The subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (WE ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS IS TO ARINA AND NOT TO US)

Morphology in translation from Greek means literally "the doctrine of form." This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of a word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The well-known linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.

A word as a grammatical unit is a set of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text, it appears in a specific word form. Yes, the word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms of the singular and 6 case forms of the plural. In the examples I was given an interesting book and I was given interesting books the selected word forms differ in particular grammatical meanings - unit values. and many others. numbers, while the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. lexeme is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning. The whole set of word forms included in this lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text, constructing an utterance, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the features of the functioning of grammatical forms, to have an idea about the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.

That's why subject of morphology is an the doctrine of parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, species, mood, tense, person, pledge),vocabulary system.

Morphology tasks.

Determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

Determine which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

correlate them with the characteristics of the objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal tools involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (SRYa under the editorship of Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

· Proper grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> a complete description of the grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - the study of grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Gram.variants in various spheres of life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (to teach to speak or write essays).

· Functional aspect. Describes how the language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder of Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

grammatical (morphological) form,

the grammatical meaning

The morphological paradigm

parts of speech.

Grammar is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by separate elements, or with the help of other words in a sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

1. From the question, we can determine that this word form names an object in general.

2. From the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. Interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, this is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one subject is meant.

6. Allows phrases like a white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very house (belongs to the class of words with syntactic functions of a noun)

7. Allows the phrase house that I built, and does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimate)

8. Allows a phrase white house, and does not allow white house or house on the mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows a phrase yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows a phrase admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental)

11. Allows a phrase

a wonderful house, but does not allow a wonderful house

(subordinating creative)

Grammatical meanings are additional in relation to lexical ones, but due to enviable regularity they can be comprehended separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The totality of all possible word forms of one particular word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, oh brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, oh brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of the same type of means, where it is opposed to other forms. (unit and plural, for example)

Grammatical form- the unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

grammatical meaning- generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of the grammatical category opposed to each other. In the word forms of the changed parts of speech, both the general grammatical meaning and particular morphological meanings are expressed. For unchangeable parts of speech, only a common grammatical (categorical) meaning is characteristic. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), sign of sign ( hospitable in Moscow). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm the totality of all forms of the modified word is called. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech is made up of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes the number and case paradigms.

The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms according to their grammatical content are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. It is this definition of the grammatical category that is accepted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of the grammatical category. This is a closed system.

Need to distinguish inflectional and non-inflective (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflective:

This is necessary in order to be able to correctly form forms. So, for example, the form I will defend formed from a perfective verb protect, the form I protect - from imperfective verb protect.

Grammar category- a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposed rows. subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed system of inflection, it is fundamental to distinguish between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their distinction. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. The grammatical category of animateness/inanimateness.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The core nature of this group of words is provided by unique semantic features: any reality can be a denotation of a noun. For example:

Material objects: house, pen.

・Signs: blue.

Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Motion: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: conformity.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical object (objectivity), performs the syntactic function of the subject and object and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and non-inflectional categories of gender and animation-inanimateness. The noun always answers the question who? what? You need to ask a question to the initial form of the word.

Initial the form of the noun is the form of the nominative case, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have the form of units. hours - form them. case pl. numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition: performance of figure skaters, Pushkin's fairy tales.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be determined by an adjective and a participle: a cold winter, a past holiday.

Division of nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animation-inanimateness with the concept of living-inanimate. So, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm- nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of dead people - dead man, deceased- are considered animate, and only a noun dead body- inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animated nouns usually refer to living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specifics of declension and represent a special category in relation to the gender category, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the creatures called:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine and the singular) coincides with the genitive form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) - students, student, horses.
No one? (rod.pad.) - students, student, horses. Who am I waiting for? Apprentice.

Animated nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of such objects that for some reason seem to be alive. For example: dressing up dolls, flying a kite.

Inanimate:

Inanimate nouns have the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) the same as the nominative form.
See what? (win.fall.) - airplanes, airplane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (im. pad.) - airplanes, airplane.

Inanimate nouns, used in a figurative sense, get the meaning of a person and become animated: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numbers ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate ones: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial).

Conclusion: in order to correctly determine the animate / inanimate noun, the word must be considered in the context of the sentence.

Animate and inanimate nouns
animated	Inanimate
names of living things	names of inanimate objects
	plant names
names of gods	names of the planets by the names of the gods
names of mythical creatures
names of figures in games
names of toys, mechanisms, images of a person
dead man, deceased	dead body
names of microorganisms
image, character

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. The grammatical category of the number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexico-grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

Allocate such lexical and grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, real, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories- semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of the meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of the number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many others. number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dismembered set of objects. This is an inflectional category covering all inflected nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a nuclear group. Abstract, material and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in terms of the category of number.

