of crime, the personality of the offender, and crime prevention measures. The development of applied criminology as a whole is characterized by a pronounced focus on these studies of the identified problems.

The creation of applied criminology is not at all connected with attempts to "ground" criminology as a science, the theory of criminology, to tie academic science entirely to practice. It is necessary to strive for the practical benefits of criminological research. The studies themselves, as well as their results, should be understandable to practice. However, one must also count on the education of practical workers, on their scientific knowledge, which would help practice to be able and ready to recognize and accept theory. Accordingly, the model "science - practice" should be built. In any case, one must proceed from the fact that the purpose of the science of criminology is practical. It's really achievable.

The criminological theory and the practice connected with it penetrate into the sphere of the science of sociology, in a broad sense into the field of social practice, into psychology, into the widest scientific spaces. The main thing in all such cases is the mutual penetration of information. In all cases, any science can become the center of attention, in this case, when we consider criminological theory and relevant practice, sociology becomes central, and in applied terms - social practice, or, as some authors write in such cases, applied sociological “outputs”. paradigms. Criminology studies crime as a social phenomenon, but presents it from different points of view: primarily legal (legal), economic, demographic, psychological, pedagogical, etc. Criminologists have introduced into criminology such areas of research as the sociology of economic crime, the impact of demographic processes on crime, the pedagogical foundations of crime prevention, the psychology of the personality of a criminal, etc. There may be many of these directions. But there is such a problem as access to sociology in the broadest sense. This, apparently, is no longer criminology, but independent areas of research arising from it; There are different points of view on this matter.

We repeat what was said above that there are two main criminological complementary areas of this science. This is, on the one hand, general criminology, and on the other, sociological criminology. Each of these areas cannot exist separately from each other, nevertheless they are independent.

General criminology studies strictly only what is included in the subject of criminology. Its essence, of course, is social, it is, in other words, a concretized sociology of crime. Such criminology studies crime and its patterns, the social complex of the causes of crime and its conditions, a special social type of personality - the personality of the offender, crime prevention and social prevention, and nothing more and nothing less.

Sociological criminology explores everything that is connected with the subject of criminology and follows from it - independent areas of criminology, however, remaining within its limits. These are also problems of various sciences, studied from a criminological point of view.

Both general and sociological criminology are connected with the system of sciences, as well as with the place of criminology among related branches of knowledge.

Until now, in the literature one can meet a question from the past: criminology - sociology or law? Does criminology study law? - this is another question, but not from the past, but from the present.

The main modern position is as follows: the connection of criminological science with sociology and law is such that it (this science) is directly involved in solving problems facing all social (social) and legal (legal) sciences. Hence - the activation of sociological research in solving legal problems.

In the criminological field, a certain area of ​​agreement has been established between sociologists and lawyers. Both those and others believe that criminology mainly studies social and legal phenomena of a criminological nature that are revealed in the process of antisocial behavior. This is a specific field of knowledge (both not “purely” social, and not “purely” legal). However, such an idea of ​​criminology requires certain clarifications: the emphasis on the social side of criminological problems leaves in the shade another important aspect - the legal one, and the emphasis on the legal side obscures the social aspect. Therefore, in the criminological study of reality, it would be wrong to ignore both the legal and social aspects. Both law and sociology contribute to the solution of criminological problems. Their unity determines the social and legal essence of criminology.

It is impossible, however, to identify two different concepts - criminology and sociology of law. The latter, of course, is an independent science and has its own subject. We can talk about the sociology of criminal law sciences and the place of criminology in their system. In the literature, the terms "sciences of the criminological cycle", "criminal-legal sciences" are used. All this is a special area of ​​​​knowledge.

The criminal law sciences are becoming more and more “sociological” every year. And here a certain role belongs to criminology. It is a kind of "guide" of sociology in the field of criminal law sciences. It also absorbs the ideas of these sciences.

One cannot but agree that the norms of criminal law sciences must be socially justified. We also agree that they must be substantiated and criminologically, moreover, appropriate expertise is also important. These ideas come to us from past times, but in recent years have been developed in the writings of modern criminologists. Many in this context emphasize the role of criminological research in solving the problems of criminal law sciences.

Norms of a criminal law nature cannot be independent of the social conditions of social life. There is always a certain connection between them. It is always found and taken into account. Accordingly, criminal law knowledge is formed. It is they that make it possible to find the optimal proportions between sociology and law, sociology and the criminal law sciences. Here the division between social and legal requirements is preserved. Therefore, it is necessary to consider criminology not only “on a par” with the criminal law sciences, but also in a single system of scientific knowledge, where sociology is a layer of knowledge that addresses both criminology and the criminal law sciences, here is one source for them knowledge.

When studying criminology, one should especially highlight such a direction of research as the place of criminology in the system of criminal law sciences.

