Decimal system of measurement. The history of the creation of the metric system of measures

Metric system - the general name of the international decimal system of units based on the use of the meter and kilogram. Over the past two centuries, there have been various versions of the metric system, differing in the choice of basic units.

The metric system grew out of the decrees passed by the National Assembly of France in 1791 and 1795 to define the meter as one ten millionth of one quarter of the earth's meridian from the North Pole to the equator (Paris meridian).

The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as a mandatory decree of the Provisional Government of April 30, 1917, and for the USSR - by a decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925. Until that moment, the so-called Russian system of measures existed in the country.

Russian system of measures - a system of measures traditionally used in Russia and the Russian Empire. The Russian system was replaced by the metric system of measures, which was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899. Below are the measures and their values ​​\u200b\u200baccording to the "Regulations on Weights and Measures" (1899), unless indicated otherwise. Earlier values ​​of these units could differ from those given; so, for example, by the Code of 1649, a verst was established at 1,000 sazhens, while in the 19th century a verst was 500 sazhens; versts 656 and 875 sazhens long were also used.

Sa?zhen, or soot? - old Russian unit of distance. In the 17th century the main measure was the state sazhen (approved in 1649 by the "Cathedral Code"), equal to 2.16 m, and containing three arshins (72 cm) of 16 inches. Back in the time of Peter I, Russian measures of length were equalized with English ones. One arshin took the value of 28 English inches, and the fathom - 213.36 cm. Later, on October 11, 1835, according to the instructions of Nicholas I "On the system of Russian measures and weights", the length of the fathom was confirmed: 1 official fathom was equated to the length of 7 English feet , that is, to the same 2.1336 meters.

fly fathom- an old Russian unit of measurement, equal to the distance in the span of both hands, to the ends of the middle fingers. 1 fly fathom = 2.5 arshins = 10 spans = 1.76 meters.

Oblique fathom- in different regions it was from 213 to 248 cm and was determined by the distance from the toes to the end of the fingers of the hand extended diagonally upwards. From here comes the hyperbole “oblique sazhen in the shoulders”, which was born among the people, which emphasizes the heroic strength and stature. For convenience, they equated Sazhen and Oblique fathom when used in construction and land works.

Span- old Russian unit of length. Since 1835, it has been equated to 7 English inches (17.78 cm). Initially, the span (or small span) was equal to the distance between the ends of the outstretched fingers of the hand - the thumb and forefinger. Also known, "large span" - the distance between the tip of the thumb and middle fingers. In addition, the so-called “span with a somersault” (“span with a somersault”) was used - a span with an addition of two or three joints of the index finger, i.e. 5-6 inches. At the end of the 19th century, it was excluded from the official system of measures, but continued to be used as a national household measure.

Arshin- was legalized in Russia as the main measure of length on June 4, 1899 by the "Regulations on Weights and Measures".

The height of a person and large animals was indicated in inches over two arshins, for small animals - over one arshin. For example, the expression "a man is 12 inches tall" meant that his height is 2 arshins 12 inches, that is, approximately 196 cm.

Bottle- there were two types of bottles - wine and vodka. Wine bottle (measuring bottle) = 1/2 t. octopus damask. 1 vodka bottle (beer bottle, trade bottle, half bottle) = 1/2 t. ten damask.

Shtof, half-shtof, shkalik - was used, among other things, when measuring the amount of alcoholic beverages in taverns and taverns. In addition, any bottle of ½ damask could be called a half-damask. Shkalik was also called a vessel of the appropriate volume, in which vodka was served in taverns.

Russian measures of length

1 mile= 7 versts = 7.468 km.
1 verst= 500 fathoms = 1066.8 m.
1 fathom\u003d 3 arshins \u003d 7 feet \u003d 100 acres \u003d 2.133 600 m.
1 arshin\u003d 4 quarters \u003d 28 inches \u003d 16 inches \u003d 0.711 200 m.
1 quarter (span)\u003d 1/12 fathom \u003d ¼ arshin \u003d 4 inches \u003d 7 inches \u003d 177.8 mm.
1 foot= 12 inches = 304.8 mm.
1 inch= 1.75 inches = 44.38 mm.
1 inch= 10 lines = 25.4 mm.
1 weave= 1/100 fathoms = 21.336 mm.
1 line= 10 dots = 2.54 mm.
1 point= 1/100 inch = 1/10 line = 0.254 mm.