Pay attention: lexically non-identical forms of number: choice, election. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heaven

· pain / pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a single number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, cereals, years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “Especially brightly negative, devoid of a direct relation to number, account, the function of the singular appears in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general for designations abstract concepts" (military, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses closed) (People walked with a handkerchief tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite items (wood firewood, sledge, sled);

3. Mass, substance, material in its totality (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residues from any process: bran, sawdust, leftovers;

6. Places and localities (compacts, in the heads, settlements, as well as proper names of Bronnitsy);

7. Time interval (day, twilight, holidays);

8. A complex action, a state consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, tricks);

9. Games (hide and seek, blunders, catch-ups);

10. Ceremonies and holidays (christenings, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (to live in the dark, to be strong, in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (envy is taken, for joy).

All nouns are singular. h. have the category of gender, i.e. belong to one of 3 genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -а, -я in the form im. p. units numbers are usually feminine (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If the initial form has the ending -o, -e, then the noun belongs to the middle gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domishche (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of m. kind).

A small group of words belongs to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have the singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sled, gate, ink) are not distributed by genus.

generic couple

generic couple- this is a paired opposition of nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of the biological sex.

Pairs are distinguished:

1. suppletive tribal couples (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional- having a common basis and differing in endings (spouse - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexander).

If the words included in the generic pair are the names of animals, then the type of animals can be indicated both by the word m. of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys), and by the word f. genus (cats, sheep, goats).

Common nouns

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), nouns are also distinguished generic, by meaning they correspond to both male and female persons, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech, you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech, for the speech characterization of characters, when referring to a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. A pair emerged in professional use nurse - nurse.

generic options

Many nouns are used in SRY both in the form of m and in the form of f. kind.

-​ aviary - aviary (more common form 1);

- giraffe - giraffe (more common form 1);

- clip - clip (literary is 1 form);

- reprise - reprise (more commonly used form 2).

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, aspect), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of components, categories are distinguished, which are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equipotent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do7, and imperfective verbs, in addition to the question What to do7, in some speech situations also answer the question What to do7: - What did this boy do wrong7 What did he do7- He tore apples in someone else's garden.

Equivalent opposition is formed by some personal masculine and feminine nouns: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone , to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives are inflectional, the category of case of nouns, the category of person,

declension, tense in the verb, etc. It is customary to classify the category of gender in nouns, aspect in the verb Some kate! Orias turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such is, for example, the category of number in nouns.

AV Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories 8.

Note. E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out as a special type interpretative morphological categories, “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense<>as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part9. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, the opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative forms is organized. nogo cases indirect cases.

Parts of speech in Russian and principles of their selection. The question of the status of modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia in the system of parts of speech. Phenomena of transitivity in the system of parts of speech.

Parts of speech are grammatical classes of words characterized by a combination of the following features: 1) the presence of a generalized meaning, abstracted from the lexical and morphological meanings of all words of a given class; 2) a complex of certain morphological categories; 3) a common system (identical organization) of paradigms; and 4) a commonality of basic syntactic functions.

Note. The identical organization of paradigms (full and private) is not violated by the absence of private paradigms or separate forms for some words or groups of words belonging to one or another part of speech. Thus, the absence of short forms in a number of adjective private paradigms or the absence of forms in intransitive verbs suffer. participles does not bring words with such incomplete paradigms beyond such parts of speech as adjective and verb.

In modern Russian, there are ten parts of speech: 1) a noun; 2) pronoun-noun; 3) adjective; 4) numeral; 5) adverb; 6) verb; 7) pretext; 8) union; 9) particles; 10) interjection.

The first six parts of speech are significant (full-valued or independent) words, i.e. lexically independent words that name objects and signs or point to them, and are able to function as members of a sentence. Prepositions, unions and particles are auxiliary, i.e. lexically non-independent, words that serve to express various syntactic relations (prepositions and unions), as well as to form analytical forms or to express the syntactic and modal meanings of a sentence (particle). Interjections constitute a special group of words: they do not name anything and serve to express an emotional attitude and subjective assessments.