The conclusion about the unity of criminal law sciences (criminology, criminal law, criminal procedure, forensic science, criminal correctional law, and conditionally also operational-search activity), with all the variety of their features, necessarily follows from the unity of all forms and methods of crime prevention and prevention crimes. It is believed that criminology plays a special role in crime prevention. However, scientific knowledge about crime is one - such is its nature. But criminology does not replace other criminal law sciences, does not pretend to take their place. Meanwhile, no one argues that at present, not a single criminal law science can develop without criminology. But each criminal law science, of course, has its own specific method of research, due to the characteristics of the very subject that it studies, and designed to solve particular problems of crime prevention and crime prevention. Here it must be said that one of the approaches to identifying the subject of criminal law sciences is to study their relationship, interaction, during which the synthesizing function of criminological knowledge is revealed. The action of these sciences is the most important factor in their own development. Life clearly shows that criminological knowledge has always served as a stimulus for other criminal law sciences, arming them with the latest ideas. At the same time, these sciences enriched criminology with new concepts. In the whole system of these sciences, common knowledge, they, taken together, affect crime.

However, we emphasize that criminology plays a huge, if not decisive, role in the interaction of criminal law sciences. It is criminology that brings together the data of seemingly opposing branches of knowledge into a single whole. This is dictated primarily by the growing influence of criminology on the practice of crime prevention. This does not detract from the role of other criminal law sciences.

In the system of sciences under consideration, special attention is drawn to connection of criminology with criminal law. The starting position of the classical school of criminal law was the thesis that criminal law is called upon to deal with crime, while other branches of knowledge were considered additional. Almost nothing was said about criminology, at best it was an "assistant" of criminal law. This position was unshakable for a long time. For a certain time, approximately such judgments were also observed among representatives of Soviet criminal law. Criminology was defined as the sociology of criminal law. However, at present, as already noted, a different position is dominant: the problems of crime are dealt with by various sciences that show interest in it, not only legal, but also non-legal, in some cases natural, proceeding from a single philosophical basis, forming a system of sciences and representing, to a certain extent, unity, since they have a common goal of preventing crime, minimizing crime. But each of these sciences studies various aspects of crime and, accordingly, proceeds from its own theoretical platform. These sciences are not "called" by someone to the prevention of crime and the prevention of crimes, they show corresponding needs and interests for this. They act in accordance with the motives and motivation to reduce socially harmful manifestations in society.

Science as a whole, the entire system of social and natural sciences, each science separately cherishes and protects man and society. They oust from society everything that harms it, precisely by the power of science, by all its possibilities. With all this, science, influencing crime, destroys it, seeks to oust it from society.

The science of criminal law applies mainly dogmatic-legal methods. However, criminal law also explores its problems from the standpoint of their social content. This science also requires research of a sociological nature. But this does not apply more to "dogmatic" criminal law, but to the sociology of criminal law.

The science of criminology proceeds mainly from sociological positions and uses appropriate methods, and, depending on the objectives of the study, legal ones. We must not forget that criminology is still a legal branch of knowledge.

The general assessment is as follows: criminology approaches the assessment of crime, crimes and the personality of the offender from social positions, and criminal law - from legal ones. Let us repeat once again: the methods of these sciences inevitably differ, but one must always remember their family ties.

This assessment does not, of course, lead to the conclusion that criminal law and criminology are opposed to each other or that their sphere of influence on each other is strictly limited. On the contrary, there is a close relationship between these sciences, which is expressed, in addition to all that has been said, also in the fact that it is criminal law regulation that determines the field of criminological research. And criminal law is based on the results of criminological research. In the scope of this study, relations of a criminal-legal nature that arise in reality can fall (and fall). Neither the influence of criminal law on criminology, nor, on the contrary, the influence of criminology on criminal law, diminishes or exaggerates the role of one of these sciences over the other.

Although the overcoming of crime and its minimization is a common social task, it is solved, however, in the course of the implementation of independent types of social activities: legal practice (it provides, in particular, responsibility for the offenses committed; if we keep in mind the criminal law aspect, then for the committed crime) and social practice (it ensures the prevention of crime, the identification and elimination of its causes and conditions, the prevention of criminal behavior, etc., this is the criminological aspect). Criminal law is valid only when the crime has already been committed, it determines that this is a crime. The main attention of criminology is focused on the period preceding the crime, when it must be prevented. Criminal law provides punishment for crime. Criminology is not endowed with such a right, we repeat, it prevents crimes, however, it carries out this work within the limits (boundaries) of its subject.

Such are the similarities and differences between criminal law and criminology, their connection. The separation of criminology from criminal law means the transformation of this science into an indefinite delictology, and the separation of criminal law from criminology leads to the dogmatization of law.

Other sciences of the criminal law cycle are also in close connection with criminology. In their research, they are not limited to the construction of purely legal concepts. Their task is also to study the social conditioning and legal norms used to prevent crime and crime prevention, analyze the effectiveness of these norms, learn the laws of formation and deformation of the personality, its behavior, etc. This truly major task is performed by the criminal law sciences independently, but, as a rule, in accordance with criminological research, on the basis of the scientific provisions of criminology as a whole.