Russian measures of area

1 sq. verst= 250,000 sq. fathoms = 1.1381 km².
1 tithe= 2400 sq. fathoms = 10,925.4 m² = 1.0925 ha.
1 quarter= ½ tithe = 1200 sq. fathoms = 5462.7 m² = 0.54627 ha.
1 octopus= 1/8 tithe = 300 sq. fathoms = 1365.675 m² ≈ 0.137 ha.
1 sq. fathom= 9 sq. arshins = 49 sq. feet = 4.5522 m².
1 sq. arshin= 256 sq. vershkam = 784 sq. inches = 0.5058 m².
1 sq. foot= 144 sq. inches = 0.0929 m².
1 sq. vershok= 19.6958 cm².
1 sq. inch= 100 sq. lines = 6.4516 cm².
1 sq. line= 1/100 sq. inches = 6.4516 mm².

Russian measures of volume

1 cu. fathom= 27 cu. arshins = 343 cu. ft = 9.7127 m³
1 cu. arshin= 4096 cu. vershkam = 21,952 cu. inches = 359.7278 dm³
1 cu. vershok= 5.3594 cu. inches = 87.8244 cm³
1 cu. foot= 1728 cu. inches = 2.3168 dm³
1 cu. inch= 1000 cu. lines = 16.3871 cm³
1 cu. line= 1/1000 cu. inches = 16.3871 mm³

Russian measures of loose bodies ("bread measures")

1 cebra= 26-30 quarters.
1 tub (kad, fetters) = 2 ladles = 4 quarters = 8 octopuses = 839.69 liters (= 14 pounds of rye = 229.32 kg).
1 sack (rye\u003d 9 pounds + 10 pounds \u003d 151.52 kg) (oats \u003d 6 pounds + 5 pounds \u003d 100.33 kg)
1 half ladle \u003d 419.84 l (\u003d 7 pounds of rye \u003d 114.66 kg).
1 quarter, four (for loose bodies) \u003d 2 octopuses (half-quarters) \u003d 4 half-octopuses \u003d 8 quadrangles \u003d 64 garns. (= 209.912 l (dm³) 1902). (= 209.66 l 1835).
1 octopus\u003d 4 fours \u003d 104.95 l (\u003d 1¾ pounds of rye \u003d 28.665 kg).
1 polymin= 52.48 liters.
1 quarter\u003d 1 measure \u003d 1⁄8 quarters \u003d 8 garns \u003d 26.2387 liters. (= 26.239 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 64 pounds of water = 26.208 liters (1835 g)).
1 half quad= 13.12 liters.
1 four= 6.56 liters.
1 garnet, small quadruple \u003d ¼ bucket \u003d 1⁄8 quadruple \u003d 12 glasses \u003d 3.2798 liters. (= 3.28 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 3.276 l (1835)).
1 half-garnet (half-small quadrangle) \u003d 1 damask \u003d 6 glasses \u003d 1.64 liters. (Half-half-small quad = 0.82 L, Half-half-half-small quad = 0.41 L).
1 glass= 0.273 l.