Inside significant words, crossing their main grammatical division into parts of speech, there is a division of words, firstly, into proper-significant (non-indicative words) and pronominal (indicative words) and, secondly, into uncountable and countable. Demonstrative (pronominal) words include words that do not name an object or feature, but only point to it, including words that indicate quantity and quantitative feature, for example: I, you, he; that, such, some; there, there; as much as. Counting words include words that name the number of objects (numerals), a sign by place in a counted series (ordinal adjectives), quantitative characteristics (adverbs), for example: five, two, sixth, three times, two. There are no verbs among demonstratives or counting words.

Among the significant parts of speech, two groups are distinguished: the main parts of speech, which include the noun, adjective, verb and adverb, and the non-basic parts of speech, which include the pronoun-noun and numeral. The main parts of speech have the whole complex of features that characterize the part of speech as a special grammatical class of words. The composition of the words included in these parts of speech is constantly replenished due to neoplasms and borrowed words. From the side of meaning, the main parts of speech are characterized by the following oppositions:

1) a noun as naming an object (substance) is opposed to all other parts of speech - an adjective, an adverb and a verb as naming an attribute of an object or another attribute;

2) within the parts of speech naming the attribute, the adjective and adverb naming the non-procedural attribute are opposed to the verb naming the procedural attribute;

3) the parts of speech that name the attribute are also opposed to each other depending on whether they name the attribute of only the object (verb, adjective) or the attribute of both the object and another attribute (adverb).

The non-basic parts of speech - the pronoun-noun and the numeral - are closed, non-replenishing classes of words. The pronoun-noun has a system of morphological categories close to the noun; the difference from the noun lies in the inconsistency of the expression by the pronoun-noun of the morphological meanings of gender and number.

The numeral, in its morphological meanings and the way they are expressed, occupies an intermediate position between the noun and the adjective: the numeral is characterized by the morphological category of the case; the system of its case forms does not differ from the system of case forms of a noun or (for such words as how much, several, many, a little) from the system of adjective forms; however, the numeral does not have morphological categories of gender and number (about some exceptions. In indirect cases, the forms of the numeral differ from the forms of the adjective by incomplete agreement with the noun being defined.

Depending on the ability or inability of words to change (the formation of forms), the parts of speech of significant words are divided into changeable (all significant parts of speech, except for those adverbs that do not form forms of comparative degrees) and invariable (those adverbs that do not form forms of compare. degrees). By the nature of inflection, the changeable parts of speech are divided into inflected and conjugated. Declined parts of speech combine all names: noun, adjective, numeral and pronoun-noun; they all change in cases, that is, they decline. The conjugated part of speech is the verb; all verbs change in tenses, moods, persons and numbers (in the past tense and subjunctive inflection - by gender), i.e., they are conjugated.

Service words - prepositions, conjunctions and particles do not name objects and signs; their lexical meanings are meanings abstracted from the relations they express in the sentence. The meaning that combines service words into one or another part of speech differs from the meaning that combines significant words into one part of speech: the commonality of service words is only a functional community.

Functional words are opposed to significant words as words that, firstly, do not have morphological categories and, secondly, perform only auxiliary functions in a syntactic construction. Service words are used to connect words, sentences or parts of a sentence, and also serve to express different shades of the speaker's subjective attitude to the content of the message. Individual particles are involved in the formation of analytical forms of the word.

Parts of speech is the most general grammatical classification of words. Within each significant part of speech, lexical and grammatical categories of words are distinguished. These are such subclasses of a given part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain morphological meanings or enter into oppositions within morphological categories. Lexico-grammatical categories are, for example, in a verb - modes of action, transitive and intransitive verbs, categories of reflexive verbs, personal and impersonal verbs; in a noun - animate and inanimate nouns, collective, real, abstract and concrete, as well as proper and common nouns; in an adjective - adjectives of quality, relative (including possessive and ordinal), in an adverb - adverbs of quality and circumstantial. Many lexico-grammatical categories of words are characterized by incompleteness of paradigms. Thus, nouns belonging to the categories of material, collective and abstract are nouns only singular. h. or only many. hours (singularia or pluralia tantum), proper nouns, as a rule, are not used in plural forms. hours; relative adjectives, as a rule, cannot have comparative forms. degrees, as well as short forms; verbs belonging to the category of impersonal do not change by person.

Note. In itself, the incompleteness of the paradigm, i.e., the impossibility of forming a number of forms or individual forms of a word, cannot yet serve as a defining feature in the classification of words into lexicogrammatic categories: such incompleteness can be explained not only by the peculiarities of the lexical meanings of words, but also by their morphological structure or phonemic composition. For individual words, the incompleteness of paradigms is associated with the practical uncommonness of individual forms (for example, the forms of the genus p.