Criminal procedure and criminalistics. Phenomena related to the investigation of crimes, forensic tactics and technology often fall into the scope of criminological research. Therefore, the analysis of the state of crime, generalized data on crimes and the persons who commit them, fulfill their criminological role at the level of criminal procedure law and forensic science. Criminological data often serve as the basis for formulating tactical methods that should be used in the process of investigating crimes. In addition to methods, there are also such problems as methods of crimes, typology (typology) of persons committing crimes, motives and motivations of criminal behavior, etc. It must be said that the “common page” for criminology, criminal procedure and forensic science is quite large.

On the one hand, criminal procedure law defines the framework within which the investigation of crimes takes place, as well as law enforcement activities; the norms of this branch of law to a certain extent establish the limits of criminological research in this area. The criminal process recognizes criminology, but does not allow it to invade its territory. Criminology does the same. However, the scientific community is successfully carried out.

On the other hand, the results of criminological research have a certain impact on criminal procedure legislation. However, one can speak of such an influence only if, with the help of criminology, the need to establish a more appropriate procedural regulation of the investigation of crimes and the application of law is revealed.

Both in the first and in the second case, one must keep in mind the role of forensic science. Its main provisions are, as it were, the starting point for recognizing the forms of manifestation of crimes. She studies the means and methods that serve to solve crimes. At the same time, forensic science often uses the results of criminological research on the etiology of crime. Criminology, in turn, uses the achievements of forensic science for its own purposes. There is an interconnection between the considered branches of knowledge.

The penitentiary law, being in relationship with criminology, develops recommendations for improving the efficiency of the correction of convicts, the resocialization of those responsible for the crime and those punished for it. The interrelationships between these two sciences are very diverse and extensive. In this case, we will not talk about them, they are presented in detail in the recently published interesting book "Penitentiary Criminology". We will touch upon another very important problem - the relationship between criminology and penology. This is an old problem for domestic criminology, but today it reasserts itself quite noticeably.

The problem of penology is quite interestingly covered both in domestic and foreign literature, and everywhere it is linked with criminology. Some authors deny any connection between penology and criminology, while others, on the contrary, believe that this connection is very strong. According to a number of English criminologists, penology studies the negative reactions of society to crimes, their evolution, social functions carried out in terms of influencing the perpetrators of crimes. However, many foreign criminologists, mostly American, consider penology as part of criminology. In France, where penology is transformed into penitentiary science, it is also included in criminology. In Poland, criminology and penology exist separately from each other. This is typical for many countries, including Russia, although our understanding of “penitentiary criminology” suggests that penology is part of criminology. In terms of meaning, this is the same, for example, as “family criminology” is a part of criminology, “motivational criminology” is a part of criminology, etc. We believe that criminology is interested in penology only insofar as the latter acts as a factor counteracting crime. In this sense, penitentiary criminology can be considered as penology; therefore, it is permissible to combine them within the framework of one educational process.

In many law schools there were (some still have) joint (general) departments of criminology and penitentiary law. Courses were read (and are being read now): criminology and penitentiary policy, criminology and penology, criminology and penitentiary law. As a result, it turns out that all these problems (training courses) are mainly limited to the sphere of imprisonment and the prevention of recidivism, the latter is also a criminological aspect.

For illustration, we present some descriptions of penology presented in the literature.

Penology is a science that studies the treatment and punishment of criminals, traditionally considered a branch of criminology and associated with the movement "from retribution to correction."

Penology as a science and penitentiary science are two concepts that can be identified, however conditionally.

The following provisions are also described in the literature.

Penology is a branch of criminology that studies the application of punishment for a crime and the resocialization of persons who have committed these crimes. It is the systematic study of punishment, especially imprisonment. Everything here is connected with the reorganization of the prison system and with the goals of imprisonment.

Penology - the doctrine of the execution of punishment, a private discipline of criminology; on a scientific and empirical basis, penology develops optimal punishment sanctions; the goal is the resocialization of criminals. Punishment in penology is considered not only as punishment, that is, retribution for the crime committed, but mainly as a complex educational impact on the offender. All this in one way or another affects criminological ideas about crime prevention. It is clear that it is better to prevent crimes than to impose sanctions in the form of imprisonment for their commission.

A few more words to illustrate.

Once upon a time, a theoretical discipline arose that collected information about such a social institution as a prison, about the practice of executing punishments of those who committed crimes and whom state justice deprived of their liberty. Called "prison science", it was a branch of a more extensive and rather ancient branch of knowledge - penology, which studies the problem of punishments in all aspects. Many saw in this (both in prison studies and in penology) a connection with criminology. Access to criminology was carried out through the crime and the identity of the offender.

The main subject of prison studies is not only a prison as a social institution, but also a person, more precisely, two types of human personalities. These are social types that differ from each other in a variety of ways and characteristics. What they have in common is that these two types are people, each of them is a person.

The first type is the personality of the one who is serving a sentence, being deprived for a certain period of time provided for by law of many natural rights, and above all the right to freedom.

The second type is a person through whom the state implements the function of punishment, who organizes the life of the convict in prison.