Russian measures of liquid bodies ("wine measures")

1 barrel= 40 buckets = 491.976 liters (491.96 liters).
1 pot= 1 ½ - 1 ¾ buckets (holding 30 pounds of clean water).
1 bucket\u003d 4 quarters of a bucket \u003d 10 shtofs \u003d 1/40 barrels \u003d 12.29941 liters (for 1902).
1 quarter (buckets) \u003d 1 garnets \u003d 2.5 damask \u003d 4 wine bottles \u003d 5 vodka bottles \u003d 3.0748 liters.
1 garnet= ¼ bucket = 12 glasses.
1 damask (mug)\u003d 3 pounds of pure water \u003d 1/10 bucket \u003d 2 vodka bottles \u003d 10 glasses \u003d 20 scales \u003d 1.2299 liters (1.2285 liters).
1 wine bottle (Bottle (volume unit)) \u003d 1/16 bucket \u003d ¼ garnets \u003d 3 glasses \u003d 0.68; 0.77 l; 0.7687 l.
1 vodka or beer bottle = 1/20 bucket = 5 cups = 0.615; 0.60 l.
1 bottle= 3/40 of a bucket (Decree of September 16, 1744).
1 pigtail= 1/40 bucket = ¼ mug = ¼ damask = ½ half damask = ½ vodka bottle = 5 scales = 0.307475 l.
1 quarter= 0.25 l (currently).
1 glass= 0.273 l.
1 cup= 1/100 bucket = 2 scales = 122.99 ml.
1 scale= 1/200 bucket = 61.5 ml.

Russian measures of weight

1 fin\u003d 6 quarters \u003d 72 pounds \u003d 1179.36 kg.
1 quarter waxed = 12 pounds = 196.56 kg.
1 Berkovets\u003d 10 pounds \u003d 400 hryvnias (large hryvnias, pounds) \u003d 800 hryvnias \u003d 163.8 kg.
1 congar= 40.95 kg.
1 pood= 40 large hryvnias or 40 pounds = 80 small hryvnias = 16 steelyards = 1280 lots = 16.380496 kg.
1 half pood= 8.19 kg.
1 batman= 10 pounds = 4.095 kg.
1 steelyard\u003d 5 small hryvnias \u003d 1/16 pounds \u003d 1.022 kg.
1 half-pit= 0.511 kg.
1 large hryvnia, hryvnia, (later - pound) = 1/40 pood = 2 small hryvnias = 4 half hryvnias = 32 lots = 96 spools = 9216 shares = 409.5 g (11th-15th centuries).
1 pound= 0.4095124 kg (exactly, since 1899).
1 small hryvnia\u003d 2 half hryvnia \u003d 48 spools \u003d 1200 kidneys \u003d 4800 pies \u003d 204.8 g.
1 half hryvnia= 102.4 g.
Also used:1 libra = ¾ pound = 307.1 g; 1 ansyr = 546 g, has not been widely adopted.
1 lot\u003d 3 spools \u003d 288 shares \u003d 12.79726 g.
1 spool= 96 shares = 4.265754 g.
1 spool= 25 kidneys (until the 18th century).
1 share= 1/96 spools = 44.43494 mg.
From the 13th to the 18th centuries, such measures of weight were used asbud and pie:
1 kidney= 1/25 spool = 171 mg.
1 pie= ¼ kidney = 43 mg.

Russian measures of weight (mass) are pharmaceutical and troy.
Pharmaceutical weight is a system of mass measures used when weighing medicines until 1927.

1 pound= 12 ounces = 358.323 g.
1 oz= 8 drachmas = 29.860 g.
1 drachma= 1/8 ounce = 3 scruples = 3.732 g
1 scruple= 1/3 drachma = 20 grains = 1.244 g.
1 grain= 62.209 mg.

Other Russian measures

Quire- unit of account, equal to 24 sheets of paper.

international decimal system measurement, which is based on the use of units such as kilogram and meter, is called metric. Varied Options metric system developed and used over the past two hundred years, and the differences between them consisted mainly in the choice of basic, basic units. At present, the so-called International system of units (SI). Those elements that are used in it are identical all over the world, although there are differences in some details. International system of units is very widely and actively used all over the world, both in everyday life and in scientific research.

Presently Metric used in most countries of the world. There are, however, several large states in which to this day the English system of measures based on such units as the pound, foot and second is used. These include the UK, US and Canada. However, these countries have also already adopted several legislative measures aimed at moving towards Metric.