Parts of speech and lexico-grammatical categories are groupings of words. Along with this articulation, a proper morphological classification of word forms is possible (sometimes including whole words). This is a classification into morphological categories. Morphological categories are associations of morphological forms of words based on the commonality of their inflectional morphological meanings, as well as those formal means by which these meanings are expressed.

The following morphological categories are distinguished. 1) The category of forms expressing only the meaning of the case; this includes all forms (full paradigms) of noun pronouns (I, you, who, what) and numerals, except for the words one, two, both and one and a half. 2) The category of forms expressing the meanings of case and number unites all forms (full paradigms) of nouns. 3) The category of forms expressing the meanings of gender and case unites all forms (full paradigms) of the numerals two, both, one and a half. 4) The category of forms expressing the meanings of case, number and gender combines generic case forms of adjectives, valid. and full of suffering. participles and all forms (full paradigm) of the countable pronominal word one (one, one - one). 5) The category of forms expressing the meanings of gender and number combines short forms of adjectives and suffering. participles, forms past. temp. and exiled. incl. the verb, as well as all forms of the words glad, love, much, should, such, words like too big, too small, alone, alone, radёhonek, radyoshenek and words on enek, onek (twin, strict). 6) The category of forms expressing the meanings of a person and a number combines personal forms of present, bud. simple and bud. difficult times.

All of the listed categories are opposed by the category of unchangeable words and word forms that do not express the meanings of case, number, gender and person. Here all adverbs are combined, forms will compare. degrees of adjectives and adverbs, gerunds and infinitives.

Service words do not form morphological categories.

In order to state that in some language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some common meaning, that within this association there is an opposition, and that those opposed meanings have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites linguistic units on the basis of the common meaning "number". Within this association, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural is expressed by the endings -i and -nyami -and that -a.

A formal expression is a very important feature of a grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for distinguishing a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language can not exist as a grammatical one, and in another language as a lexical one. Hence, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is a conceptual category of gender and a grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category of stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, whale. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of its expression. In the Ukrainian language, as well as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category of iya, because there are formal means of expressing it here: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le regue "father", la x and Romance languages ​​are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by marked and indefinite articles. So, in particular, it der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects already known to the speaker and listener, while the same nouns with an indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some a flower is some kind of window.Similarly in English, French, Italian: definiteness is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English and French un, une, ital un, una. In Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of certainty / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but the conceptual category of certainty /. There is NOT certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some kind of book, the category of significance / ambiguity is expressed lexically (this book, like a book).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. So, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​there is a category of the grammatical class "person" and "things", in Japanese and Korean languages ​​- the category of politeness and. The language also differs in the number of opposed members within the categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - fourteen, in Tabasarai - forty sixth - forty six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological category includes the category of gender, number, case, type, tense, mode, person, to the syntactic category - the category of activity / passivity, the communicative orientation (narrative, nutritional, spontuality), rigidity / reverberation, syntactic tense and syntactic way.

Classification (word-building, derivational) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of noun gender and the category of the aspect of the verb, therefore, nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one particular gender), and verbs are distributed among three aspect groups - verbs of perfect or imperfect output or two-species.

Inflectional (relative) categories - grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classifiable, but are declined according to gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deed, great impression). Purely relational also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.

In the languages ​​of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, certainty / indefinitely, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It does not exist in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In Ukrainian, every noun has a category of gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and past tense verbs, this category is dependent on the noun with which the word classes are named. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The genus category has a formal expression. In Slavic languages ​​- ce endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for middle, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for novice, la, una for feminine genus.

The number of cases in different languages ​​is not the same. There are languages ​​in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages ​​of the world, the category of number does not match. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual and a triple. The dual was in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two are ele, etc.). Troina is found in some of the Papuan languages ​​on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages ​​​​- Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic, there were three numbers: singular, dual and plurality.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the described situation (certainty) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is typical for Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages ​​and is expressed using the articles of definitions is the English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (the last for the set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, une. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages, there are postpositive arts kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg table "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato "certain table"; village "some village" - village "a certain village"; village "yakes village" - village "pevne village".

In those languages ​​where there are no articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!), are used for this. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty:. The boy went out into the street;. On a boy came out of the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing the meaning of signification / indefiniteness is the context. As we can see, in the Ukrainian language the category of certainty / indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of its expression here.

Distinguish between ordinary, high and high degree. In some languages, there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of the highest and superlative degrees. The highest degree indicates the presence of b in the object of some quality more than in another, high - more than in all others. A positive degree means quality regardless of the degree.