As can be seen, the role of criminology in its interdisciplinary relations is very significant. However, this interdisciplinarity does not mean that criminology is a so-called superscience. Criminological synthesis is not a "synthesized science", but only integrated knowledge that characterizes a specific area of ​​reality. This branch of knowledge is also a science of sciences and therefore does not absorb other disciplines. However, criminology is a general theoretical legal science, as it studies crime, its causes, etc. on a much broader basis than any other legal science. In general, in this sense, it is the main one in relation to all other sciences. Therefore, criminology is a mega-science.

Criminology is, undoubtedly, a general theoretical science in relation to the criminal law sciences. Crime and its patterns are not the subject of any criminal law science. Criminology "teaches" these sciences what crime is, what are its causes, etc., and then, having mastered the main thing, these sciences carry out research within their own limits, each of them corresponding to the subject of its science. Without criminology, the study of crime by any criminal law science on its own will certainly turn out to be superficial. Criminology occupies a special place in the system of criminal law sciences when they study phenomena originating from crime, its causes, etc. Each criminal law science studies only one or another aspect of crime, its causes and conditions, the identity of the offender, crime prevention and crime prevention. And criminology is just called upon "to create a unified theory of crime, to generalize on a single methodological and methodological basis the materials of various sciences related to the problem of crime" 8 Karpets I.I. The problem of crime. M., 1969. P. 47. See also: Kogan V.M. Social properties of crime. M., 1987. S. 18.. It "as if synthesizes in itself everything valuable that has been accumulated on the problem of crime by other sciences, and gives a holistic knowledge about this phenomenon" 9 Karpets I.I. Punishment: social, legal and criminological problems. M., 1973. S. 78.. Such a holistic theory makes criminology a general theoretical science in the system of sciences that study crime and show their interest in it.

In the system of knowledge about crime general criminological theory occupies a central place. It forms the basis of all scientific knowledge about crime..

Other sciences, developing certain problems of crime, use the conceptual apparatus of criminology, one way or another "tie" their private concepts about this phenomenon to the system of basic criminological concepts. At the same time, the role of a mediating link between general criminological provisions and research on crime issues within the framework of other sciences is performed by special theories: the theory of the causes of crime, the theory of the identity of the offender (or the doctrine of the personality of the offender), the theory of crime prevention, etc. The task of criminology, therefore, is to provide theoretical assistance to other sciences, to create the necessary foundation for practical activities in the field of organizing the fight against crime.

Criminology is the main science of the criminal law cycle. Being just such, it influences the development of other sciences. Criminological science, its theoretical platform, applied orientation can always be used as a starting point when it comes to the theory and practice of crime prevention and prevention of criminal behavior.

Already from acquaintance with the subject of criminology, it is clear that this science is interdisciplinary, that is, closely related to some other sciences. These are legal and social sciences in the broad sense of the word.

First of all, consider the relationship of criminology with the legal sciences. In the first place here is the connection of criminology with criminal law.

Both criminal law and criminology study crime and crime. But they do it differently. Criminal law is the science of responsibility for committing crimes. Therefore, she studies crime from a legal standpoint as a concept and a set of features (composition) of a certain act of unlawful behavior. Criminal law also studies the punishment imposed by the court for the commission of a crime, mitigating and aggravating circumstances, determines the principles of sentencing and release from it.

Criminal law does not refer to those phenomena, events and actions of a person that precede the crime; he is not directly interested in the causes of crime and the conditions conducive to the commission of crimes. And the identity of the offender is reduced in criminal law to the concept of the subject of the crime, which is characterized mainly by two properties: age and sanity (plus the signs of the so-called special subject). The social, moral and psychological characteristics of the criminal remain outside the boundaries of criminal law. But everything that is not included in the subject of criminal law is just of interest to the criminologist, in particular the mechanism of criminal behavior and the causes of the unlawful development of events.

The organic connection of criminology with criminal law lies in the fact that criminal law defines the boundaries, the scope of the subject of criminology. After all, the list of criminal acts is determined by the criminal code. Namely, this circle of acts is studied by criminology.

Criminology is closely related to the science of the criminal process, which studies the procedures for preliminary investigation and judicial review of a case. The criminal procedure legislation contains a direct prescription: the investigator, the prosecutor, the court are obliged in each criminal case to identify the causes and conditions that contribute to the commission of crimes, and to propose measures aimed at eliminating them.

Another legal science is criminology, which studies the methodology, technique and tactics of investigating crimes, receives from criminology data on the state of crime, the features of the mechanisms, methods of committing various crimes and the personality traits of criminals. Forensic science uses this information to develop the most effective methods for solving crimes. Criminology is inextricably linked with the theory of operational-search activity, which makes it possible to study crime in a certain sense "from the inside" with the help of special tools and methods.

Criminology is also connected with penitentiary law, which studies the principles and conditions for the appointment and serving of sentences. Many crimes are committed in places of deprivation of liberty or by persons released from prison, so the interaction of criminologists and specialists in penitentiary law is very useful.

There are several more sciences, usually referred to the legal cycle. These are forensic statistics, forensic medicine and forensic psychiatry. And criminology has direct contacts with them. So, she makes extensive use of judicial statistics. And the developments of forensic psychiatrists help criminologists to get a better idea of ​​the personality traits of various categories of criminals.