She herself originated in the middle of the XVIII century in France. It was then that scientists decided that they should create system of measures, which will be based on units taken from nature. The essence of this approach was that they constantly remain unchanged, and therefore the whole system as a whole will be stable.

Measures of length

• 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
• 1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters (cm)
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)

Measures of area

• 1 sq. kilometer (km 2) \u003d 1,000,000 sq. meters (m 2)
• 1 sq. meter (m 2) \u003d 100 square meters. decimeters (dm 2) = 10,000 sq. centimeters (cm 2)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 100 aram (a) = 10,000 sq. meters (m 2)
• 1 ar (a) \u003d 100 square meters. meters (m 2)

Measures of volume

• 1 cu. meter (m 3) \u003d 1000 cubic meters. decimeters (dm 3) \u003d 1,000,000 cubic meters. centimeters (cm 3)
• 1 cu. decimeter (dm 3) = 1000 cu. centimeters (cm 3)
• 1 liter (l) = 1 cu. decimeter (dm 3)
• 1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 liters (l)

Measures of weight

• 1 ton (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)
• 1 centner (c) = 100 kilograms (kg)
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
• 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

Metric

It should be noted that the metric system of measure was not immediately recognized. As for Russia, in our country it was allowed to be used after it signed Metric convention. At the same time, this system of measures for a long time it was used in parallel with the national one, which was based on such units as the pound, sazhen and bucket.

Some old Russian measures

Measures of length

• 1 verst = 500 fathoms = 1500 arshins = 3500 feet = 1066.8 m
• 1 fathom = 3 arshins = 48 vershoks = 7 feet = 84 inches = 2.1336 m
• 1 arshin = 16 inches = 71.12 cm
• 1 inch = 4.450 cm
• 1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 m
• 1 inch = 2.540 cm
• 1 nautical mile = 1852.2 m

Measures of weight

• 1 pood = 40 pounds = 16.380 kg
• 1 lb = 0.40951 kg

Main difference Metric from those that were used earlier is that it uses an ordered set of units of measure. This means that any physical quantity is characterized by a certain main unit, and all submultiple and multiple units are formed according to a single standard, namely, using decimal prefixes.

The introduction of this systems of measures eliminates the inconvenience that was previously caused by the abundance of different units of measurement, which have rather complex rules for converting between themselves. Those in metric system are very simple and boil down to the fact that the original value is multiplied or divided by a power of 10.

Metric, a decimal system of measures, a set of units of physical quantities, which is based on a unit of length - meter. Initially, in the Metric system of measures, in addition to the meter, there were units: area - square meter, volume - cubic meter and mass - kilogram (mass of 1 dm 3 of water at 4 ° C), as well as liter(for capacity), ar(for land area) and ton(1000 kg). An important distinguishing feature of the metric system of measures was the method of formation multiple units and submultiple units, which are in decimal ratios; prefixes were adopted to form the names of derived units: kilo, hecto, soundboard, deci, centi and Milli.

The metric system of measures was developed in France during the French Revolution. At the suggestion of a commission of major French scientists (J. Borda, J. Condorcet, P. Laplace, G. Monge, and others), the unit of length - meter - was taken as a ten-millionth part of 1/4 of the length of the Paris geographic meridian. This decision was due to the desire to base the metric system of measures on an easily reproducible "natural" unit of length, associated with some practically unchanged object of nature. The decree introducing the metric system of measures in France was adopted on April 7, 1795. In 1799, a platinum prototype of the meter was made and approved. The sizes, names and definitions of other units of the Metric system of measures were chosen so that it was not of a national character and could be accepted by all countries. The metric system of measures acquired a truly international character in 1875, when 17 countries, including Russia, signed Metric convention to ensure international unity and improve the metric system. The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as a mandatory decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of September 14, 1918, and for the USSR - by a decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925.

On the basis of the metric system of measures, a number of private measures arose, covering only certain sections of physics or branches of technology, systems of units and individual off-system units. The development of science and technology, as well as international relations, led to the creation on the basis of the metric system of measures of a single system of units covering all areas of measurement - International system of units(SI), which is already accepted as mandatory or preferred by many countries.

On the facade of the Ministry of Justice in Paris, under one of the windows, a horizontal line and the inscription "meter" are carved in marble. Such a miniature detail is barely noticeable against the backdrop of the majestic building of the Ministry and Place Vendôme, but this line is the only “meter standard” remaining in the city, which were located throughout the city more than 200 years ago in an attempt to introduce to the people a new universal system of measurements - metric.

We often take the system of measures for granted and do not even think about the history behind its creation. The metric system, which was invented in France, is official throughout the world, with the exception of three countries: the United States, Liberia and Myanmar, although in these countries it is also used in some areas such as international trade.

Can you imagine what our world would be like if the system of measures was different everywhere, like the situation we are used to with currencies? But everything was like that before the French Revolution, which flared up at the end of the 18th century: then the units of measures and weights were different not only between individual states, but even within the same country. Almost every French province had its own units of measures and weights, incomparable with the units used by their neighbors.

The revolution brought a wind of change in this area: in the period from 1789 to 1799, activists sought to overturn not only the government regime, but also fundamentally change society, changing traditional foundations and habits. For example, in order to limit the influence of the church on public life, the revolutionaries introduced a new Republican calendar in 1793: it consisted of ten-hour days, one hour equaled 100 minutes, one minute equaled 100 seconds. This calendar was fully in line with the desire of the new government to introduce the decimal system in France. This approach to calculating time never caught on, but people came to like the decimal system of measures, which was based on meters and kilograms.

The first scientific minds of the Republic worked on the development of a new system of measures. The scientists intended to invent a system that would obey logic, and not local traditions or the wishes of the authorities. Then they decided to be based on what nature gave us - the reference meter had to be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the equator. This distance was measured along the Paris meridian, which passed through the building of the Paris Observatory and divided it into two equal parts.

In 1792, the scientists Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Mechain went along the meridian: the first was the city of Dunkirk in northern France, the second followed south to Barcelona. Using the latest equipment and the mathematical process of triangulation (a method of constructing a geodetic network in the form of triangles in which their angles and some of their sides are measured), they calculated to measure the meridian arc between two cities that were at sea level. Then, using the method of extrapolation (the method of scientific research, which consists in extending the conclusions obtained from observation of one part of the phenomenon to another part of it), they were going to calculate the distance between the pole and the equator. According to the initial idea, the scientists planned to spend a year on all measurements and the creation of a new universal system of measures, but in the end the process dragged on for seven whole years.

Astronomers were faced with the fact that in those turbulent times, people often perceived them with great caution and even hostility. In addition, without the support of the local population, scientists were often not allowed to work; there were cases when they were injured climbing the highest points in the area, such as the domes of churches.

From the top of the dome of the Pantheon, Delambre took measurements in Paris. Initially, King Louis XV erected the building of the Pantheon for the church, but the Republicans equipped it as the central geodetic station of the city. Today, the Pantheon serves as a mausoleum for the heroes of the Revolution: Voltaire, Rene Descartes, Victor Hugo, and others. In those days, the building also served as a museum - all the old standards of measures and weights that were sent by the inhabitants of France in anticipation of a new perfect system were stored there.

Unfortunately, despite all the efforts of scientists to develop a worthy replacement for the old units of measurement, no one wanted to use the new system. People refused to forget the usual ways of measuring, which were often closely connected with local traditions, rituals and way of life. For example, ale - a unit of measure for cloth - was usually equal to the size of looms, and the size of arable land was calculated solely in days that needed to be spent on it.

The Parisian authorities were so outraged by the refusal of the inhabitants to use the new system of measures that they often sent police to local markets to force them into circulation. As a result, in 1812 Napoleon abandoned the policy of introducing the metric system - it was still taught in schools, but people were allowed to use their usual units of measure until 1840, when the policy was resumed.

It took almost a hundred years for France to completely switch to the metric system. This finally succeeded, but not thanks to the persistence of the government: France was moving rapidly in the direction of the industrial revolution. In addition, it was necessary to improve maps of the area for military purposes - this process required accuracy, which was not possible without a universal system of measures. France confidently entered the international market: in 1851, the first International Fair took place in Paris, where the participants of the event shared their achievements in the field of science and industry. The metric system was simply necessary to avoid confusion. The construction of the Eiffel Tower with a height of 324 meters was timed to coincide with the International Fair in Paris in 1889 - then it became the tallest man-made structure in the world.

In 1875, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established, headquartered in a quiet suburb of Paris - in the city of Sèvres. The Bureau maintains international standards and the unity of seven measures: meter, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, Mole and Candela. A platinum standard meter is stored there, from which standard copies were carefully made and sent to other countries as a sample. In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures adopted a definition of the meter based on the wavelength of light - thus making the standard even closer to nature.

At the headquarters of the Bureau there is also a kilogram standard: it is located in an underground storage under three glass caps. The standard is made in the form of a cylinder of an alloy of platinum and iridium, in November 2018 the standard will be revised and redefined using Planck's quantum constant. The resolution on the revision of the International System of Units was adopted back in 2011, however, due to some technical features of the procedure, its implementation was not possible until recently.

Determining the units of measures and weights is a very time-consuming process, which is accompanied by various difficulties: from the nuances of conducting experiments to financing. The metric system underlies progress in many fields: science, economics, medicine, etc., it is vital for further research, globalization and improvement of our understanding of the universe.

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Metric system (International SI system)

Metric system of measures (International SI system)

Residents of the United States or another country where the metric system is not used sometimes find it difficult to understand how the rest of the world lives in and navigates it. But in fact, the SI system is much simpler than all traditional national measurement systems.

The principles of constructing the metric system are very simple.

The device of the international system of units SI

The metric system was developed in France in the 18th century. The new system was intended to replace the chaotic set of different units of measurement then in use with a single common standard with simple decimal coefficients.

The standard unit of length was defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth's north pole to the equator. The resulting value is called meter. The definition of the meter was later refined several times. The modern and most accurate definition of a meter is: "the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second." The standards for the rest of the measurements were set in a similar way.

The metric system or International System of Units (SI) is based on seven basic units for seven basic dimensions independent of each other. These measurements and units are: length (meter), mass (kilogram), time (second), electric current (ampere), thermodynamic temperature (kelvin), amount of substance (mol) and radiation intensity (candela). All other units are derived from base units.

All units of a particular measurement are built on the basis of the base unit by adding universal metric prefixes. The metric prefix table is shown below.

Metric prefixes

Metric prefixes simple and very comfortable. It is not necessary to understand the nature of the unit in order to convert a value from, for example, kilo-units to mega-units. All metric prefixes are powers of 10. The most commonly used prefixes are highlighted in the table.

By the way, on the page Fractions and percentages you can easily convert the value from one metric prefix to another.

Prefix	Symbol	Degree	Factor
yotta	Y	10 24	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
zetta	Z	10 21	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
exa	E	10 18	1,000,000,000,000,000,000
peta	P	10 15	1,000,000,000,000,000
tera	T	10 12	1,000,000,000,000
giga	G	10 9	1,000,000,000
mega	M	10 6	1,000,000
kilo	k	10 3	1,000
hecto	h	10 2	100
soundboard	da	10 1	10
deci	d	10 -1	0.1
centi	c	10 -2	0.01
Milli	m	10 -3	0.001
micro	µ	10 -6	0.000,001
nano	n	10 -9	0.000,000,001
pico	p	10 -12	0,000,000,000,001
femto	f	10 -15	0.000,000,000,000,001
atto	a	10 -18	0.000,000,000,000,000,001
zepto	z	10 -21	0.000,000,000,000,000,000,001
yokto	y	10 -24	0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001

Even in countries where the metric system is used, most people only know the most common prefixes, such as "kilo", "milli", "mega". These prefixes are highlighted in the table. The remaining prefixes are used mainly in science.