Degrees of comparison have adjectives and adverbs (heavy, heavier, heavy; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o "can do", kuzhodzhik "can do more";

The degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more known - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages ​​there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. Good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

Category of time - the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves to temporally localize the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech in most languages ​​there are three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages ​​have sp. PECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the past time, before the future tense, coming in the past, vinulom toshcho).

In Slavic languages, the perfect and imperfect form are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates the achievement of the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (he made a noise, wrote). An imperfect mind does not indicate the limit of action (noises, he wrote). In the Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) of its expression.

Category of state - grammatical category of the verb, expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics, there is still no generally accepted classification of states, however, all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the object (The song is performed by students.

This is the speaker's assessment of the action as desirable, possible, supposed (assumption), etc.

Different languages ​​have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages ​​have real (represents an action as a real fact), conditional (represents an action as possible, desired, supposed, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, inducement or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, have created special forms of the conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumptions, possibilities, desirability and non-categorical assertions (German Ich w. Igawa, but translates it from the lips of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubtful "I, sumnivu.

In agglutinative languages ​​(for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I write, write, write)

The category of a person refers to concordant, inflectional. It is expressed by personal endings (I guess, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages ​​(Samoyedic, Paleo-Asiatic), the category of person is characteristic not only for verbs, but also for names in the position of the predicate. Yes, in In the Koryak language, gyolyaigym "man-I", gyolyaigyt "man-ty", gyola "man-he"; nytuigym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-he" However, there are also languages ​​in which the category of a person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and some others... Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and other languages ​​lie before them.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - the names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, too.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some prefabricated nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-sya (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, real names, names of creatures / inanimate formal indicators do not have (city. Eagle and an eagle flies, oil and a window, a crow and a crown));

3) interact with the grammatical categories associated with them. So, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to the active state), the category of case depends on the being / inanimate (in the names of creatures, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive, in the names of inanimate the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative), from persons / non-special - the category of gender (names in ru usually have the category of masculine or feminine, the names are neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have only the singular or only the plural form (Kyiv ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms contrasted within the category. If, for example, names are opposed to common names, names of creatures are opposed to inanimate names, transitive verbs are intransitive. Dies words, then inside real and collective nouns of a similar opposition. NO.

Grammatical categories are usually classified on two grounds: by the number of members that form the category, and by the nature of the relationship between them. A grammatical category cannot have less than two members. If there were only one form with any meaning, then this meaning could not be grammatical, since it would be deprived, firstly, of the relationship between the concrete and the general, and secondly, of regularity. Those categories that consist of two members are called binary. However, there are grammatical categories with a large number of members. Trinomial, for example, is the category of time. An even greater number of members contains the category of case.
The oppositions that form a grammatical category can (as in the case of phonetic oppositions) constitute an equipotent opposition, i.e., be in such relations when the members are equal. It is in such relations that word forms are found that form, for example, the category of number in nouns. There are also categories whose members constitute a privative opposition, that is, they are in such relations when one of the members can convey not only “his” attribute, but also the attribute expressed by another member. So, according to some scientists, the category of tense is “arranged” for imperfective verbs, where the past tense word forms indicate the action before the moment of speech, the future tense word forms indicate the action after this moment, and the present tense word forms can indicate the action regardless of the moment of speech . (Compare with the opposition of the secretary-secretary type, where the second member denotes only a female person, and the first one denotes both sexes.)
A feature of grammatical categories is also their ability or inability to oppose word forms of one lexeme. Let's look at some examples.
The category of number in nouns is able to oppose word forms that do not differ from each other in anything other than the meaning of the number: table - tables, road - roads, gun - guns. The tense category of verbs is capable of contrasting word forms that differ from each other not only in the meaning of time, but also in other grammatical meanings. I wrote and I will write differ from each other in the meaning of time, as well as in the meanings of gender and person. The meanings of gender and person are grammatical. Consequently, the grammatical categories of number for nouns and tense for verbs are able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme.
The nouns godfather and godfather, head and head, student and student differ in their combinational possibilities, which, being obligatory, form the gender category of nouns. However, the nouns under consideration differ not only in combinational properties, but also in content: godfather, manager, student indicate a male person; godfather, manager, student - on a female person. Characterization by gender is not mandatory for nouns. Nor is it regular: a noun with the meaning of a person or an animal does not always have a correlate with the meaning of the opposite sex. (How to form female names in Russian from insolent or wrestler?) Consequently, the gender category of nouns is not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme. This category is always combined with such characteristics that are not grammatical and form the opposition of lexemes.
Grammatical categories capable of opposing word forms of one lexeme are usually called inflectional. Grammatical categories that are not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme are usually called classifying or lexico-grammatical.

So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side is adjacent to word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other side to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.

Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms

Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of the word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.

Under grammatical category is understood as a systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical formal means. Grammar categories are morphological and syntactic.

Morphological category is a two-dimensional phenomenon, it is the unity of grammatical semantics and its formal indicators; within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word are studied not in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verb aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect aspect, the category of person is the homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.

When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is missing, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find a consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is not a category either, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of I and II conjugations do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.

inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of the person of the verb is inflectional, since in order to find it, it is enough to compare different forms of the same verb (go, go, go).

Non-inflecting(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the opposition of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflective categories, the vocabulary of the language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore, morphological categories of this type are called classification). Non-inflective are, for example, categories of gender and animateness/inanimateness of nouns.

The main morphological category (moreover, the category of a classification type) is the category of parts of speech (category part-of-speech ). All other categories are distinguished within the parts of speech and are private morphological categories in relation to parts of speech.

Grammar category- these are the meanings of a generalized nature inherent in words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators of, for example, the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the speaker (person category), relationship of reported to reality (mood category), relationship of reported to time (tense category) and etc.

Grammar categories have varying degrees abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. So, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not every one of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: a teacher is a teacher, an actor is an actress, but a teacher, a linguist, a director.

One or another grammatical category (category of gender, category of number, category of case, etc.) in each specific word has a certain content. So, for example, the category of gender, inherent in nouns, in the word book is revealed by the fact that this noun is a feminine noun; or category of aspect, for example in a verb draw has some content – This is an imperfective verb. Similar meanings of words are called grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of the word with the reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), which is necessary mainly to link this word with other words in the text.

The lexical meaning of a word is concrete and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized character. Yes, the words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and particular. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - for a noun, an attribute of an object - for an adjective, action as a process - for a verb, etc.). Private grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, time, etc.).

The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of both one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (the noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

The ability of a word to form a paradigm consisting of two or more word forms is called inflection. In modern Russian, the following inflection systems operate:

By cases (declension);

By faces (conjugation);

By numbers;

by birth;

By inclination;

At times.

The ability of a word to form special forms is called shaping. This is how the short form and degrees of comparison of adjectives, infinitives, participles and gerunds for verbs are formed, etc.

So, word form is a specific use of the word.

lexeme is a word as a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning.

Paradigm- this is the whole set of word forms included in this lexeme.

Word form is a word form with certain morphological characteristics in abstraction from its lexical features.

Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain linguistic means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing expressed with the ending -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest expressed with the ending - ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external language means is called grammatical form. Therefore, word forms are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Outside of the grammatical form, there is not a single grammatical meaning. Grammatical meanings can be expressed not only with the help of morphological modifications of a word, but also with the help of other words with which it is associated in a sentence. For example, in sentences He bought a coat and He was in a coat word form coat is the same, but in the first case it has the grammatical meaning of the accusative case, and in the second case it has the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case. These meanings are created by the different relationships of that word to other words in the sentence.

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical, mixed and others.

At synthetic way grammatical meanings are usually expressed affixation , i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, tables; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less frequently alternation of sounds and stress (mind e tret–mind and army; m a sla- spec. oil a ), as well as suppletive , i.e. formations from different roots ( man - people, child - children: unit values and many others. numbers; take - take: imperfective and perfective meanings; good - better: positive and comparative values). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress ( water - water), as well as with the alternation of sounds ( sleep - sleep).

At analytical way grammatical meanings get their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words. For example, the meaning of the future tense of a verb can be expressed not only synthetically – with a personal ending ( played Yu, played eat, played no ), but also analytically – with the help of a verb link be(I will play, you will play, will play).

At mixed, or in a hybrid way, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending ( in home), the grammatical meaning of the first person - by the pronoun and ending ( I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb id ut the ending -ut expresses both person, and number, and inclination.

Thus, the paradigm of one word can combine synthetic, analytical and suppletive word forms.

The grammatical meaning of a word can be expressed syntactic way, i.e. with the help of another word form combined with this word form ( strong uy coffee- the meaning of the masculine gender of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the word form of the masculine adjective; to coat- the meaning of the dative case of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the preposition k).

Sometimes, as a way of expressing grammatical meaning, logical-semantic relations in the text. For example, in a sentence Summer replaces autumn noun autumn is the subject and is in the nominative case, and summer- an object and is in the form of the accusative case.