In the course of the development of criminological teachings, proposals were made to expand its subject by studying phenomena related to crime (social anomalies): alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, suicide, etc. But the point of view prevailed, limiting the subject of criminology only to the analysis of crime. Thus, its connection with the legal sciences was preserved and strengthened.

But, as noted, criminology is no less closely connected with sciences that do not have a legal orientation. First of all, it is sociology, which studies society in the process of its functioning. Sociology has several branches: the sociology of the family, the sociology of labor, the sociology of sports, and others. Criminology can rightly be called the sociology of crime. In passing, we note that if in Russia criminology is studied in law schools, then the Anglo-American tradition consists in teaching criminology at the faculties of sociology.

Next, we point out the close connection of criminology with legal psychology, the subject of which is the inner life of a person, his behavior in nature and society. One can rightly call criminology, or at least a certain part of it, the psychology of the criminal.

So, when clarifying the relationship of criminology with related sciences, we come to the conclusion that this science is complex. It is at the intersection of jurisprudence with sociology and psychology and uses data from all these and other sciences.

It should be noted that among specialists in the field of criminal law there is a point of view that denies, contrary to the facts of reality and the development of world science, not only the independence of criminology as a general theoretical science of crime, but also as a science in general. These scholars believe that criminology is part of criminal law or part of sociology. In our opinion, the origins of such views date back to the mid-1920s, when the question of the causes of crime under socialism was resolved "completely, unambiguously and definitively." Short, little binding appeals within the framework of the doctrine of crime in criminal law were enough. Now such judgments look like an anachronism. Criminology, its conclusions allow a deeper understanding of the institutions of criminal, penal, procedural law, criminology, in general, the practice of combating crime and do not at all belittle them and do not divide the sciences, as the “liquidators” and opponents of criminology as a science claimed.

Criminology really came out of criminal law (although one can say that it also came out of general sociology - such a point of view still exists, as, by the way, they say about “medical criminology” and its other types, since the problem of crime was dealt with scientists of different specialties, bringing their own to this problem), but, having come out, it got the opportunity of its own development. Having become independent, it remained closely connected with criminal law and other legal sciences, as well as with sociology, philosophy and medicine, especially psychiatry, and with a number of other sciences. In the context of the rapid development and differentiation of various sciences that have a common root, this is a completely natural phenomenon.

The methodological basis of criminological research consists of three groups of methods: general scientific methods; methods and techniques borrowed by criminology from such sciences as sociology, psychology, psychiatry, biology, physiology and others; actually criminological methods, or tools.

The first group of methods includes the following:

• * from abstract to concrete;
• * hypothesis;
• * system-structural analysis;
• * comparison;
• * dynamic and statistical methods.

Also, from the general scientific methods of cognition in criminology, abstraction, modeling, analysis, synthesis, etc. are used.

The group of methods borrowed by criminology from other sciences includes the statistical method, interview, questionnaire method, testing, sociometry, observation, peer review, experiment, documentary method, etc. Let us dwell on the statistical method, which allows us to present in numbers:

• * a comprehensive description of the state of crime in the country as a whole, its regions, in a separate settlement, etc.;
• * patterns of development of crime in the country (regions), its dynamics;
• * the composition of criminals according to socio-demographic and other characteristics of criminal law and criminological significance (sex, age, number of crimes committed, etc.);
• * the most characteristic, stable and regular links between crime and other social phenomena;
• * the necessary material that can serve as a basis for identifying the causes and conditions that contribute to the growth of crime, as well as for predicting it and developing specific measures to prevent it;
• * data characterizing the criminal-legal, administrative measures of influence applied to criminals in order to optimize them and increase their efficiency.

However, the statistical method today has not received due development. There are several reasons for this, the most important of which are as follows.

• 1. The scientific literature is dominated by a causal approach to the study of such a social phenomenon as crime in general. Why is this approach preferred? As we know, crime is a certain number of crimes committed in a given territory for a specific period of time. It is known that each crime is committed under the influence of specific causes, conditions, certain life circumstances. Similarly, for crime as a social phenomenon, you can find the appropriate causes, conditions and circumstances. The logic of this reasoning at one time was optimal, corresponded to the available amount of knowledge and, therefore, it was true for its time. Today, it is quite obvious that crime is not a simple set of crimes committed in a given territory over a specific period of time, but, first of all, their system, which develops all over the world according to certain laws that are still unknown to people, regardless of their will and desire.
• 2. There is no statistical database that allows for broad generalizations. It is known that only since 1985 in our country the crime statistics became open.
• 3. There is a shortage of computers and related software products that are able to quickly process huge amounts of information (it is almost impossible to do this manually).

Finally, the third group of methods of criminological research is actually criminological methods, or tools, the choice of which is determined by the range of specific problems being studied. There are three such methods:

• * statistics;
• * typology (or case study);
• * a combination of these two methods.

