Achievements of Ivan's foreign policy 4. The Western direction of Ivan IV's foreign policy

The foreign policy of Ivan IV was marked by a number of significant achievements. First of all, he became famous for the conquest of several Tatar khanates to the south and east of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Another major achievement was his crowning the kingdom. The prince, who became the king of Russia, was equal to the Western European emperors in terms of titles. At the same time, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the Muscovite state suffered a number of serious setbacks, the largest of which was the defeat in the Livonian War.

Strengthening the international position of Moscow under Ivan the Terrible would have been impossible without the continuation of the policy of centralization. Ivan IV continued the gradual elimination of appanages as administrative units and increased the dependence of local officials on the capital and personally on the tsar. The natural resistance to centralization was broken by harsh repressive measures, including the oprichnina. In subsequent eras, the reign of Ivan the Terrible received mixed reviews from historians, writers, and public figures.

East direction

Western direction

By moving to a settled way of life, the nomads became more vulnerable to retaliatory strikes. 1552 - annexation of Kazan; 1556 annexation of Astrakhan. 1552-1557 - annexation of Bashkiria 1581-1582 - Yermak's campaign. Conquest of Siberia. The most "tough nut" was the Crimea (until 1783) it was separated from the center of Russia by a wide strip of waterless steppes. In addition, the Crimean khans received military assistance and patronage from Turkey. The defense was built on a system of special lines. Far away in the steppe, guard patrols monitored the movement of nomads. The militia was drawn to the place of the breakthrough. Already in the mid-1950s, plans for a campaign against the Crimea arose in Moscow.

The desire to firmly settle in the Baltic states, ousting the Germans and Swedes, as well as to win back the lands in the upper and middle reaches of the Dnieper from Poland and Lithuania led to the Livonian War (1558-1583). However, having become protracted and fruitless, it showed that the struggle on two fronts is still beyond the strength of the Russian state. Liquidation of the Livonian Order.

EASTERN DIRECTION OF FOREIGN POLICY:

1547-1548, 1549-1550 - unsuccessful campaigns against Kazan. The conquest of the Kazan Khanate in 1556.

1551 - preparation for the campaign. Construction of the Sviyazhsk fortress.

1552 - siege of Kazan (August-October).

1556 - the capture of the Nogai horde and the Astrakhan Khanate.

In Moscow Russia XVI-XVII centuries. estate representative body, providing a connection between the center and places, was called - "Zemsky Sobor" (1549 - convocation first Zemsky Sobor(cathedral of reconciliation)

The elected Rada is a circle of people close to Ivan IV. The term introduced by Prince A. M. Kurbsky

The Rurik dynasty was interrupted after the death of Fyodor Ivanovich.

Livonian War, which lasted 25 years (1558-1583).

1561 - the capture of Narva, Dorpat, Fellin, Marienburg.

Disintegration of the Order in 1561

1563 - the capture of Polotsk

1564 - defeat near Orsha and on the Ula River

1578 - mornings of Livonia

1578 - the Swedes captured Narva

1581 - long defense of Pskov

1582 - truce

1583 - peace. Russia gave Narva, Ivan-gorod, Yamka, Koporye, but retained the mouth of the Neva River.

Descendants about Ivan IV

People	About Ivan the Terrible	About oprichnina
A. L. Yanov	negative	negative
V.V. Shaposhnik N. M. Karamzin CM. Solovyov IN. Klyuchevsky A. K. Tolstoy I.V. Stalin	Wise politician All his actions are random, chaotic ... virtue and tyranny are complexly intertwined ... Ivan IV - the mysterious face of our history He considered terror illogical, because it was directed against individuals, and not against the foundations of antiquity. "Prince Silver" I.V. Stalin highly appreciated the personality of Ivan the Terrible and his policy, contrasting him with Peter I, who opened the doors too wide for the West, and many bad things flew into them: Then these statements by I.V. Stalin was published by People's Artist of the USSR N.K. Cherkasov, who played the role of the “Great Sovereign” in the film and in the theater. No comments	Positive assessment of external and internal politicians of Ivan IV Vasilyevich A tool to fight the old against the new He noted in the domestic policy of Ivan the Terrible the embodiment of the idea of ​​autocracy "Prince Silver" ... He wrote about the "progressive army of guardsmen" ... The word "oprichnik" became abusive, and the name of its head Malyuta Skuratov - Grigory Lukyanovich Belsky - the embodiment of a villain.

Reign of Ivan IV

Reign of Ivan the Terrible started with embarrassment. But his mother, Elena Glinskaya, really ruled. She did a lot of good for all Russia. She carried out a monetary reform and unification of all measures was carried out. This had a positive impact on the economic development of the state. Also during her reign, many cities were equipped and fortified.

After the death of his mother, Ivan lived in appalling conditions. palace coups. At this time, the bloodthirstiness for which he is famous was developed in him.

Ivan was a smart and well-read person for those times and understood what a complex burden of responsibility was entrusted to him. At that time, it was necessary to relieve tensions and unite the estates, and it was also necessary to restore the lost authority of power.

When Ivan came to power, he had great powers. Title of Tsar of All Russia put Ivan above the rulers of neighboring states, this brought Moscow and Russia, respectively, to a new level.

The uprising in Moscow showed the need for reforms. The reforms carried out by Ivan reduced the field of arbitrariness and lawlessness for the governors and their entourage. Reduced the privileges of monasteries. St. George's Day was introduced. The value of the Code of Laws is very great, it has become the current legislation.

Ivan the Terrible was an extraordinary and great personality who brought order to Russia.

Foreign policy objectives:

In the east: the struggle with the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, the mastery of the Volga trade route;

In the west: access to the Baltic Sea through the lands of the Livonian Order.

Eastern direction of foreign policy.