Goals of criminological research. Russian scientists note a significant difference in approaches to typology or the study of an individual case between domestic practice and the practice of their Western colleagues. According to our scientists, in the West too much attention is paid to the study of an individual case, while the ultimate goals of criminological research are the explanation of one or another negative phenomenon and the development of recommendations to prevent or prevent these phenomena in the life of society. Based on this, the goals of criminology can be divided into theoretical and practical. It is also important to differentiate immediate, long-term and final goals. All these goals, of course, should be considered from the standpoint of their unity, but with appropriate specification.

From the goals of criminology listed above, its tasks can also be deduced, namely:

• * obtaining reliable information about everything that is the subject of criminology;
• * scientific explanation and prediction of criminological phenomena;
• * Obtaining essential information about the causes of crimes, which can be used in determining measures aimed at preventing new crimes;
• * determination of a general policy for the development of science, i.e., an analysis of the existing developments made back in the Soviet period, the preservation of valuable scientific research and the rejection of dogmatic and distorting the truth provisions;
• * putting into practice the results of theoretical research, especially in terms of forecasting and planning (carrying out criminological examinations, etc.);
• * study and use of international experience in the fight against crime. Here, an important place should be given to the analysis of international legal documents, the achievements of science, including criminology, participation in international organizations such as Interpol, associations of police officers and various other conferences and seminars.

Carrying out the scientific research included in its subject, criminology performs three main functions:

• * empirical, or collective, when the researcher finds out how this or that process proceeds;
• * theoretical, or explanatory, when the researcher seeks to find out why this process proceeds in this way and not otherwise;
• * prognostic, when the researcher seeks to look into the future and reveal the prospects for the development of the studied phenomenon, process, as well as the possibility of a positive influence on them.

At the same time, some domestic scientists classify the functions of criminology somewhat differently. For example, according to Professor A.I. Alekseev, criminology performs the following functions:

• * descriptive;
• * explanatory;
• * predictive;
• * ideological;
• * practical-transformative.

The methodology of criminology proceeds from the materialistic essence and the dialectical nature of the interaction of phenomena. Russian scientists have used this approach before, only then it was known under a different name - dialectical and historical materialism as two sides of Marxist-Leninist philosophy. The methodology of Western scientists is correlated with what is meant by the subject of criminology. There is no single approach here, and this explains the presence of a number of criminological schools, which were described above. However, upon closer examination, it becomes clear that both domestic and foreign scientists use the same philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; necessary and accidental; content and form, etc. Thus, it should be noted that there are no special disagreements in the general methodology.

Biological and sociological theories in criminology

Mechanism of criminal behavior and characteristics of crime

Characteristics of crime in the USSR and modern Russia

Victimization and victimology. The concept and types of crime victims

Concept, subject of criminology

Criminology(from the Latin “crimen” - “crime” and “logos” - “teaching”) - “the doctrine of crime”. For the first time in the science of ϶ᴛᴏ the word was introduced in 1879 by the scientist Topinar. The Italian scientist Rafael Gorofalo in 1885 published the book Criminology.

Criminology- general theoretical and applied science of crime, exploring the essence and forms of manifestation of crime, the causes and patterns of its occurrence, changes and possibilities for its reduction, studying the characteristics of the personality of subjects who commit crimes, as well as methods, forms of social influence on the causes and conditions of crime in order to warnings.

Subject of criminology- ϶ᴛᴏ a set of phenomena, processes and patterns studied by this science. Subject of criminology includes 4 elements:

1. crime;
2. the identity of the perpetrator;
3. causes and conditions of crime;
4. crime prevention.

1. Crime- a set of crimes considered in the form of facts of social reality, and not legal structures (for example, the elements of a crime)

In social reality, crime is subject to certain patterns, has fixed qualitative and quantitative characteristics (for example, the level, structure and dynamics of crime), they are studied by criminology

2. Identity of the perpetrator is studied as a system of socio-demographic, socio-role, socio-psychological properties of the subjects of the crime.

With regard to the personality of the offender, the correlation of the biological and social in it is considered.

3. Determinants (causes and conditions) of crime- a set of socially negative economic, demographic, ideological, socio-psychological, political, organizational and managerial phenomena that contribute to and directly generate, reproduce (determine) crime,

4. crime prevention϶ᴛᴏ is a specific area of ​​social regulation, management and control, which has a multi-level character and pursues the goal of combating crime based on identifying and eliminating its causes and conditions.

Criminology studies crime prevention as a complex dynamic system. Its functioning is connected with the solution of both general tasks of social development and specialized tasks in the field of combating negative phenomena.

Goals, objectives, functions and system of criminology

Goals of criminology:

1. theoretical - knowledge of the patterns of crime and the development of scientific theories and concepts, hypotheses on a ϶ᴛᴏ basis;
2. practical - development of scientific recommendations and constructive proposals to improve the effectiveness of the fight against crime;
3. promising - the creation of a versatile and flexible system of crime prevention, allowing to neutralize and overcome criminogenic factors;
4. the next one is the implementation of daily scientific and practical work in the field of combating crime.

The main tasks of criminology:

1. the study of objective and subjective factors affecting the state, level, structure and dynamics of crime;
2. socio-criminal study of types of crime to determine ways to combat them;
3. study of the identity of the offender;
4. identification of the mechanism for committing a specific crime;
5. classification of types of criminal manifestations and personality types of the offender;
6. determination of the main directions and measures of crime prevention.

Functions of criminology:

1. description of the phenomena and processes included in the subject of criminology, based on the collected material;
2. clarification of the nature and order of the process under study, its features;
3. identification of ways of possible development of a phenomenon or process.

Criminology system form the General and Special parts.

The General Part deals with general criminological concepts: the subject, method, goals, objectives, functions, the history of the development of criminology, crime, the identity of the offender, the mechanism of criminal behavior, prevention, forecasting and planning of crime.

In the Special Part, a criminological description of certain types of crimes is given according to the content of criminal acts or according to the characteristics of the contingent of criminals.

The place of criminology in the system of sciences

Criminology cannot be attributed to a purely legal or sociological science. Criminology as an interdisciplinary, social and legal science interacts with both legal and social disciplines.

To the greatest extent, the close connection of criminology with the legal sciences of the criminal cycle (criminal, penal law, criminal procedure), since they use general concepts and terms; for the practice of investigation and trial of criminal cases, the provisions and conclusions of criminology about the causes and conditions of crime, the personality of the offender, etc. are important. identity of the perpetrator)

The connection of criminology with constitutional law: many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are directly related to the education of citizens in the spirit of respect for morality, law and the rules of human society.

The connection of criminology with administrative law is due to the importance of administrative and legal means of combating offenses (administrative penalty, prevention and suppression), as well as the role of administrative and legal norms in regulating the activities of law enforcement agencies.

Criminology, which studies a negative phenomenon in society - crime, is closely related to sociology, which studies the forms of manifestation and the mechanism of action of the general laws of the functioning and development of society in relation to various spheres of its life in different historical conditions.

Communication of criminology with economic science. Some of the phenomena and processes that determine crime are in the economic sphere. The market economy largely determines crime.

Note that criminology is closely related to statistics, especially criminal statistics. Criminology is closely related to psychology (studies of the subjective causes and conditions of crime, motivation and mechanism of individual criminal behavior) Criminology is associated with pedagogy (the determinants of crime associated with the shortcomings of personality education in the family, school and other types of social environment are studied) demography (the influence of demographic processes on crime) Criminology is also connected with other non-legal sciences, for example, with genetics, psychiatry, prognosis, etc.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that criminology, based on the knowledge of many sciences, develops and deepens the idea of ​​crime and crime as a consequence of those negative factors that are inherent in modern social life. At the same time, many sciences use the achievements of criminology.

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Criminology - sociological and legal science that studies crime, the personality of the offender, the causes and conditions of crime, ways and means of preventing it.

Thing criminology is a range of issues that are studied by criminologists based on various indicators, on facts and on historical experience. Thing criminology - the study of patterns, laws, principles and properties of the development of social relations that make up the object of criminology.

Thing Criminology consists of 4 main elements:

1) crime is a social and criminal law phenomenon in society, which is the totality of all crimes committed in a given state over a certain period of time. Crime is measured by the following qualitative and quantitative indicators: level, structure and dynamics;

2) the identity of the offender, his place and role in antisocial manifestations. Data on the personal properties of the subjects of crimes contain information about the causes of crimes;

3) causes and conditions of crime - a system of negative economic, demographic, psychological, political, organizational and managerial phenomena and processes that generate and cause crime;

4) prevention (prevention) of crime - a system of state measures aimed at eliminating, neutralizing or weakening the causes and conditions of crime, deterring crime and correcting the behavior of offenders. Guided by this statement, criminology selects certain methods (means, ways, ways) of research and study of this phenomenon.

Functions:

descriptive- reflects the phenomena and processes included in the subject of criminology, based on the collected practical material.

Explanatory- allows you to find out the nature of the process under study, its features.

predictive- determines the possible development of a phenomenon or process.

Software-converting- allows you to implement the program of the results of criminological knowledge obtained with the help of the first three functions in reality.

Methods study of criminology:

1) observation - direct perception of the phenomenon under study by a criminologist researcher. The objects of observation can be individuals or their group and specific phenomena that are of interest to criminologists;

2) experiment - carried out in cases where it is necessary to introduce new methods of crime prevention into practice, to test certain theoretical assumptions and ideas;

3) a survey is a method of collecting information in which the interviewed persons find out information of interest to criminologists about objective processes and phenomena. The reliability of the information obtained during the survey depends on objective (place and time of the survey) and subjective factors (interest of the interviewed person in this or that information);

4) analysis of documentary sources of information for criminological research - the necessary information is collected from various documentary sources (certificates, contracts, criminal cases, video, audio cassettes and other items intended for storing and transmitting information);

5) modeling - a method of studying processes or systems of objects by building and studying models in order to obtain new information.

CRIMINOLOGY (lat. crime - crime and logos - teaching)

an integral part of social science: a science that studies the patterns of existence and development of crime, as well as a wider range of social phenomena and processes associated with it;

an integral system of scientific knowledge about crime prevention measures.