Liquidation of the Kazan Khanate in 1552 Causes:

1. A coalition of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, vassals of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, was formed against Russia.

2. Russia sought to seize the Volga trade route and the fertile ("podraisky") lands of the Volga region.

3. The desire to free the peoples of the Volga region from Kazan dependence - the Mari, Mordovians, Chuvashs.

Initially, Moscow tried to solve the problem through diplomacy, placing its protege on the Kazan throne Shigalea (Shah Ali). However, this ended in failure. Then the conquest of Kazan was proclaimed a crusade against the "infidel infidels." Under the direction of a deacon Ivan Vyrodkov a wooden fortress was built near Uglich and floated down the Volga. In 1551, 30 km. from Kazan at the confluence of the Volga river. Sviyaga 50 thousand warriors erected a fortress Sviyazhsk with 18 towers. It became a Russian stronghold.

In 1552, the 150,000-strong army of Ivan IV with 150 guns laid siege to Kazan. The 30,000-strong garrison of Kazan stubbornly resisted for 6 weeks. The Russians at the walls of Kazan built mobile assault towers - "tours" ( walk-city). 2 October 1552 G. under the guidance of a foreign master Thoughts powder charges were blown up in the mines and a hole was made in the wall. Bridges were thrown from the "tours". Russian regiments led by governors rushed into the gap Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky and Andrey Kurbsky. In the words of the chronicler, “the sovereign’s military people ... in the city beat the Tatars through the streets, husbands and wives in the yards, and others are dragged out of the pits and from the mizgits (mosques) and from the chambers, and cutting them without mercy and razed to the last nakedness.” (This was the usual behavior of the troops in the Middle Ages). After a stubborn battle, Kazan fell. Hana Yadigara-Magmeta (Yediger-Mohammed) were taken prisoner, forced to accept Orthodoxy under the name of "Tsar Simeon Kasaevich". He took possession of the city of Zvenigorod and participated in the wars of Russia in the West. The surviving warriors were executed, women and children were turned into slaves. The remnants of the surviving population were evicted from the city and besieged yasakom(tribute). The Kazan Khanate ceased to exist. Kazan became the Russian administrative center. The Orthodox Church began the Christianization of the population. Orthodox churches were built on the site of the destroyed mosques. In honor of the victory over Kazan in Moscow in 1555-1560. St. Basil's Cathedral was erected.

Liquidation of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556 Astrakhan Khan fled to the Crimea, Astrakhan surrendered. In 1557, Chuvashia and Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. The Great Nogai Horde and Kabarda in the North Caucasus recognized themselves as vassals of Russia.

The value of joining the Volga region :

1. Russia secured its borders from raids from the east.

2. Thousands of Russian slaves were released from captivity.

3. Russia received the fertile (“podraisky”) lands of the Volga region.

4. Russia took possession of the Volga and Kama trade routes, eastern markets opened up before her.

5. New cities were built - military and trade strongholds: Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Cheboksary, Ufa, etc.

6. Russia has gradually turned from a defending side into an actively expanding power. With the annexation of the Volga and Ural regions, Russia began to turn into Eurasian power, the influence of the traditions of Asia increased in it.

Fight against the Crimean Khanate . The liquidation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates by Ivan IV led to a sharp aggravation of Russian-Crimean relations. The vassals of Ottoman Turkey, the Crimean Tatars, often attacked Russian lands, ravaged villages and cities, and took the inhabitants into slavery. To protect against aggression were built notch features- many kilometers of defensive lines, consisting of notched(barriers made of fallen trees), ramparts, palisades, ditches and observation posts - watchmen and villages. The first line of defense was along the river. Oka from Nizhny Novgorod through Serpukhov, Tula to Kozelsk. The second - from the city of Alatyr along the river. Sure through Orel, Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl. The third line was built after the death of Ivan the Terrible through the cities of Kromy, Yelets, Kursk, Voronezh, Belgorod.

In 1571, at the head of an army of 40 thousand horsemen, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray, having dispersed the oprichnina army, burned Moscow, for which he received the nickname Takht Algan("took the throne"). Frightened, Ivan IV fled north to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. During the raid on Muscovy, several hundred thousand Russians died and 50 thousand were taken prisoner. Devlet Giray demanded Kazan and Astrakhan. Ivan IV undertook, following the example of Poland, to pay tribute to the Crimea every year. The payment of "commemoration" to the Crimea continued until the end. 17th century and finally stopped only in the reign of Peter I.

Battle of Molodi 1572 The following year, the 120,000-strong Crimean-Turkish army again moved to Moscow. Near the village Young(south of Moscow, now the Chekhov district of the Moscow region) the 60,000-strong army of the governor blocked his path Mikhail Vorotynsky. The battle lasted several days, many Crimean commanders were killed, including the son and grandson of the khan. The Crimeans retreated. The victory in the Battle of Molodin saved Moscow and stopped the Crimean-Turkish aggression. The Crimean Khanate lost some of its power and was forced to abandon its claims to the Volga region - Kazan and Astrakhan. The victorious hero M. Vorotynsky was soon accused of plotting against the tsar and in 1573 died in a dungeon from torture.

The conquest of Siberia. Campaign of Yermak 1581 – 1585 Causes:

1. Russia was attracted by the natural resources of Siberia.

2. Tatars attacked the Siberian possessions of merchants Stroganovs.

The Siberian Khanate, a “splinter” of the Golden Horde hostile to Russia, occupied the territories of Western Siberia along the banks of the river. Ob, Irtysh, Tobol. The industrialists, the Stroganov brothers, received from the tsar a letter of ownership of land along the river. Kame and Chusovoy. They were engaged in salt mining (the city of Sol-Kamskaya), iron smelting, and fur trade. Siberian Khan Yediger in 1555 he recognized vassal dependence on Moscow, but his successor Khan Kuchum(†1598) tore up this agreement. A native of Bukhara, an ardent Muslim Kuchum forcibly introduced Islam into Siberia. The raids of the Siberian Tatars on the possessions of the Stroganovs became more frequent.

In 1581, the Stroganovs at their own expense equipped an expedition of Cossacks from 600 to 1,000 people, led by an experienced 50-year-old chieftain Ermak Timofeevich(Yermolay Alenin). Yermak's detachment moved to plows(boats) and was well armed with squeakers and cannons. The Tatars were mainly armed with spears and bows. Yermak occupied the capital of the Khanate, the city of Qashlyk-Isker, or Siberia(near the modern city of Tobolsk). Kuchum put up fierce resistance and Yermak found himself in a difficult position. In 1584, a government detachment arrived to help Yermak. In 1585, Yermak died in an ambush on the river. Irtysh. His campaign marked the beginning of the Russian colonization of Siberia. In 1585 the Russians founded prison(fortress) Tyumen, in 1587 - Tobolsk, which became the Russian center of Siberia. The development of Siberian natural resources began. The local population was overlaid with yasak. In 1598 the governor Voeikov defeated Kuchum's army and captured his sons and eight wives. "Kuchum's children" and their wives were sent to Moscow and graciously received by Tsar Boris Godunov. Kuchum fled to the Nogai steppes and was killed there around 1598.

Western direction of Russia's foreign policy.

Livonian War (1558–1583). Causes wars:

1. Russia's desire to go to the Baltic, get seaports and trade directly with Europe.

2. Acquisition of new economically developed lands.

Cause for war: Delay by the Livonian Order of 123 Western specialists invited to serve in Russia and non-payment of tribute by the Livonian Order for the city of Yuryev (Derpt, or Tartu) over the past 50 years.

In the 1550s, there was an opportune moment for an attack. Livonia weakened, did not have a single government and consisted of three independent structures - the Livonian Order, the Catholic Church and self-governing cities. The king was a supporter of the war for the Baltic. His advisers from the Chosen Rada, in particular A. Adashev, advocated a war with the Crimea and access to the Black Sea. The point of view of Ivan IV prevailed.

The first stage of the Livonian War (1558–1561) Russian troops took Narva, Dorpat, Marienburg, advanced on Revel (Tallinn, or Kolyvan). In 1560 the Order was crushed. Residence of the Master of the Order - castle fellin was taken, and the Master of Landmeister himself wilhelm background Furstenberg was captured and exiled to the city of Lyubim near Yaroslavl, where he lived the rest of his life. The order ceased to exist. Now Russia is faced with three powers - Poland, Denmark and Sweden, who have claimed the rights to the Livonian lands. The war dragged on.

Second stage of the Livonian War (1561–1578) . The betrayal of Andrei Kurbsky. In 1563, the tsar personally led a 60,000-strong army to the city of Polotsk and took it. Ivan concluded a truce, began negotiations with the Poles about marrying the sister of Sigismund-August - Catherine. Negotiations failed, the war resumed. In 1564 the Russians were defeated by the Lithuanians near Polotsk, Orsha and on the river. Ole. Ivan IV suspected everyone of treason and unleashed terror.

Governor Prince Andrey Kurbsky had a secret correspondence with the Polish-Lithuanian king and had long been plotting to escape. In 1564, he fled to Lithuania, where he lived until his death in 1583. In his letters to Ivan the Terrible, Kurbsky accused the “fierce autocrat” of tyranny, blood drinking and senseless executions: “Why, tsar, governor, given to you by God to fight enemies betrayed to various executions? “You closed the Russian kingdom, as if in a hellish stronghold”; committed "the devastation of the earth with your Khemushniks" ("Kromeshniks" - guardsmen). Kurbsky advocated a limited monarchy, his political ideal was the activity of the Chosen Rada. To govern the state, in his opinion, it is necessary to involve "wise advisers" and "people of the people." In response letters filled with profanity addressed to Kurbsky, Ivan IV proclaimed: “Russian autocrats from the beginning themselves own their kingdoms, and not the boyars and nobles. And I am free to pay my lackeys, but they are free to execute ... ". The king believed that he was God's chosen one, his autocratic power should not be limited by any laws. The highest court is the monarch himself, and all subjects are serfs, whose life the sovereign could control autocratically.

AT 1569 in Lublin, Poland and Lithuania concluded LYupancake union and united in the state Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth(Polish Rzeczpospolita - republic) - gentry(noble) republic, where the king was chosen by the nobility - nobility. In 1576, a protege of Turkey, a talented commander, a 43-year-old Transylvanian governor, was elected king of the Commonwealth Sté fan Bató riy (1533–1586).

In 1570, Ivan IV created a vassal puppet “Kingdom of Livonia”. The king made a Danish prince his king Magnus, marrying him to his 13-year-old niece Maria, daughter of the executed Vladimir Staritsky. The last major success of the Russian troops was the capture of the Polish part of Livonia in 1577.

Ivan IV and Elizabeth I Tudor. Ivan the Terrible was looking for rapprochement with England and hoped for the supply of English weapons. The king made a marriage proposal to the English Queen Elizabeth I and even planned to emigrate to England. Elizabeth told the next applicant that she decided to remain a virgin, because she was engaged to her nation. Ivan IV flew into a rage, canceled benefits for English merchants and expelled them from Russia. In a letter to Elizabeth in 1570, the tsar openly insulted the queen, calling her a “vulgar girl” (that is, an ordinary commoner). Ivan IV wrote: “And we hoped that you were the empress in your state and ruled by yourself ... Even if you have people who rule past you, and not only people, but also merchant men ... And you stay in your girlish rank, like there is a vulgar girl ".

Third stage of the Livonian War (1579–1583) Stefan Bathory, in alliance with the Swedes, retook Polotsk in 1579, in 1581–1582. laid siege to Pskov. Defenders of Pskov, led by the prince Ivan Shuisky for 5 months of the siege, 31 assaults were repelled. Thanks to the feat of Pskov, the Poles were stopped. In 1582, in Zapolsky Pit, Russia and the Commonwealth signed Yam-Zapolsky truce while maintaining the old borders. In 1583 by Plus Truce with Sweden, Russia lost the fortresses of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela (Kexholm, now Priozersk, Leningrad Region), retaining part of the Baltic coast with the mouth of the Neva.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Livonian War .

1. Incorrect assessment by Ivan IV of the balance of power in the Baltic states.

2. The diversion of troops to repel the Crimean raids.

3. The backwardness of the Russian economy, not capable of many years of war.

4. The weakening of Russia due to the oprichnina terror of Ivan IV.

Oprichnina1565–1572

Oprichnina – a special order of government, a system of repressive measures aimed at weakening the boyars, who were in opposition to Ivan IV.

Reasons for oprichnina. 1. Ivan IV sought to subdue the boyars, to strengthen autocratic power.

3. Features of the character and psyche of the king. Ivan IV, a manic-suspicious man, suspected everyone of treason.

4. Death in 1560 of the tsar's beloved wife, Anastasia. Ivan IV suspected Adashev and Sylvester that they "killed" the queen. (Studies of her remains in 2000 showed the presence of mercury).

5. Betrayal and flight to Lithuania Andrey Kurbsky.

6. Disagreements on foreign policy issues. Ivan IV advocated a war with Livonia, and the Chosen Rada - for the fight against the Crimea.

7. Different ideas about the ways of centralization of the state. The elected council offered the path of gradual transformations, Ivan IV sought to speed up the processes of centralization, to immediately achieve unlimited power. This led the king to terror.

Fall of the Chosen One. Ivan IV suspected members of the Chosen Rada of treason in connection with the events of 1533, when, during an illness, the tsar, thinking he was dying, appointed his newborn son as heir Dmitry. Many boyars (except for Vorotynsky and Viskovaty) did not want to swear allegiance to the baby "diaper". Adashev and Sylvester intended after the death of the king to enthrone his cousin - Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky. Ivan IV considered their actions a betrayal. The king recovered, but the little heir drowned in the river. Sheksna during a pilgrimage to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. The nanny, leaving the boat, dropped him into the water. The next son, Ivan, became the heir. The tsar accused the boyars: “like Herod, they wanted to destroy the infant, to deprive him of this light by death.”

Adashev was accused of treason, exiled to Livonia, and in 1561 died in prison (possibly committed suicide). Macarius died in 1563, Sylvester asked the king to let him go to rest in the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, where he died in 1566 as a simple monk under the name Spiridon. Kurbsky fled to Lithuania in 1564, Viskovaty was executed in 1670, Vorotynsky died of torture in 1573.

The beginning of the oprichnina. At the end of 1564, after another quarrel with the boyars, Ivan IV took the treasury and left for his residence - Alexandrovskaya(to Alexandrov) settlement(now the city of Aleksandrov, Vladimir region). In January 1565, Ivan IV sent two letters to Moscow. In the first - addressed to the boyars - he, not wanting to "endure their treacherous deeds", announced his decision to leave the throne. The second letter informed ordinary townspeople that the king "has no anger at them and disgrace ... no." Ivan, trying to push ordinary people against the boyars, achieved his goal. Ordinary people demanded that the boyars persuade the tsar to return to the throne, threatening that otherwise the “state villains and traitors” would themselves be “consumed”. A delegation of boyars and clergy went to Alexandrov Sloboda. This is what the king needed. After much persuasion, Ivan IV agreed to return to the throne under two conditions:

1. The tsar received unlimited power, the right to execute anyone without consulting the Boyar Duma (although he had such a right before).

2. The country was divided into Oprichnina(personal property of the king) and Zemshchina.

Zemshchina was ruled by the Boyar Duma and the government headed by Ivan Viskovaty. A huge tax of 100 thousand rubles was imposed on the Zemshchina to establish an oprichnina army.

Oprichnina (from the word " besides"-" except ", the so-called special specific land ownership) became a powerful military punitive machine in the hands of the king. Oprichnina headed Malyuta Skuratov(Grigory Skuratov-Belsky) († 1573) and Vasily Gryaznoy(Filthy). An “oprichny court” and a 5,000-strong oprichny army were created, organized like a monastic brotherhood. The "abbot" was considered the king himself. The guardsmen wore black monastic robes, a dog's head and a broom were attached to the saddle as a sign of readiness to gnaw and sweep treason. The tsar, like the guardsmen, wore monastic robes and black cockle(pointed hood). Ivan considered the guardsmen to be a righteous force fulfilling the will of the tsar and God.

Oprichny terror. Returning to Moscow, Ivan IV unleashed the oprichnina terror. He executed two Shuiskys, Khovrins and other boyars "for relations with Kurbsky." The tsar evicted the boyars from the Oprichnina to the Zemshchina. More than 100 boyar families were evicted to Kazan with land confiscation. In 1569 Ivan the Terrible forced his cousin Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky take poison with his wife and daughter. Metropolitan who opposed the oprichnina Philip (Kolychev, 1507–1569) was exiled to Tver Otroch Monastery. From the monastery, Philip sent accusatory letters to the tsar (“Filkin’s letters,” as Ivan the Terrible called them contemptuously). Philip was strangled in the monastery by Malyuta Skuratov. In 1566, at the Zemsky Sobor, the boyar I. Fedorov and his supporters accused the king of being insane. They were killed. All famous Russian commanders were executed, including heroes of the capture of Kazan - Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky and Ivan Vyrodkov.

Winter 1569–1570 Ivan the Terrible made a trip to Novgorod, accusing the Novgorodians of treason and the intention to retreat to Lithuania. Along the way, the guardsmen defeated the cities of Klin, Tver, Torzhok. Repressions in Novgorod lasted 40 days. People were drowned in Volkhov, several hundred a day. Entire families were destroyed "under the root" - the head of the family, his wife and children were tied together with ropes and drowned in the hole. Of the 30 thousand Novgorodians, from 3 to 10 thousand died (according to other sources - from 10 to 15 thousand). Thousands of carts with stolen property accompanied the king. Reprisals befell Narva, Ivan-gorod, Pskov.

In 1670, in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible staged a fierce execution of 300 people, including a member of the Chosen Rada Ivan Viskovaty. The tsar, Malyuta Skuratov and other guardsmen stabbed people with lances and flogged their heads. Oprichniki got a taste of violence, sought out enemies, denounced the innocent in order to take possession of their property. They began to report on each other, to fight for a place of honor near the king, for land and privileges. By order of the king, a prominent guardsman was stabbed to death by his son Alexey Basmanov, princes killed A. Vyazemsky, M. Cherkassky and others. In 1573, Malyuta Skuratov died in battle in Livonia.

It is wrong to assume that the oprichnina terror was directed only against the boyars. Many ordinary people died. There was no fundamental difference in the level of nobility between Oprichnina and Zemshchina. Many prominent boyars served in Oprichnina. According to A. Yurganova, deeply religious and fanatical Ivan the Terrible was convinced of the divine origin of his power. Ivan IV built the Oprichny Palace in Moscow with bizarre architecture modeled on the biblical City of God, New Jerusalem. Believing that he was the executor of God's will on the eve of the Last Judgment, the king believed that God's righteous punishment of sinners with a painful death leads to the salvation of their souls, hellish torments have a "healing character". Oprichny executions were for the king a kind of purgatory before the Last Judgment.

One cannot think that the events that took place in Russia were something special. throughout Europe in the 16th century. the centralization of states was accompanied by cruel executions. In Spain, for example, the Catholic Inquisition was rampant and King Philip II enjoyed watching people burn at the stake. King Charles IX of France personally participated in the massacre of Protestants on St. Bartholomew's Night in 1572. Swedish King Eric XIV shed no less blood than Ivan the Terrible. Queen Elizabeth of England executed the legitimate heir to the throne, Mary Stuart and her supporters. It is curious that during the correspondence, Queen Elizabeth and Ivan IV promised to provide each other with political asylum if they had to flee their country.

The conquest of Siberia by Yermak. 1895. Artist V. Surikov

Many, when preparing for exams and when analyzing topics, do not quite well imagine the foreign policy of this or that ruler. This post analyzes the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible the way it should be done with any such topic.

Main directions

Moscow was surrounded by several states. The main directions of foreign policy were:

• Eastern direction. In the East and South-East, the Muscovite state was surrounded by the states formed during the crushing of the Golden Horde: the Siberian Khanate, Kazan, Astrakhan and Nogai Horde.
• South direction. Here Muscovy lay in wait for another hostile state - the Crimean Khanate. The situation was complicated by the fact that this khanate became a vassal of Turkey (Ottoman Empire; Ports). And the Ottomans always helped the Crimea if someone attacked it.
• Western direction. Here were the states of Lithuania and Poland, which in 1569 united into one state under the Union of Lublin - the Commonwealth. Also, the Livonian Order and Sweden blocked the road to the Baltic.

Main objectives of foreign policy

• The task was to absorb the fragments of the Golden Horde, since these khanates constantly attacked the Russian border, took people into captivity, and caused damage to the economy of the border lands.
• The task of creating a defensive system of fortresses is a security line to repel the raids of the Crimean Tatars.
• The task of reunification with the old Russian lands: Galician, Kyiv, Chernihiv, etc.
• The task of recapturing access to the Baltic Sea.

Key events

East and Southeast direction.

• 1552 - the third - now a successful campaign against the Kazan Khanate and its annexation to the Muscovite state.
• 1556 - a successful campaign against the Astrakhan Khanate and its peaceful annexation. Astrakhan residents before the arrival of the Russians voluntarily joined Moscow.
• 1557 - the accession of the Nogai Horde.
• Campaigns of Ermak Timofeevich (hired by the industrialists Stroanovs) to annex the Siberian Khanate.

South direction.

Creation of a security line against the raids of the Crimean Tatars. Forests were cut down, watchtowers were built to counter the Tatar cavalry.

Western direction.

Livonian War 1558 - 1583

Causes: the need for access to the Baltic Sea for trade with the countries of Western Europe. This was necessary because Arkhangelsk froze in winter and navigation was impossible.

Occasion: The Livonian Order did not pay tribute for the city of Derpt and did not let the nobles sent by Ivan the Terrible to study in Europe through their territory.

Russian gunners in the battle near Venden (Cesis) during the Livonian War. Artist V.A. Nechaev.

Course of events:

• The first period of the war from 1558 to 1569 was successful for Muscovy. During the first period, the Livonian Order as a state was destroyed, the Russians went to the ports in the Baltic. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united to form the Commonwealth.
• The second period of the war from 1569 to 1583 was unsuccessful. For the lands of the Livonian Order, which ceased to exist, the Commonwealth and Sweden entered the struggle. As a result, the troops of Stefan Batory (the Polish king) managed to defeat the Russian armies and besiege Pskov. Only the heroic defense of Pskov contributed to the conclusion of a peace treaty with the Commonwealth.

The results of the war:

• In 1582, the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded with Poland, according to which the Smolensk and Seversk lands retreated to it.
• In 1583, the Plyussky truce was concluded with Sweden, according to which the Baltic lands went to her.

The results of the foreign policy of Ivan 4

On the one hand, the Muscovite state successfully pursued a policy in the East. Its territory was expanded at the expense of the territories of the khanates. This influenced the social structure of the Muscovite state: the proportion of state peasants expanded, the status of which was acquired by the local population. The most distinctive peoples began to pay tribute in furs (yasak) and enrich the royal treasury.

On the other hand, the unsuccessful Western policy undermined the country's economy, coupled with the oprichnina. The miscalculations made in foreign policy will not soon make it possible either to reunite the old Russian lands or to join the Baltic States.

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

In 1533, Vasily 3 dies, passing the throne to his eldest son Ivan. Ivan Vasilievich at that time was 3 years old. Until he came of age, he could not rule on his own, so the first years of his reign are characterized by the power of his mother (Elena Glinskaya) and the boyars.

Regency of Elena Glinskaya (1533-1538)

Elena Glinskaya was 25 years old in 1533. To govern the country, Vasily 3 left the boyar council, but the actual power was in the hands of Elena Glinskaya, who ruthlessly fought against everyone who could claim power. Her favorite, Prince Ovchin-Obolensky, massacred some of the boyars of the council, and the rest did not oppose the will of Glinskaya.

Realizing that a three-year-old child on the throne is not what the country needs, and that the reign of her son Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible could be interrupted without actually starting, Elena decided to eliminate the brothers of Vasily 3 so that there would be no pretenders to the throne. Yuri Dmitrovsky was arrested and killed in prison. Andrei Staritsky was accused of treason and executed.

The reign of Elena Glinskaya, as regent of Ivan 4, was quite productive. The country has not lost its power and influence in the international arena, and an important reform has been carried out within the country. In 1535, a monetary reform took place, according to which only the king could mint coins. In total there were 3 types of money at face value:

• A penny (it depicted a rider with a spear, hence the name).
• Money - was equal to 0.5 kopecks.
• Polushka - equal to 0.25 kopecks.

In 1538 Elena Glinskaya dies. Guess. That it was a natural death is naive. A young and healthy woman dies at 30! Apparently, she was poisoned by the boyars who wanted power. This opinion is shared by most historians studying the era of Ivan the Terrible.

Boyar rule (1538-1547)

At the age of 8, Prince Ivan Vasilyevich was left an orphan. Since 1538, Russia passed under the rule of the boyars, who acted as guardians over the infant tsar. Here it is important to understand that the boyars were interested in personal gain, and not the country and not the young king. In 1835-1547, this was the time of a brutal massacre for the throne, where the main opposing sides were 3 clans: Shuisky, Belsky, Glinsky. The struggle for power was bloody, and all this happened in front of the child. At the same time, there was a complete decay of the foundations of statehood and insane eating of the budget: the boyars, having received all the power in their hands, and realizing that this was for 1013 years, began to line their pockets as best they could. In the best way they can demonstrate what was happening in Russia at that time, 2 sayings: “The treasury is not a miserable widow, you won’t get it” and “The pocket is dry, so the judge is deaf.”

Ivan 4 was strongly impressed by elements of boyar cruelty and permissiveness, as well as a sense of his own weakness and limited power. Of course, when the young king received the throne, there was a 180-degree turn of consciousness, and then he tried everything to prove that he was the main person in the country.

Education of Ivan the Terrible

The following factors influenced the upbringing of Ivan the Terrible:

• Early loss of parents. There were also practically no close relatives. Therefore, there really were no people who would strive to give the child the right upbringing.
• The power of the boyars. From the earliest years, Ivan Vasilyevich saw the strength of the boyars, saw their antics, rudeness, drunkenness, the struggle for power, and so on. Everything that a child cannot see, he not only saw, but also took part in it.
• Church Literature. The archbishop, and later the metropolitan, Macarius had a great influence on the future king. Thanks to this man, Ivan 4 studied church literature, being carried away by moments about the fullness of royal power.

In the upbringing of Ivan, the contradictions between word and deed played a big role. For example, in all the books and speeches of Macarius, they talked about the fullness of royal power, about its divine origin, but in reality, every day the child had to deal with the arbitrariness of the boyars, who did not even feed him dinner every evening. Or another example. Ivan 4, as a virgin king, was always taken to meetings, meetings with ambassadors and other state affairs. There he was treated like a king. The child was seated on the throne, everyone bowed at his feet, talked about admiration for his power. But everything changed as soon as the official part ended and the king returned to his chambers. Here there were no more bows, but there was the boyars' harshness, their rudeness, sometimes even insulting the child. And such contradictions were everywhere. When a child grows up in an atmosphere, when one thing is said and another is done, it breaks all patterns and affects the psyche. This eventually happened, because in such an atmosphere, how can an orphan know what is good and what is bad?

Ivan loved to read and by the age of 10 he could quote many passages from it. He took part in church services, sometimes even participated in them as a chorister. He played chess quite well, composed music, knew how to write beautifully, and often used folk sayings in his speech. That is, the child was absolutely talented, and with parental upbringing and love, he could become a full-fledged personality. But in the absence of the latter, and with constant contradictions, the reverse side began to appear in it. Historians write that at the age of 12, the king threw cats and dogs from the roofs of the towers. At the age of 13, Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible ordered the dogs to tear Andrei Shuisky, who, drunk and in dirty clothes, lay down on the bed of the late Vasily 3.

Independent government

Crowning the kingdom

On January 16, 1547, the independent reign of Ivan the Terrible began. The 17-year-old youth was crowned king by Metropolitan Macarius. For the first time, the Grand Duke of Russia was named tsar. Therefore, we can say without exaggeration that Ivan 4 is the first Russian tsar. The coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The cap of Monomakh was placed on the head of Ivan 4 Vasilyevich. Monomakh's Cap and the Title of "Tsar" Russia became the successor to the Byzantine Empire, and the tsar thus towered over the rest of his subjects, including the governors. The population perceived the new title as a symbol of unlimited power, since not only the rulers of Byzantium, but also the rulers of the Golden Horde were called kings.

The official title of Ivan the Terrible after the coronation - Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia.

Immediately after the beginning of independent rule, the king married. On February 3, 1947, Ivan the Terrible married Anastasia Zakharyina (Romanova). This is an important event, since soon the Romanovs will form a new ruling dynasty, and the marriage of Anastasia to Ivan on February 3 will be the basis for this.

The first shock of the autocrat

Having received power, without a regency council, Ivan 4 decided that this was the end of his torment, and now he is really the main person in the country with absolute power over others. The reality was different, and soon the young man realized this. The summer of 1547 turned out to be dry, and on June 21 a strong storm broke out. One of the churches caught fire, and because of the strong wind, the fire quickly spread throughout wooden Moscow. The fires continued on June 21-29.

As a result, 80,000 people in the capital were left homeless. Popular indignation was directed at the Glinskys, who were accused of witchcraft and kindling a fire. When the mad crowd raised an uprising in Moscow in 1547 and came to the tsar in the village of Vorobyevo, where the tsar and the metropolitan were hiding from the fires, Ivan the Terrible for the first time saw the uprising and the power of the mad crowd.

Fear has entered into my soul, and trembling into my bones, and my spirit has humbled itself.

Ivan 4 Vasilyevich

Once again, a contradiction happened - the king was sure of the limitlessness of his power, but he saw the power of nature that caused the fire, the power of people who raised an uprising.

Government system

The system of government in Russia under the reign of Ivan the Terrible must be divided into 2 stages:

• The period after the reforms of the Chosen Rada.
• Oprichnina period.

After the reforms, the management system can be graphically depicted as follows.

During the Oprichnina period, the system was different.

A unique precedent was created when there were 2 systems of government in the state at the same time. At the same time, Ivan 4 retained the title of king in each of these branches of government.

Domestic politics

The reign of Ivan the Terrible in terms of internal government of the country is divided into the stage of reforms of the Chosen Rada and the oprichnina. Moreover, these systems of government were fundamentally different from each other. All the work of the Rada was reduced to the fact that the power should be with the tsar, but in its implementation he should rely on the boyars. The oprichnina concentrated all power in the hands of the tsar and his system of government, and relegated the boyars to the background.

During the time of Ivan the Terrible, great changes took place in Russia. The following areas have been reformed:

• Ordering the law. The Sudebnik of 1550 was adopted.
• Local government. The feeding system was finally abolished, when the boyars lined their pockets locally, and did not solve the problems of the region. As a result, the local nobility got more power in their hands, and Moscow got a more successful tax collection system.
• Central administration. A system of "Orders" has been implemented, which streamlined power. In total, more than 10 orders were created, which covered all areas of the state's domestic policy.
• Army. A regular army was created, which was based on archers, gunners and Cossacks.

The desire to strengthen his power, as well as failures in the Livonian War, led to the fact that Ivan the Terrible creates Oprichnina (1565-1572). You can read more about this topic on our website, but for a general understanding, it is important to note that as a result of it, the state actually went bankrupt. An increase in taxes and the development of Siberia began, as steps that could attract additional money to the treasury.

Foreign policy

By the beginning of the independent reign of Ivan 4, Russia had significantly lost its political status, since 11 years of boyar rule, when they cared not about the country, but about their own wallet, had an effect. The table below shows the main directions of Ivan the Terrible's foreign policy and the key tasks in each direction.

East direction

Here the maximum successes were achieved, although everything did not start in the best way. In 1547 and 1549 military campaigns against Kazan were organized. Both of these campaigns ended in failure. But in 1552 the city managed to take. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was annexed, and in 1581 Yermak's campaign to Siberia began.

South direction

Campaigns to the Crimea were undertaken, but they were unsuccessful. The largest campaign took place in 1559. The proof that the campaigns were unsuccessful is in 1771 and in 1572 the Crimean Khanate carried out raids on the young territories of Russia.

Western direction

To solve problems on the western borders of Russia in 1558, Ivan the Terrible begins the Livonian War. Until a certain time, it seemed that they could end in success, but the first local failures in the war broke the Russian tsar. Blaming everyone around for the defeats, he started the Oprichnina, which actually ruined the country and made it incompetent. As a result of the war:

• In 1582, peace was signed with Poland. Russia lost Livonia and Polotsk.
• In 1583 peace was signed with Sweden. Russia lost cities: Narva, Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye.

The results of the reign of Ivan 4

The results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible can be characterized as contradictory. On the one hand, there are indisputable signs of greatness - Russia has expanded to enormous proportions, gaining access to the Baltic and Caspian Seas. On the other hand, the country was economically in a deplorable position, and this despite the addition of new territories.

Map

Map of Russia towards the end of the 16th century

Comparison of Ivan 4 and Peter 1

Russian history is amazing - Ivan the Terrible is portrayed as a tyrant, usurper and just a sick person, and Peter 1 is a great reformer, the founder of "modern Russia". In fact, these two rulers are very similar to each other.

Upbringing . Ivan the Terrible lost his parents early, and his upbringing went by itself - he did what he wanted. Peter 1 did not like to study, but he liked to study the army. The child was not touched - he did what he wanted.

Boyars. Both rulers grew up during a period of fierce boyar strife for the throne, when a lot of blood was shed. Hence the hatred of both for the nobility, and hence the approach of people without a family!

Habits. Today they are trying to denigrate Ivan 4, saying that he was almost an alcoholic, but the truth is that this fully suits Peter. Let me remind you that it was Peter who created “the most joking and most drunken cathedral.”

The murder of a son. Ivan is accused of killing his son (although it has already been proven that there was no murder, and his son was poisoned), but Peter 1 also pronounced a death sentence on his son. Moreover, he tortured him and Alexei died from torture in prison.

Expansion of territories. During the reign of both Russia significantly expanded territorially.

Economy . Both rulers brought the country to a complete decline, when the economy was in a terrible state. By the way, both rulers loved taxes and actively used them to fill the budget.

Atrocities. With Ivan the Terrible, everything is clear - a tyrant and a murderer - that's what official history calls him, accusing the tsar of atrocities against ordinary citizens. But Peter 1 was of a similar stock - he beat people with sticks, personally tortured and killed archers for rebellion. Suffice it to say that during the reign of Peter the population of Russia decreased by more than 20%. And this is taking into account the capture of new territories.

There are many similarities between these two people. Therefore, if you praise one and demonize the other, it may make sense to reconsider your views on history.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

Strengthening state power, Ivan IV at the same time solved the major foreign policy tasks facing the Russian state. The strengthening of the state as a result of the reforms of the mid-1950s allowed Ivan IV to resolve the so-called "Kazan" issue. Kazan khans raided Russia, harmed the eastern trade of Russian merchants. Two campaigns of Russian troops against Kazan were unsuccessful.

In 1551, Ivan IV began preparations for the decisive trip to Kazan. The Sviyazhsk fortress, which played the role of a stronghold for the offensive, was built near the Sviyaga River in a month. In the summer of 1552, a huge army (about 150 thousand people) led by Ivan IV laid siege to Kazan. The attack of the Crimean Khan - an ally of Kazan - to the south of the country was repulsed, Russian troops, after a month-long siege, stormed the city. In 1556, the Nogai Horde was also liquidated. Khan Derbesh-ali fled from Astrakhan, having learned about the approach of the Russians. As a result, the Middle and Lower Volga regions were annexed to Russia. The Volga trade route, which connected the Russian state with the East, turned out to be free.

It was more difficult with Crimean Khanate to whom Russia paid tribute. They could not subdue it (especially since it was subordinate to Turkey), and the Crimeans staged constant raids on Russia, plundered and ruined it, and drove the population into captivity. The largest campaigns of the Crimean horde took place in 1555, 1558, 1571. During one of the most successful campaigns in 1571, they burned Moscow and took about 150 thousand people into captivity. In 1572, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey tried to repeat the raid, but suffered a crushing defeat at Molodi from the governors of princes Mikhail Vorotynsky and Dmitry Khvorostinin. In addition, Moscow diplomacy in 1569 and 1571 managed to frustrate the plans of the Turkish Sultan Selim II to organize campaigns in the Volga region. The state had to keep patrol detachments, build fortresses so that the Tatars would not attack by surprise. This somewhat restrained the raids of the Crimean Murzas.

Thus, the main result of foreign policy in the south was the generally successful containment of Tatar-Turkish aggression.

In the middle of the XVI century. The Russian state is strengthening its international prestige, maintaining relations with Sweden, Denmark, the German Empire and the Italian city-states. Embassies from India and Iran visited Russia, from 1553 Ivan IV began to pay great attention to relations with England.

Russia's neighbor in the east became Siberian Khanate. The penetration of Russian merchants-entrepreneurs into Siberia began. In 1581, at the expense of wealthy merchants, the Stroganovs, a military expedition of Cossacks was equipped under the leadership of Yermak. In 1582, after a stubborn assault, the Cossacks took the main fortification of the Siberian Khan Kuchum - Kashlyk (on the Tobol River). Later, Kuchum attacked the Cossacks at night. Yermak is dead. But the fate of the khanate was already a foregone conclusion: a few years later, Kuchum suffered a final defeat. The peoples of Western Siberia were annexed to Russia. The development of a vast territory began.

Successes in the East gave Grozny reason to believe that things would go the same way in the West. Part of the Baltic lands was occupied by the Livonian Order, a German state that had already weakened. Ivan dreamed of winning a convenient outlet to the Baltic Sea in order to improve trade and facilitate relations with Europe. In 1558, under the pretext of non-payment of tribute, the Russians began a war that was called the Livonian. The Livonian War, which lasted 25 years, proved to be extremely debilitating for Russia. The beginning was marked by brilliant victories of Russian weapons. Narva, Yuriev and other cities were taken. However, the international situation was not taken into account. Lithuania, Poland, Sweden, Germany, Denmark did not want to put up with Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. The Polish-Lithuanian state, then Sweden and Denmark enter the struggle for the "Livonian inheritance". This, as well as Ivan's change of attitude towards the "elected Rada", his concern about how to "root out sedition" of the boyars led to the defeat in 1564 from the Poles. Fearing execution, the Russian commander Andrei Kurbsky fled to Lithuania and went over to the side of the enemy. The war took on a protracted and difficult character. The raids of the Crimean Khan became more frequent. Russia did not have the strength to continue the war.

In 1582, the Yam-Zapolsky truce between Russia and the Commonwealth was concluded, according to which Russia lost Polotsk and conquered Livonia, but regained a number of cities captured by the Poles. In 1583 a truce was concluded with Sweden. Narva and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, except for the mouth of the Neva River, passed to Sweden.

As a result of the Livonian War, Russia was not only unable to go to the sea, but also lost a lot of its ancestral lands in the Baltic. The reasons for the defeat were explained by the unpreparedness of the country for a long war, the poor equipment of the Russian army. At the same time, the armies of Western states equipped according to the European model acted as opponents of the Russian army. Russia found itself in international isolation. Oprichnina and the internal crisis in the country further weakened her strength. The significance of this war for the history of Russia was that the Livonian Order ceased to exist. Access to the Baltic Sea became the main issue of Russian foreign policy in the subsequent period.