K. is an independent social and legal science. Its subject includes crime, its essence, regularities and forms of manifestation (the concept of crime covers the totality of crimes considered in the form of real facts of social reality, and not legal constructions such as corpus delicti). K. studies the origin. the origins of crime, its causes, conditions that are analyzed: a) for the totality of crimes: b) in relation to their individual types (groups, categories); c) in relation to individual acts of criminal behavior. The subject of K. is the personality of the offender, distinguished from the whole mass of people on the basis of two main criteria: legal (persons who have committed criminal acts) and social or socio-psychological (persons occupying certain social positions, statuses that have a set of demographic, moral and psychological and other qualities, including antisocial orientation). K.'s focus on preventive, proactive approaches to solving the problems of combating crime necessitates the study of this science and those individuals who have not yet violated the criminal law, but due to antisocial views and habits, one way or another manifested, for example, in the form of the commission of appropriate administrative offences, may lead to crime. K. studies the problem of crime prevention - a specific area of ​​social regulation, management and control, which has a multi-level character and pursues the goal of combating crime primarily on the basis of identifying and eliminating its causes, conditions, and other determinants.

K. studies crime and related phenomena as a social and legal reality. It is characterized by the broadest and most consistent sociological approach to the study of crime, the personality of the criminal. At the same time, K., as a socio-legal science, is not distracted from the legal characteristics of crime, crime, and the criminal.

The specificity of criminological knowledge lies in the causal explanation of the social and legal phenomena and processes studied by this science. In general, the existence and development of crime is associated with such an approach to the fight against crime, in which the task of preventing it is put at the forefront. K .. unlike other legal sciences. takes part in the development of not only legal, but also other crime prevention measures: socio-economic, cultural and educational, etc.

Along with general scientific methods (formal logic, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analogy, modeling, etc.), K. widely uses the tools of sociological knowledge, in particular, such methods of obtaining socio-legal information as questioning and interviewing, studying documents, observation , experiment. An important role in criminological research is played by the methods of statistical analysis and, above all, criminal statistics.

Criminological ideas, judgments about the essence of crime, its causes, ways of counteraction are rooted in the depths of centuries. Formally, 1885 can be considered the date of birth of k. as an independent science, when a book by the Italian scientist R. Garofalo was published under this title. However, even before that, quite solid criminological theories were formulated and published. For example, the book of the famous C. Lochbroso "Criminal Man" was published in 1876.

Criminological issues have been successfully developed by many Russian forensic scientists:

AND I. Foinitsky, E.N. Tarnovsky, N.S. Tagantsev, N.A. Neklyudov, D.A. Driel and others, who made a significant contribution to the study of crime, its causes, the personality of the offender from the standpoint of both sociological and "anthropological" (biological, biosocial) areas. Many scientists who began their scientific career in tsarist Russia continued to develop the problems of K. after 1917 (M.N. Gernet, M.M. Isaev, A.A. Zhizhilenko, S.V. Poznyshev, P.I. I. Lyubinsky and others).

In the first years of Soviet power, criminological research was carried out very intensively. Along with statistical observations, the study of economic, social factors of crime, much attention was paid to anthropological measurements, the study of the physical constitution, health status, heredity of criminals. The State Institute for the Study of Crime and the Criminal was formed, numerous offices of criminological, criminal-anthropological, etc. were created. profile. Late 30s to 50s. criminological research was not carried out in the USSR. At the end of the 50s. they have been renewed. In the early 60s. the first publications appeared, which opened the beginning of a new (modern) stage in the development of domestic cinematography.

Alekseev A.M.

Law Encyclopedia. 2005 .

Synonyms:

See what "CRIMINOLOGY" is in other dictionaries:

Criminology… Spelling Dictionary

- (from lat. crimen crime, in logos the word). The science of crime as a phenomenon caused by social causes. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. criminology (lat. crimen (criminis) crime + ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Modern Encyclopedia

Criminology- (from Latin crimen, genitive criminis crime and Greek logos word, doctrine), the science of crime, its causes, the identity of the offender, ways and means of preventing crime. As an independent science, criminology ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (from lat. crimena, p.n. cri minis crime and gr. logos word, doctrine) the science of crime, its causes, the identity of the offender, ways and means of preventing crime and the prospects for its elimination. K. explores crime as a social ... Law Dictionary

- (from lat. crimen genitive criminis crime and ... logic), a science that studies crime, its causes, the identity of the offender, and also develops measures to prevent crime ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

CRIMINOLOGY, criminology, pl. no, female (from Latin crimen crime and Greek logos Doctrine). The doctrine of crime as a social phenomenon. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

CRIMINOLOGY, and, for women. The science of crime and methods of its prevention. | adj. criminological, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Exist., number of synonyms: 2 biocriminology (1) penology (1) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

- (from Latin criminalis referring to a crime and Greek logos word, teaching) eng. criminology; German Criminology. A science that studies the patterns, forms and methods of manifestation of crime, its causes, the personality of the offender and develops measures ... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology