Ecology of the environment. Environment

Environmental protection - one of the most pressing problems of our time . Scientific and technological progress and increased anthropogenic impact on the natural environment inevitably lead to an aggravation of the ecological situation: natural resources are depleted, the natural environment is polluted, the natural connection between man and nature is lost, aesthetic values ​​are lost, the physical and moral health of people worsens, economic and political struggle for commodity markets, living space.

As for the Russian Federation, it belongs to the countries of the world with the worst environmental situation. Pollution of the natural environment has reached unprecedented proportions in recent years. Only economic losses, not taking into account the harm to the environment and human health, according to experts, annually in Russia amount to an amount equal to half of the country's national income. More than 24 thousand enterprises today are powerful environmental pollutants - air, subsoil and wastewater. From the standpoint of the current criminal legislation, their activities are criminal. But in this sphere of human activity, contrary to all declarations on the human right to a favorable environment for life and health before other interests in the hierarchy of social values, economic interests still prevail over environmental ones. The most acute environmental problem in the modern Russian Federation - environmental pollution. The health of Russians is deteriorating significantly, all the vital functions of the body, including reproductive ones, suffer. The average age of men in the Russian Federation in recent years has been 58 years. For comparison, in the USA - 69 years, Japan - 71 years. Every tenth child in the Russian Federation is born mentally or physically handicapped due to genetic changes and chromosomal aberrations. For individual industrialized Russian regions, this figure is 3-6 times higher. In most industrial areas of the country, one third of the inhabitants have various forms of immunological deficiency. By the standards of the UN World Health Organization, the Russian people are approaching the brink of degeneration. At the same time, approximately 15% of the country's territory is occupied by zones of ecological disaster and environmental emergencies. And only 15-20% of the inhabitants of cities and towns breathe air that meets the established quality standards. About 50% of the drinking water consumed by the Russian population does not meet hygienic and sanitary and epidemiological standards. This sad list is quite extensive. But the given data also testify that it is time for all citizens of vast and resource-rich Russia to realize that the time of unregulated unlimited use of the environment has irretrievably gone. You have to pay for everything: money, the introduction of strict restrictions, the establishment of criminal liability. Otherwise, a person pays not only with his health, but also with the health of the entire nation, the well-being of future generations, because uncontrolled negative impact on the natural environment is the destruction of man as a species.

It seems that the development of the environmental policy of the state, Russian legislation, scientific aspects of environmental law is one of the forms of ensuring the environmental safety of the population, protecting the natural environment and rational use of its resources. The other side of environmental law is compensation for harm caused to nature or human health. It should be carried out in conjunction with economic, political, moral, educational, educational measures, etc. This paper discusses the main aspects of the development of environmental law, modern Russian policy in the field of ecology and environmental protection, the state of this problem, its development in environmental law, current Russian legislation and practice. When writing the work, the author used legal educational literature, the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, other sources and legal acts.

2. Environmental policy of modern Russia

Over the past decades, the scale of human activity, the size and consequences of its impact on nature have changed qualitatively. Traditional anthropocentric ideas about the relationship between society and nature have come into conflict with reality, which is confirmed by the disturbing facts of the anthropogenic impact of man on the environment. By the beginning of the 60s. 20th century there was a need to regulate the adverse human impact on the environment.

The social and legal need for a qualitative deepening of environmental knowledge, the practical application of the results of environmental research has been formed under the conditions of the global environmental crisis caused by anthropogenic factors and, above all, by human activity. Its sharpness and unpredictability of the consequences make one recall the pessimistic foresight of J. B. Lamarck: “ One could perhaps say - he warned at the beginning XIX c., that the purpose of man, as it were, is to destroy his kind, having previously made the globe uninhabitable” (Lamarck J. B. Analytical system of positive human knowledge / / Selected. works. In 2 vol. M., 1959. T. 2. S. 442).

Currently, environmental problems have a negative impact on the lives of 30-40% of Russians. The unfavorable state of the environment is one of the most important causes of concern. For example, according to the results of a survey conducted by the ISPI RAS, for Muscovites, the three main reasons for concern were as follows: crime - for 56% of respondents, high prices - for 52%, and the environmental situation - for 32%.

Migration, the state of health, the labor activity of the population, the political stability of society, and, ultimately, national security objectively depend on the environmental situation in the country (region). For example, the unfavorable environmental situation in Moscow (air pollution with nitrogen and carbon oxides, phenol, etc.) results in high levels of respiratory diseases among the population, which are 25–40% higher than the average for Russia.

The problem of employment in the regions is exacerbated due to the forced permanent or temporary closure of environmentally harmful industries, especially those that are city-forming factors.

Habitual and affordable types of recreation for the population "do not survive" in the face of deteriorating environmental situation. Thus, numerous cases of mushroom poisoning that occurred in European Russia in 1994 were associated with the accumulation of heavy metal salts by mushrooms.

Complex environmental problems have an impact on the nature and severity of contradictions along the lines of "center - regions", "region - region", and in the conditions of a multinational state and interethnic relations. Thus, the deterioration of the environmental situation infringes on social needs and contradicts the interests of the population, causing social and environmental tension at the regional and national levels. Under certain conditions, this tension leads to the emergence of socio-ecological conflicts. Thus, the active opposition of the population necessitated the conservation of the plant for the destruction of poisonous substances, ready for launch in Chapaevsk.

For modern Russia, socio-ecological tension is one of the main factors in the formation of an unfavorable social situation in the country, which is confirmed by the results of sociological studies conducted by the ISPI RAS on representative samples since 1998. In 2000, already 40% of respondents noted the existence of a significant connection between the environmental situation and social tension in their place of residence, and denied the existence of this connection - only 9% of respondents. The very same environmental situation in the place of residence was assessed as extremely unfavorable by 27% of respondents and as not quite favorable - by 57%. The results of an expert survey of ecologists, carried out in February 2002, do not differ qualitatively from the above.

For the normal functioning of society, an effective science-based state environmental policy is needed, the need for which is increasing as a result of the growing crisis in the field of ecology. The development of society cannot be considered within the framework of the traditional “two-coordinate system of socio-economic problems. The environmental factor in the development of society persistently declares its priority. “If air cannot be breathed, water cannot be drunk, and food cannot be eaten, - writes A. V. Yablokov, then all social problems lose their meaning. .

The need for an environmental state policy stems from three features of the current stage of Russia's development:

First of all, the relationship between society and nature has objectively entered a dangerous phase, when the satisfaction of human vital needs through a frontal attack on nature causes such changes in it that begin to potentially threaten the existence of man as a biological species;

Secondly, environmentally hazardous human impacts on nature are brought to life by social mechanisms that govern the economic, military and other spheres of society's activity);

third If the previous conclusions are true, then the social and natural aspects of human life should be considered in inseparable unity. Not managing social processes, society can make the environment unsuitable for human existence, and not improving the environment can bring to life destructive social processes that can interrupt the progressive development of civilization.

Environmental policy can be interpreted as a system of specific political, economic, legal and other measures taken by the state for managing the environmental situation and ensuring the rational use of natural resources on the territory of the country. aim state environmental policy is to ensure a harmonious, dynamically balanced development of the economy, society, nature. The development and implementation of environmental policy are complex tasks not only due to the fundamental importance of environmental problems for the life of the country, but also due to the scientific uncertainty inherent in many of the most important applied and conceptual issues.

At the conceptual level, it is necessary to finally determine the strategy of interaction between man and nature. As a new paradigm, as a rule, the concept of co-evolution is proposed, that is, the development of man in harmony with nature on the basis of dialogue and equal cooperation with it. However, even among scientists there is still no single interpretation of co-evolution. A number of researchers mean by it the primacy of nature and its preservation in an unchanged (or at least relatively unchanged) form, while others consider the preservation of "statics" in the relationship between society and nature a utopia. From their point of view, we can only talk about preserving “stable equilibrium” (the term belongs to E. Bauer), i.e., the state when the change in the parameters of the biosphere occurs so slowly that humanity is able to adapt to changes and fit into practically stable biogeochemical cycles(cm.: Moiseev N. N. Civilization at a turning point. Ways of Russia. M., 1999).

In addition, the transition to the paradigm of co-evolution as the basis of the state environmental policy will have to be carried out in the conditions of unreliability of even medium-term forecasting of the environmental situation, uncertainty of probability estimates and possible rates of development of individual components of the global environmental crisis.

Back in the late 60s. in the reports of the Club of Rome "Limits to Growth" and "Humanity at the Crossroads" (see: Meadows P. L. The Limits to Growth. N.-Y., 1972: MesarovichM.,PestelE. Mankind at the Turning Point. N.-Y., 1974; Modeling of global economic processes. M., 1984) the following conclusions were formulated:

- while maintaining modern value systems, population growth and production growth mutually accelerate each other, and both the population and the volume of production increase exponentially even when approaching physical limits;

- for countries with a high level of development, the greatest environmental danger is the development of nuclear energy and the growth of environmental pollution, for countries with a low level - progressive depletion of natural resources against the backdrop of population growth;

- a global ecological catastrophe (“environmental collapse”) can erupt in a relatively short period of time, already by the middleXXI in.

Without disputing the fundamental content of these conclusions and sharing the opinion about the obvious bankruptcy of the development of the economy, which is carried out on the assumption of an unlimited ability of the environment to self-purify, many researchers, however, believe that “due to the lack of reliable information about the mechanism of degradation processes, scientific forecasting of the consequences of modern nature management or the transition to new forms of management is difficult”(Changing the world: a geographical approach to the study. Soviet-American project. M., 1996. P. 15). This conclusion is confirmed, for example, by the materials of the official report of the World Meteorological Organization (2000) on the results of studying the possible consequences of the greenhouse effect. The report notes that if current trends continue, a decline in agricultural production can be predicted (Brazil, Peru, the Sahel zone of Africa, Southeast Asia, China, the Asian territory of the former USSR): forest extinction: sea level rise by 25-30 cm by 2050 and on 1 m 2100. All this can lead to the physical disappearance of a number of island states, the migration of tens of millions of people; in large cities, there may be serious threats to human health.

However, the authors of the report state that nowadays it is hardly possible to unequivocally link the general trend of climate warming with the avalanche-like development of the greenhouse effect, although the violation of the natural carbon cycle under the influence of anthropogenic activity is beyond doubt. The above estimates are correct if the existing climate changes are really associated with the manifestation of the greenhouse effect and will persist in the future, but is this really the case. can only be said with a certain degree of probability.

Significant difficulty is "technical content" state environmental policy. As an example, we can refer to the problem of disposal of waste from nuclear power plants, which is very topical for Russia (see Table). Many such technical problems need to be resolved now, which is associated with the inevitability of volitional decisions and the potential threat of long-term consequences of their inevitability.

Is the transition to the concept of sustainable development sufficient for the long-term determination of the foundations of Russia's environmental policy? This concept in its current form does not represent some complete model (program, project). In fact, it defines only a set of principles, following which it is possible to ensure social progress without exceeding the potential capabilities of ecological systems, to achieve the satisfaction of the vital needs of the population and form them by shifting them to some ecologically rational area. To what extent this is feasible in modern conditions is not yet clear.

The adoption by Russia of the main provisions of the concept of sustainable development can be considered to a large extent a fait accompli. This is enshrined in the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of February 4, 1994 No. "On the state strategy of the Russian Federation for environmental protection and sustainable development", developed by the Government of the Russian Federation the Concept of the transition of the Russian Federation to sustainable development, which was approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of April 1, 1996.

Nevertheless, the concept of state environmental policy inevitably requires clarification as scientific knowledge deepens and in accordance with the environmental situation in the country. Difficulties in environmental policy making are not limited to scientific uncertainty about specific issues. They are due to many factors, including the influence of various pressure groups on the formation of its foundations. Behind the support of representatives of national scientific, political and economic elites of one point of view or another, there are qualitative differences in the distribution of natural resources between the Federation and regions, corporate, as well as group and other interests and factors.

At the current technological level and within the framework of an unchanged model of world development, the global improvement of the environment is a practically insoluble task, primarily because of the colossal amount of resources required for this. The following facts may serve as an indirect confirmation of this thesis. In 1992, environmental protection equipment was produced in the United States for 80 billion dollars and exported for 8 billion, in Japan, respectively, for 30 and 5 billion, in Germany, for 27 and 11 billion dollars (see: National Forum "Ecology of Russia"//The Green Book of Russia, Part 2, Book 2, M., 1994). These data also indicate that in developed countries the technical support of environmental policy is turning into a large industry, with all the ensuing consequences, not only environmental, but also economic, political, etc.

How are environmental problems solved in the Russian Federation? Briefly, you can answer like this: "applied to poverty". In the context of the economic crisis, environmental protection activities are financed on a residual basis, but against the backdrop of spectacular declarations. The prospect of real development and practical implementation of an effective state environmental policy seems rather shaky, if we assume that the latest administrative and managerial reforms (for example, downgrading the status of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, the abolition of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of the Russian Federation) reflect the true attitude of the highest echelons of power to environmental problems.

The Russian government, in a certain sense, turned out to be a hostage of its own course towards the widespread introduction of market mechanisms in the field of ecology due to a lack of resources and insufficient development of the legal framework for nature protection. Meanwhile, the construction of environmental protection mechanisms based on the outdated concept of economic reductionism, which does not take into account the inherent value of human life and tries to reduce all factors to a cost approach, including the establishment of the “price of human life”, has long been a well-founded criticism of domestic and foreign experts.

It should be noted that specific measures aimed at resolving environmental problems require more detailed and comprehensive study. So, for example, the establishment by the authorities of currently technically unattainable values ​​of the GSC of pollution can lead to the fact that it will be more profitable for an enterprise to pay fines for emissions of harmful substances than to build and operate treatment facilities, since fines are inevitable, and the refusal to treat waste brings cost savings. Therefore, in the implementation of environmental policy, it is necessary to take into account such factors as the economic inefficiency of most "clean" industries in a market economy (the cost of treatment facilities increase exponentially depending on the degree of treatment and approach the total investment in the enterprise): the final efficiency of existing treatment technologies, the lack of noticeable progress in the creation of "clean" energy sources, etc.

The opinion of environmental specialists on the importance of certain areas of environmental policy implementation can be represented by the results of a survey of experts conducted in February 1997. Among the priority measures that contribute to improving the environmental situation in the regions, the respondents attributed: tightening control over compliance with environmental legislation (74% think so) respondents); legislative consolidation of the maximum possible compensation for damage caused to nature by enterprises, organizations and departments (70%); wide coverage of the environmental situation by the media (45%); personal changes in the management of Russian environmental authorities (40%); implementation of independent environmental reviews (40%); increase in centralized deductions for environmental protection measures to local budgets (29%); closure of all enterprises harmful to human health (20%). Symptomatic is the dissatisfaction expressed by 80% of the respondents with the existing structure of environmental authorities.

An effective state environmental policy today cannot do without costly, budget-financed areas. These include ensuring national survival in the context of the global environmental crisis, i.e., the allocation of resources in case events develop according to “pessimistic scenarios”, the implementation of measures to achieve sustainability or an acceptable level of changes in key ecological systems.

The complexity and importance of the task of forming the state environmental policy in Russia require the participation of public organizations, including environmental parties and movements, in its development. In a period of acute socio-ecological tension, the establishment of constructive interaction between the authorities and these parties and movements can turn into one of the necessary conditions for maintaining manageability of socio-ecological processes.

The development of state environmental policy, its most important areas (programs, projects) should probably be carried out in such a way as to: ensure the formation of an ecological worldview of the population, including spiritual and moral education, education, development of world environmental standards of interaction in the system "nature - man - society »; to achieve constructive cooperation of society, the state, citizens in the protection of human health and the natural environment; ensure the introduction of environmentally acceptable technologies, the rational use of the country's natural resources; develop a system of environmental law and order; to turn environmental and economic factors into an integral component of managing the economic and social development of the country: to realize the inalienable right of every citizen to a favorable and safe environment. Scientific knowledge, technology, human and natural resources are quite sufficient for Russia to get out of the ecological crisis.

3. Legal liability in environmental law.

According to the theory of law, the act committed is the objective basis of legal responsibility, the formal basis is the legal norm that fixes the composition and features of this crime, and guilt serves as the subjective basis. However, the allocation of norms, guilt and deeds as grounds is to a certain extent conditional, because. even taken together, they are not enough to actually bring the offender to justice. Therefore, the only and sufficient legal basis for liability is the presence in the act of the corpus delicti of an environmental crime provided for by the norms of criminal law.

What, in accordance with the current Russian environmental legislation, is recognized as an offense, and what is a crime? Article 81 Law of the RSFSR "On the Protection of the Environment" An environmental offense is defined as a guilty, unlawful act that violates environmental legislation and causes harm to the natural environment and human health. This definition has a number of shortcomings. There is uncertainty in it (an illegal act that violates the law); not all social values ​​that are the subject of environmental legal relations that are harmed are listed; consequences, not the object of the offense, are taken as a systematizing feature. The consequences are not included in the elemental composition of the environmental relationship protected by law, and do not allow to distinguish between environmental and other crimes (economic, against property, against health, official, etc.).

Environmental crime can be described as a socially dangerous, guilty, act (action or inaction) prohibited by law under the threat of punishment, aimed at causing harm to relations in the field of ecology (in comparison with Art. 14 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation . A guilty socially dangerous act prohibited by this Code under the threat of punishment is recognized as a crime. An action (inaction) is not a crime, although it formally contains signs of any act provided for by this Code, but due to its insignificance does not pose a public danger (as amended by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated 06.25.98 No. 92-FZ).

The composition of an environmental crime (like any other) includes four elements:

-object of crime

- objective side

- subjective side

-subject.

Object of environmental crime is a collection public relations that have developed in the field of environmental protection, rational use of its resources and ensuring environmental safety, economic activity, subsoil development, etc.

The subject of environmental crime is the natural environment as a whole and its individual components (land, subsoil, water, air, animals). This is one of the most important elements of environmental crime. It is he who allows you to determine in what relations this or that natural resource is involved (what is its socio-economic essence) and to limit the crimes in question from others. Thus, fishing in violation of the established rules forms part of illegal fishing, and the same actions committed in the pond of a fishery - theft of property, since in the latter case, fish is not a natural resource located in its natural habitat, but is a commodity value. For these reasons, air pollution of industrial premises (mines, workshops, etc.) cannot be considered as an environmental crime, since this act encroaches not on relations for the protection of the environment, but on relations for the protection of health in the performance of labor functions.

The subject of an environmental crime should be considered in connection with the object. An isolated analysis of the subject does not make it possible to clarify the attitude to which the damage is caused, it generates errors and confusion in the legal assessment of the offense. The subject of environmental crimes should be considered various components of the natural environment that are not separated by human labor from natural conditions, or that accumulate a certain amount of labor of present and previous generations of people, but remain in the natural environment, or introduced into it by a person to fulfill their biological and other natural functions (forest plantations released for breeding animals, birds, fish fry, etc.).

For objective side An environmental crime is characterized by a violation through action or inaction of generally binding rules for the use of natural resources and the protection of the natural environment; causing harm to the environmental interests of an individual, society or the state, or creating a real danger of causing such harm; the existence of a causal relationship between the environmentally hazardous act and the harm caused.

In the cases provided for by law, the objective side includes place, time, situation, tools, ways, methods of committing an environmental crime. For example, the composition of an administratively punishable hunt is determined by hunting at a) a prohibited time, b) in a prohibited place, c) without permission, d) by prohibited tools and methods is qualified as (Article 201.2 of the Administrative Code of the Russian Federation; Article 256 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), and hunting a) causing major damage, b) using a motor vehicle or aircraft, explosives, gases or other methods of mass destruction of birds and animals; d) in relation to birds and animals, the hunting of which is completely prohibited; e) on the territory of a nature reserve, wildlife sanctuary, or in a zone of environmental emergency, it is a criminal offense (Article 258 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation).

From the subjective side, both forms of guilt can take place: deliberate and reckless. intent may be direct and indirect, and n carelessness- as negligence or arrogance (frivolity). So, illegal hunting(Art. 258 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), illegal harvesting of aquatic animals and plants (Art. 256 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), illegal cutting of trees and shrubs(Art. 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), destruction of critical habitats for organisms listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation(Article 259 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) are committed intentionally. Others, such as destruction or damage to forests – as a result of careless handling of fire or other sources of increased danger (Art. 261 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) - only through negligence. A number of actions, such as environmental pollution(Article 77 of the Code of Administrative Offenses, Articles 251, 252 of the Criminal Code), violation of the rules for the protection and use of subsoil(Article 255 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) can be committed both intentionally and through negligence.

At the same time, the motives and goals of intentional environmental crimes can be very different and, as a rule, they are not indicated as signs of a crime, but can be taken into account when sentencing as aggravating or mitigating circumstances.

Art.88 law "On the Protection of the Environment", taking into account the provisions of civil law, provides for an exception to the general rule of guilty liability. It refers to those cases where the harm is caused by a source of increased danger. The obligation to compensate for harm rests with the owner of this source, regardless of the presence of guilt. The damage is subject to compensation by virtue of the very fact of its infliction, unless it is proved that it occurred as a result of force majeure or the intent of the victim.

Subjects of environmental crime only individuals can be, while the subjects of an environmental offense are both individuals and legal entities, including business entities of various forms of ownership and subordination, as well as foreign organizations and citizens.

It seems that it is necessary to distinguish between the subjects of a crime and the subjects of responsibility. Administrative, civil, labor legislation, for example, provides for the responsibility of 3 persons for actions or events in which they are not objectively involved. So, administrative responsibility can be assigned to a parent for the actions of minor children, civil law - to the carrier of goods or the owner of a source of increased danger, disciplinary - to the boss for the actions of a subordinate.

The subject of criminal, disciplinary, material liability under the current legislation can only be individuals. The subject of administrative and civil liability- both individuals and legal entities.

The current legislation provides that the administrative and criminal liability of individuals for environmental crimes begins at the age of 16. In civil proceedings, they bear limited liability from the age of 15 to 18, and from the age of 18 - full, because. from this age the person becomes fully capable.

There are no age restrictions regarding the possibility of imposing disciplinary and material liability on persons who are in labor relations with employers.

4. The concept of responsibility for environmental crimes, its types, tasks and principles.

The emergence and development of the institution of responsibility for environmental crimes before the collapse of the USSR took place within the framework of the traditional legal system of the Soviet state.

In the post-Soviet period, characterized by a radical break in socio-economic relations and the reform of the entire system of the Russian Federation (RF), when choosing the means of state legal influence for committing environmental offenses, the legislator faced two problems:

1) maximum use of the potential of previously created legal institutions for the protection of the natural environment (EPS) in the conditions of market relations;

2) development of new norms of various branches of law on OOPS, including the development of administrative-legal, civil-law and other institutions of responsibility.

In its final form, liability for environmental crimes is fixed in Article 81 Law of the RSFSR dated 19 December 1991 G."On the Protection of the Environment". In particular, it provides that for environmental crimes, officials and citizens bear disciplinary, material, administrative, civil and criminal liability, and enterprises, institutions, organizations - administrative and civil law in accordance with the named law and other legislative acts of the Russian Federation and its subjects.

The regulatory legal acts containing general provisions on liability for environmental crimes and offenses include federal environmental and resource legislation:

- Law of the Russian Federation"On Ecological Expertise" from 23 november 1995 G,

- Law of the Russian Federation"On Specially Protected Natural Territories" 14 Martha 1996 G

- LawRussian Federation "On natural healing resources, health-improving areas and resorts" from 23 February 1995 G.,

-Land CodeRSFSR from 25 April 1993 G.,

Fundamentals of forestrylegislation of the Russian Federation from 6 Martha 1993 G.,

- Water Code of the Russian Federation dated 18 October 1995 G.,

- Law of the Russian Federation"About the Animal World" from 24 April 1995 G.,

-Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation (CAO)

According to Art. Art. 71, 72 Constitution of the Russian Federation the adoption of the norms of criminal, penitentiary, civil law in the field of protection and environmental protection is within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. Administrative, labor, housing, water, forest legislation, subsoil legislation, and environmental protection legislation are jointly administered by the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The subjects of the Federation are empowered to establish administrative liability for violations of: the rules of hunting and fishing; rules for the implementation of other types of use of wildlife; decisions on dealing with natural disasters and epidemics; animal quarantine rules; veterinary regulations. These circumstances should be taken into account when addressing issues of legal liability for environmental crimes.

Legal responsibility is one of the types of social responsibility. It is further subdivided into disciplinary administrative-legal, civil-legal and criminal-legal liability . They also distinguish between material and moral responsibility, the responsibility of individuals, legal entities and officials, disciplinary responsibility, etc. Each of its types used in the field of environmental protection (EPS) has its own individual features. However, all types are part of a general legal concept.

Unfortunately, in the modern scientific literature, legal liability for environmental crimes has received insufficient attention. As a result, there was a difference of opinion on a number of basic theoretical issues and some uncertainty. Along with this, there is no single position regarding its legal definition, content, division into types. Thus, there is an opinion that there "positive" responsibility, which should be understood as the obligation to perform actions corresponding to "the objective requirements of the given situation and the objectively conditioned ideals of the time." This definition is vague, blurs the concept of legal responsibility, causes confusion of terms, confusion and additional difficulties in understanding their content. In a retrospective plan, responsibility is allocated for an already committed act, "retrospective responsibility". Responsibility in perspective sense regarded as an obligation to comply with existing rules of law. Some lawyers equate responsibility and punishment. It is hardly possible to agree with such an opinion. Although these are related, they are not identical concepts. Responsibility precedes punishment, but punishment does not always follow responsibility. The legal fact that gives rise to legal relations is the fact that a criminal offense has been committed. The content of this legal relationship is the mutually corresponding rights and obligations of subjects. Due to the lack of a clear definition of legal liability for environmental crimes. It is noted that it is expressed in deprivations of a property, organizational or personal nature. Other scientists believe that this "a system of coercive measures applied to violators of the legislation in the field of environmental management and environmental protection in order to punish the perpetrators, suppress and prevent such offenses and restore violated rights."

As for the classification of responsibility, the most widespread division into types according to its industry affiliation: criminal, administrative, civil, material, disciplinary.

Does this mean that each branch of law has its own responsibility? This issue is of great practical importance, given that some authors already recognize water-legal, land-legal, environmental (environmental-legal) liability as an independent type.

It seems that those authors who consider the allocation of liability for environmental crimes to a large extent a convention are right, since it is nothing more than a complex of the above types of legal liability most widely used in the field of environmental protection.

National legislation has adapted to these four types of liability. Raising the question of recognizing new types of responsibility should also entail posing the question of creating a fundamentally new mechanism for their implementation. At the same time, nothing prevents the allocation of new types of responsibility in terms of the theoretical development of the problem.

Based on the criteria known in legislative practice, all types of liability in the field of OOPS on the grounds of occurrence can be divided into objective and subjective.

To objective includes civil liability arising from the fact of causing harm when using a source of increased danger, regardless of the fault of its owner. Here, the fact of causing harm by an act is an objective basis for liability, and the rule of law that provides for it is a formal basis.

subjective there will be liability that arises only if the subject of the offense has guilt as an obligatory sign of the composition of the offense. From these positions, guilt can be considered the subjective basis of responsibility.

According to the methods of influence, responsibility is distinguished: compensatory, aimed at compensating for harm, and repressive, realized in the application of punishment.

to compensatory applies in particular to the obligation to compensate for the harm caused, provided for by the norms of civil and administrative law.

To repressive species applies, for example, administrative, criminal, disciplinary liability.

According to the scope of application, one can distinguish economic-legal, state-legal and other types of responsibility.

The peculiarities of the new economic relations allowed lawyers to single out the so-called economic responsibility affecting relations in the field of ecology. It comes for causing harm in lawful actions, when there are no grounds for imposing legal liability. Measures of such responsibility are, for example, mandatory fines for emissions of pollutants into the environment, payments for the use of natural resources, compensation for losses in the natural environment. In the presence of legal regulation of economic relations, economic responsibility acts in the legal form of material (property) liability, in the form of undergoing economic sanctions applied at the initiative of other subjects of law. The issue of liability for crimes in the sphere of economic activity remains largely controversial. The researchers correctly noted that such responsibility can be considered as an independent phenomenon only as an obligation to perform certain actions. Economic responsibility for an already committed violation does not exist as such: in such cases it always acts in the form of legal responsibility. Most economic sanctions are applied in the form of civil law (forfeit, fine, damages, enforcement of obligations) or administrative law (damages, fines, penalties) liability. Thus, economic responsibility in the form of an obligation to perform certain actions is nothing more than a kind of "positive" responsibility.

It is hardly legitimate to speak from these positions about independent environmental and legal responsibility. Ultimately, it comes down to responsibility provided for by the norms of labor, administrative, civil, and criminal legislation. It is more correct to talk about liability for environmental crimes. The types of such liability, as we see, can be different depending on both the branch of law and the type of offense (misdemeanor, civil tort, crime).

The foregoing also correlates with the system of environmental law, which, as a complex legal branch, consists not only of the norms of resource-based (water, air, land, subsoil, etc.) and environmental legislation, but also of the norms of constitutional, international, civil, administrative, labor, criminal and other legislation.

It seems that criminal liability for environmental crimes should ensure the following goals:

- protection of public relations in the field of ecology, environmental protection, air, bowels, waters;

-ensuring criminal punishment;

- prevention of new crimes;

-education of the population in the spirit of respect for the law and the established environmental law and order.

Responsibility for environmental offenses is based on the following principles:

-legality,

- equality of citizens before the law,

- Guilty liability (with the exception of the obligation to compensate for damage caused by a source of increased danger, in the manner of implementing civil liability),

- justice,

- humanism,

-differentiated its laying,

-economy measures of state coercion.

5. Types of liability for environmental offenses.

Disciplinary responsibility

Disciplinary responsibility are borne by employees of enterprises, institutions, organizations, regardless of the form of ownership, for failure to comply with plans and measures for the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources, for violation of environmental quality standards, for improper operation of treatment plants and facilities, and for violation of other requirements of environmental legislation. In the performance of their duties in service or work (Article 82 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Environment").

The procedure for bringing to disciplinary responsibility is determined by labor legislation, legislation on public service, other regulatory acts of the Russian Federation and its constituent entities, labor agreements (contracts), charters and regulations on the enterprise, organization, institution. At the same time, the terms of labor contracts that worsen the situation of employees in comparison with the current legislation, including the terms of liability, are invalid. A distinctive feature of the composition of a disciplinary offense is that failure to comply with the requirements of environmental legislation is at the same time a failure by the employee to fulfill his duties due to his position or agreement (contract).

Disciplinary liability is expressed in the imposition of disciplinary punishment on the guilty person in the form of: remarks, reprimand, severe reprimand, dismissal from office (Article 135 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation). Legislation, charters on discipline and other normative acts may provide for other disciplinary sanctions for certain categories of workers and employees. For example, as a disciplinary sanction, the following can be applied: complete or partial deprivation of a bonus or other means of encouragement; transfer to a lower-paid job or shift to a lower position; deprivation of class rank or title; declaration of incomplete service compliance. When imposing a disciplinary sanction, the severity of the misconduct committed, the circumstances under which it was committed, and the behavior of the employee should be taken into account. Only one disciplinary sanction may be applied for each misconduct. During the period of validity of the disciplinary sanction (one year from the date of imposition), incentive measures are not applied to the employee. The penalty may be withdrawn ahead of time by the body or official who applied it on their own initiative, at the request of the immediate supervisor or the labor collective, if the perpetrator has not committed a new offense and has shown himself to be a conscientious employee. The administration has the right, instead of a disciplinary sanction, to refer the issue to the general meeting of the labor collective or public organization.

General provisions on the possibility of applying material liability to the violator of environmental legislation are contained in Art. 83 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Environment". The procedure for its application is regulated by labor legislation. Liability consists in imposing on the violator (the tortfeasor) the obligation to compensate for the damage and expenses incurred through his fault by the institution, organization, enterprise or other economic entity with which the perpetrator is in labor relations. In accordance with labor legislation, the violator (the cause of harm) is liable in the amount of direct actual damage, but not more than his monthly earnings (Article 119 of the Labor Code). However, the perpetrator fully compensates for the damage if it was caused as a result of a criminal act; intentionally; when the harm was caused not in the performance of their labor duties; when it is caused by an employee who is in a state of intoxication; when, in accordance with the law or the contract, the employee is fully liable.

When determining the amount of damage, only direct actual damage is taken into account, lost income is not taken into account. It is unacceptable to lay liability on an employee for such damage that can be classified as a normal production risk (Article 118 of the Labor Code). According to the current civil legislation, an enterprise, institution, organization or other economic entity is liable for harm caused by its employee during the performance of his labor duties to the victim (Article 1068 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). This creates guarantees of compensation for harm to the victim, regardless of the material condition of the tortfeasor.

In turn, an enterprise or other business entity has the right to file a recourse claim in court against its employee and recover from him all the losses incurred (Article 1081 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Administrative responsibility.

Administrative responsibility for environmental offenses is applied by an authorized executive body of the state, an official of the relevant state body or a court.

Taking into account the unfavorable environmental situation in the country, the prevalence of environmental offenses, the new Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation includes, as bodies entitled to consider administrative cases, environmental control bodies, geological control bodies, bodies of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the Committee for Land Resources and land management (Roskomzem RF), bodies that protect state nature reserves and national natural parks.

It can be assigned to both individuals and legal entities. The list of administrative environmental offenses is given in Article 84 of the Law on Environmental Protection, sectoral natural resource legislation and in the Code of Administrative Offenses, where they are grouped in the chapter "Administrative offenses in the field of environmental protection, historical and cultural monuments."

In their totality, administrative offenses in the field of environmental protection and nature management make up eleven groups:

Non-compliance with environmental requirements during planning, feasibility study of projects, design, placement, construction, reconstruction, commissioning, operation of enterprises, structures or other facilities (Art. 8.1 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-non-compliance with environmental and sanitary and epidemiological requirements when handling production and consumption waste or other hazardous substances (Art. 8.2 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of the rules for handling pesticides (Art. 8.3 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of the legislation on environmental expertise (Art. 8.4 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- concealment or distortion of environmental information (Art. 8.5 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- damage to land (Art. 8.6 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-failure to fulfill obligations to bring land into a condition suitable for use for its intended purpose (Art. 8.7 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- use of land for other than its intended purpose, failure to comply with mandatory measures to improve land and protect soil (Art. 8.8 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- violation of the requirements for the protection of subsoil and hydro-mineral resources (Art. 8.9 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of the requirements for the rational use of subsoil (Art. 8.10 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of the rules and requirements for conducting work on the geological study of subsoil (Art. 8.11 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- violation of the procedure for granting for use and the regime for the use of land and forests in water protection zones and coastal strips of water bodies (Art. 8.12 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of the rules for the protection of water bodies (Art. 8.13 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

-violation of water use rules (Art. 8.14 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- violation of the rules for the operation of water management or water protection structures and devices (Art. 8.15 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- failure to comply with the rules for maintaining ship documents (Art. 8.16 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- violation of the rules (standards, norms) or license conditions regulating activities in internal sea waters, in the territorial sea, on the continental shelf and (or) in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation (Art. 8.17 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

Violations of the rules for the protection of atmospheric air (Art. 8.21 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

Release into operation of motor vehicles with excess of the normative content of pollutants in emissions or noise level standards (Art. 8.22 of the Code of Administrative Offenses;

-operation of motor vehicles with excess of the normative content of pollutants in emissions or noise level standards (Art. 8.23 ​​of the Code of Administrative Offenses;

-violation of the procedure for the allocation of cutting areas, survey of felling sites in forests that are not included in the forest fund (Article 8.24 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

- violation of forest management rules (Art. 8.25 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

-violation of the rules for the implementation of secondary forest management (Art. 8.26 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

- violation of the rules in the field of reproduction, improvement of the condition and species composition of forests, increase in their productivity, seed production of forest plants (Art. 8.27 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

-illegal felling, damage or digging up of trees, shrubs and lianas (Art. 8.28 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

-destruction of animal habitats (Art. 8.29 of the Code of Administrative Offenses);

-destruction or damage to hayfields and pastures, reclamation systems, as well as roads on the lands of the forest fund or in forests that are not included in the forest fund (Art. 8.30 of the Code of Administrative Offenses)

- violation of the requirements for the protection of forests (Art. 8.31 of the Code of Administrative Offenses).

For the commission of environmental administrative offenses, the following may be applied: a warning, a fine, confiscation of the instrument of committing the offense; deprivation of a special right (hunting, fishing, driving vehicles); paid seizure of an object that was an instrument for committing an offense. Legislative acts of the Russian Federation may also establish other types of administrative penalties, in addition to those specified in the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation.

Administrative penalties are divided into basic and additional. The main ones are those that contain the main punitive-educational-preventive function and cannot be assigned in addition to other types of penalties. Additional perform auxiliary functions in achieving the goals of punishment. Paid seizure and confiscation of items can be applied both as basic and as additional administrative penalties. Other penalties listed above can only be applied as basic ones.

The body considering the case of an administrative offense may impose as an additional administrative penalty only the one that is named in the article of the normative act establishing liability for a specific administrative offense. For example, as an additional penalty, confiscation is provided for in the sanction of Article 85 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation on liability for violation of the rules of hunting, fishing and other types of use of wildlife.

For one administrative offense, the main, or the main and additional punishment may be imposed. Simultaneous application of two main penalties is unacceptable. Paid seizure and confiscation of firearms, ammunition, fishing equipment permitted for use may not be applied to persons for whom hunting or fishing is the main source of livelihood in connection with their labor activity.

Deprivation of the right to drive vehicles cannot be applied to persons who use these vehicles due to disability, except for cases of driving while committing an environmental offense (for example, when hunting "from under the headlights") while intoxicated.

Deprivation of the right to hunt and fish cannot be applied to persons for whom hunting or fishing is the main source of subsistence in connection with their labor activity.

Enterprises, institutions, organizations, entrepreneurs, individuals are brought to administrative responsibility for environmental offenses in cases where the violation is related to the process of production or other economic activity.

Individuals are subject to administrative liability upon reaching the age of 16. In accordance with Article 14 of the CAL, persons aged 16 to 18 who have committed environmental offenses are subject to the following measures: provided for by the Regulations on Commissions for Juvenile Affairs.

Officials are subject to liability for non-compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation, the provision and implementation of which is part of their official duties.

There is no definition of an official in the administrative legislation. Science and practice refer to them those civil servants who have state-imperious powers, the powers of an organizational and administrative administrative and economic nature to manage the administrative-political, economic, socio-cultural construction.

Under current legislation, only two types of administrative penalties can be applied to officials - a warning and a fine. Since the illegal behavior of officials, by virtue of their functions, can cause more harm than administrative offenses of other persons, the law on environmental protection establishes increased administrative liability for officials in the form of a fine from three to twenty times the minimum wage established in RF. The Code of Administrative Offenses of the RSFSR (Article 2 7) classifies the fine as one of the main types of punishment. It stipulates that the fine is set in the range from one tenth to one hundred times the minimum wage, as well as up to ten times the value of the stolen, lost property or the amount of illegal income received as a result of an administrative offense. In exceptional cases, in connection with the failure to fulfill obligations arising from international treaties, and the special need to strengthen liability, the laws of the Russian Federation may impose a fine in a larger amount.

Criminal liability.

O is limited by the current Russian criminal legislation, is discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

6. Environmental crimes and offenses, grounds for their differentiation.

According to the branches of law providing for responsibility for environmental offenses and crimes, the latter are divided into: administrative, disciplinary, criminal, civil law. The same as with regard to the allocation of types of responsibility, it is inappropriate to single out other types of crimes (international legal, for example). they are ultimately reduced to the four species named.

All environmental offenses (as well as others) are divided into misdemeanors and crimes. Misdemeanors entail disciplinary, financial or administrative liability, and crimes - criminal . Civil liability may be imposed along with disciplinary, material administrative or criminal liability. Involvement in these forms of liability does not relieve the subject from the obligation to compensate for harm, if any. This is explained by the fact that the penalties applied in the implementation of these types of liability are punitive measures, and not compensation for harm, although often (withdrawal of bonuses, fines, confiscation) are material in nature. The amounts collected as punishment do not go to the victim as compensation for harm, but are transferred to special accounts of state environmental funds in the budget.

It should be emphasized that in practice the issue of distinguishing environmental crimes from misdemeanors is quite controversial, since about 60% of the environmental law norms contained in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation are similar to the norms of administrative legislation. The objective signs of an environmental crime and a misdemeanor reveal similarities and consist in violating the same rules: fishing, hunting, logging, mining, fire safety in forests, maintaining the cleanliness of water and air basins, etc. Therefore, when investigating environmental crimes, the bodies of inquiry , investigations and courts often make legal errors. So, citizen M. caught five, and G. and U. - nine sturgeons belonging to valuable fish species. In addition, each poacher caused major damage. Despite the presence in their deeds of a sign of a qualified corpus delicti, initiation of a criminal case was refused on the grounds that the perpetrators had no previous convictions, had a permanent place of residence and work, and the damage was compensated.

At the same time, there are facts when the perpetrators are brought to criminal responsibility for minor violations of the rules of nature protection. For example, citizen T. was convicted of illegal fishing under aggravating circumstances, since he caught fish of a valuable breed with a scoop to the amount of fifty thousand rubles. He was extremely positively characterized at the place of work, there was a petition from the labor collective to transfer him on bail. But extenuating circumstances did not allow citizen T. to avoid criminal liability.

According to the new Code of Administrative Offenses of 2002 An administrative offense is an unlawful, guilty action (inaction) of an individual or legal entity, for which the Code of Administrative Offenses or the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on administrative offenses establish administrative responsibility. A legal entity is found guilty of committing an administrative offense if it is established that it had the opportunity to comply with the rules and norms for the violation of which the Code of Administrative Offenses or the laws of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation provide for administrative liability, but this person did not take all measures depending on him compliance(Art. 2.1 of the Code of Administrative Offenses).

In connection with the foregoing, it is of great importance to identify scientifically based criteria for distinguishing between criminal and non-criminal types of offenses in the field of ecology. The theory is dominated by the position according to which crimes and misdemeanors are distinguished by the degree of public danger or "harmfulness". However, these degrees themselves are not quantitatively defined either in the literature or in the law, and it seems impossible to do this, since the essence of crime and misdemeanor cannot be expressed in mathematically accurate, clearly defined numerical expressions.

It appears that public danger - a cumulative property of objective and subjective signs of an offense, which together determine the characteristics of an act and can only be assessed in conjunction with other signs. This position is based primarily on the law. The legal structure of the offense reflects both quantitative (repetition, totality, relapse, etc.) and qualitative (place, time, method, form of guilt, etc.) categories.

The solution to the issue of distinguishing between environmental crimes and misdemeanors is simplified when the factors affecting the degree of public danger of offenses are taken into account by the legislator directly in the dispositions of criminal law norms. Most often, it indicates the consequences of the act and their size, the repetition of criminal violations of the rules, the mode of action, the form of guilt. For example, illegal hunting without aggravating circumstances (part 1 of article 166 of the previously effective Criminal Code) was recognized as criminal only if the person had previously been subjected to administrative measures for a similar offense. Violation of veterinary rules and rules for combating plant diseases and pests (Article 249 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation of 1996) entails criminal liability only if there is serious consequences, negligently entailing the spread of epizootics or other serious consequences, and in the absence of such - administrative (Article 97,98,101 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation) or disciplinary. Criminal liability for water pollution arises if pollution, clogging, depletion of surface or ground water, sources of drinking water supply or other change in their natural properties, if these acts have caused significant harm to human health or mass death of animals, fish stocks, fauna or flora, forestry or agriculture (Article 250 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). Pollution of waters, which did not entail those specified in Art. 250 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation consequences, is punished administratively in accordance with Art. 57 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation.

When analyzing environmental crimes, it should be borne in mind that the presence of elements of a crime in an act is not yet a sufficient basis for bringing the perpetrator to criminal responsibility. The main basis for criminal liability for environmental crime is degree of damage. So, if illegal felling of trees and shrubs, as well as damage to the extent of stopping the growth of trees, shrubs and lianas in the forests of the first group or in specially protected areas of forests of all groups, as well as trees, shrubs and lianas that are not included in the forest fund or prohibited to felling, if these acts were committed in a significant amount(Art. 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) is classified as a crime, in a small amount - as an administrative offense.

In the old Code of Administrative Offenses, it was sometimes very difficult to distinguish a crime from an offense, when their signs are described in the same way in criminal and administrative legislation, or only the type of violation is indicated (with the so-called "simple" dispositions). This problem was settled in the new Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation of 2002. Article 2.9 of the Code of Administrative Offenses establishes that “if the committed administrative offense is insignificant, the judge, body, official authorized to decide the case of an administrative offense may release the person who committed the administrative offense from administrative liability and confine himself to an oral remark” Responsibility for administrative offenses occurs when these offenses by their nature do not entail criminal liability in accordance with the current legislation. It is on this basis that Art. 8.28 of the Code of Administrative Offenses is administratively punishable "illegal felling, damage or digging up of trees, shrubs or vines, destruction or damage to forest plantations, young growth of natural origin". What then is a crime? According to Article 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, a crime is "illegal felling of trees and shrubs, as well as damage to the extent of stopping the growth of trees, shrubs and lianas in forests of the first group or in specially protected areas of forests of all groups, as well as trees, shrubs and lianas that are not included in the forest fund or prohibited for felling,if these acts are committed in a significant amount" . A significant amount in this article is recognized as damage calculated at established rates, twenty times higher than the minimum wage established by the legislation of the Russian Federation at the time of the crime, a large amount - two hundred times.

A conflict of law is observed when comparing administrative-legal and criminal-legal norms on liability for air pollution. So, in Art. Art. 8.21 of the Code of Administrative Offenses provides for administrative liability for the emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere, violation of the conditions of a special permit for the emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere, violation of the rules of operation, non-use of facilities, equipment or apparatus for gas purification and control of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. Part one of article 251 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation air pollution establishes criminal responsibility for violation of the rules for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere or violation of the operation of installations, structures and other objects, if these acts have caused pollution or other changes in the natural properties of the air. According to the law, it occurs regardless of the degree of excess of the MPC of pollutants, the onset or creation of a real danger of the onset of harmful consequences, in particular, for the very fact of air pollution in violation of the rules for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere . The same actions that negligently caused harm to human health , are punishable under part 2 of article 251 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, and acts that negligently caused the death of a person - under part 3 of this article. The application of Part 1 of Article 251 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation in strict accordance with its literal content would mean the closure of many industrial enterprises, contributing to the further development of the already progressing economic crisis in our country, bringing to justice for acts of low public danger (for example, a motorist for excess of carbon monoxide content in exhaust gases) and distortion of the criminal policy of the state in the field of environmental protection. Article 223 of the former Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1960 had a similar structure. Taking into account such circumstances, the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the USSR in paragraph 8 of the resolution of July 7, 1983 "On the practice of application by courts of legislation on nature protection" subjected part 1 of Article 223 of the Criminal Code RSFSR to a restrictive interpretation and clarified that (as in the case of water pollution) air pollution can be recognized as a crime only when, as a result of exceeding the established emission standards, harm is caused or a real danger of harm to human health, fish stocks, animals or plants is created. Obviously, Part 1 of Article 251 of the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation should be understood in the same sense. In the new Criminal Code, the content of the chapter "Environmental crimes" as well as others, is brought into line with the hierarchy of social values ​​adopted in a legal democratic state (individual, society, state), generally accepted international norms and requirements for combating modern forms and types of environmental crime, so to speak. It seems that the CC should be focused on recognition of the natural environment as the biological basis of life, health, and human activity. From these positions, environmental crimes are essentially crimes against humans and all life on earth by affecting the environment. The ideas about the social danger of these crimes are also changing significantly, while until now they belonged to the category of insignificant, secondary, little forces and means were allocated to combat them, they were not listed in state programs to combat crime.

In connection with the foregoing, differentiation of criminal liability for environmental crimes is given depending on the nature and degree of danger of the deed, the consequences, the identity of the perpetrator, the presence of mitigating and aggravating circumstances. The design of criminal law norms, as a rule, takes into account the nature and severity of the harm caused by an environmental crime to human health or life. However, the differentiation of criminal liability for environmental crimes in modern Russian criminal law is far from perfect. And it is determined primarily by four main aspects:

-low level of legal culture of Russians;

- the presence of a whole complex of administrative and legal norms intersecting with criminal norms in the field of ecology and environmental protection;

- ineffective work of the environmental prosecutor's office; In the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, the number of norms on crimes related to causing harm to the natural environment has more than tripled (from 4 to 14). The concept of environmental crimes in the Criminal Code is not given. Meanwhile, its formulation is significant for achieving many important goals. After all, the idea of ​​the total social danger of environmentally harmful acts is necessary for the correct classification of those acts that should be recognized as criminal. Hence, the correct interpretation of environmental crime serves as the methodological basis of the rule-making process.

Without a correct understanding of the essence of a socially dangerous act, it is impossible to build sanctions, determine the goals of the criminal law, the scope and tasks of preventive work. Evaluation of the effectiveness of criminal liability and the applied criminal law sanctions is inevitably associated with an analysis of illegal behavior, a clear understanding of its model.

The general concept of environmental crime is nothing more than its generic concept, which includes a number of generic features. - a guilty socially dangerous act, prohibited by the Criminal Code under the threat of punishment, is recognized as a crime. An action (inaction) is not a crime, although it formally contains signs of any act provided for by this Code, but due to its insignificance does not pose a public danger(Art. 14 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). In the legal literature, there are definitions of these attacks in accordance with the general signs of a crime specified in the criminal code. As a rule, they are connected or follow from the definition of the object of criminal influence and are built according to the scheme: "A crime in the field of nature protection is an act that encroaches on such and such relations (their presentation follows)". - environmental protection, compliance with the rules for the protection and use of land, subsoil, the marine environment, the continental shelf, compliance with the rules of hunting;

- rational use of its wealth as one of the ways of protection;

-preservation of proper quality natural conditions for human life and preservation of critical habitats for organisms listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (protection from pollution and environmental poisoning, noise, heat, vibration, etc.), including ensuring environmental safety, improvement and reproduction natural resources.

Unsuccessful past attempts to consider environmental crimes as a kind of crimes in the field of economic activity did not allow to adequately reveal the specifics of crimes in the field of environmental protection, shifting the center of gravity from environmental relations to material, cost, which is completely insufficient from the point of view of modern ideas about the interaction of society and nature. . In addition, only those elements of nature that have a certain material form and can be in the power of people are in property. However, criminal law also protects such elements of the natural environment that cannot be owned by anyone at all, for example, the atmosphere, subsoil, waters of the high seas, the marine environment, the fauna and flora of Antarctica. And etc. . International agreements limit the right of states to dispose of certain specially protected species of animals listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation.

The legislator does not include crimes in the field of nature protection in the circle of crimes against property, otherwise he would place environmental norms in the chapter of the Criminal Code “Crimes against property”.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 9), the Law of the Russian Federation "On Property in the Russian Federation" (Article 6), the Land Code (Article 3), civil legislation and a number of other normative acts on natural resources establish various types of ownership. But it does not follow from this that property relations are the object of environmental crimes. As is known, property is considered in an objective and subjective sense as an economic category and as a legal concept, as a right of ownership. In the economic sense, property is a historically conditioned form of appropriation of elements of the natural environment, in which social relations between people are expressed in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods. That is, property is primarily the most important production socio-economic relation.

Comparing environmental crimes with crimes in the sphere of economic activity, it should be noted that some norms on the protection of the natural environment are related to the economic use of natural resources:

- Violation of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the continental shelf and on the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation (Art. 253 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation);

- Violation of the rules for the protection and use of subsoil (Art. 255 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation);

- Illegal harvesting of aquatic animals and plants (Art. 256 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation);

-Illegal hunting (Art. 258);

- Illegal felling of trees and shrubs (Art. 260 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation)

These norms provide for liability for violation of the rules for the protection of natural resources through the adverse impact on them of the following factors: destruction, damage, poisoning, pollution. Of course, from an economic point of view, nature is the raw material base of the modern economy, but when analyzing environmental crimes, the emphasis should be on the fact that natural resources in their totality form the habitat of humans and other living beings. Therefore, not only economic damage should be taken into account, but mainly environmental damage: shifts in the ecological system, violation of radiation, heat, energy balance, impact on human health, extinction of plants and animals, etc.

On the other hand, the position that the object of environmental crimes are natural resources (forest, water and air, earth, subsoil, atmosphere, natural and plant world) is also unfounded, since in this case no distinction is made between the object and the subject of encroachment. In conclusion, we note that in the legal literature there is a point of view that environmental crime should be considered “a socially dangerous act (action, inaction) provided for by criminal law that encroaches on the environment and its components, the rational use and protection of which ensure optimal human life, and consists in the direct use of natural objects as a social value and leads to negative changes.”

At the same time, the conditions are ripe for solving at least two problems that can give a significant result. . 1) development of a fundamentally new, taking into account the world experience of environmental legislation. 2) the speedy adoption of environmental laws, the implementation of which can have an effect even with relatively small investments and costs.

It seems to be inappropriate to link the development of environmental law with the form of a central environmental legislative act. In the end, it is not so important whether it will be considered as a foundation, a law or a code, and perhaps a series of separate laws that have a certain hierarchy. More significant is the development of a catalog, a list of legal means of actually implemented environmental legal regulation. Such a list should be prepared on the basis of using all the experience of domestic and foreign legislation, available theoretical and methodological developments, judicial and administrative practice, and conducting special social and legal research. It should include:

a) designation of objects of environmental legal regulation. Here there is an urgent need to shift the focus from natural objects and their condition to the use of natural resources, in particular, the use of environmental standards, pollution indicators should be methodologically expanded, and they should include indicators of the consumption of natural resources compared to the achieved, technologically feasible level. This will make it possible to cover in more detail by legal regulation such technologies that lead to a colossal squandering of natural resources.

b) creation of a unified normative conceptual apparatus. At the same time, the concepts used need serious harmonization; in any case, environmental concepts should be used in normative acts in the same or at least comparable meaning;

Modern ideas about the protection of nature and the human environment are based on the ideas of V. I. Vernadsky about the protection of the biosphere. In the modern interpretation, we are talking, first of all, about preventing changes in the amounts of radiant energy reaching the Earth, about maintaining sufficient stability of chemical cycles occurring in the biosphere.

The protection of nature and the human habitat in our time has become a public interest. It can be said that the relationship of society with the environment is one of the most global problems of mankind.

The concepts of "nature protection" and "human habitat protection" are complex and extensive. Nature protection is a complex of state, public and scientific measures aimed at rational use of natural resources, restoration and multiplication of the natural resources of the Earth. The protection of the human environment is the protection of everything that directly surrounds a person, which makes up the ecological systems of which he is a member, as well as the prevention of factors in the environment that are detrimental to his health. These concepts are largely similar to each other, because their strategic meaning is to find ways to regulate the relationship between human society and nature (living and inanimate). However, these concepts also have significant differences.

Protecting nature does not mean keeping it intact, because man will continue to exploit natural resources, and as

population growth even more.

We are talking about protection, which should ensure the establishment of a balance between use and restoration, as well as the continuous maintenance of the power of the biosphere. Therefore, the main tasks of all nature conservation measures are not to disturb the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy, that is, not to change the historically established bioproductivity of the biosphere.

On the contrary, systematic development of measures aimed at the intensification of biological cycles in natural and artificial ecosystems, i.e., at a sharp increase in the productivity of the Earth, should be carried out. In particular, it is necessary to create a truly scientific basis for increasing the density of the green cover of the Earth with a large proportion of species that are characterized by a high efficiency of photosynthesis. On the other hand, it is important to conserve rare and endangered animal species.

Finally, it is impossible to fill the environment with radiation and chemical pollutants that are harmful to animals and plants. So, the general line in the protection of nature is the protection and reproduction of the living world.

Speaking about the protection of the human habitat, it is important to remember that, being an integral component of the biosphere, a person in the course of historical development adapted to his environment, not biologically, but socially with the help of technical and cultural means. Therefore, as a living being, a person is open to the effects of environmental pollutants on him. Maintaining environmental hygiene means maintaining an ecological balance between a person and his environment in order to ensure the well-being of a person, his health. Therefore, in our time, questions have arisen not only of determining the damage already caused to the human gene pool, but also of determining ways to protect the hereditary material of a person from factors generated by his activity in the biosphere.

The solution of these issues in different countries goes in several directions, the main of which is to create sensitive test systems for assessing the mutagenic activity of environmental pollutants and in search of approaches to effectively monitor the genetic processes occurring in human populations (development of the foundations of genetic monitoring of populations) . The meaning and necessity of these works lies in the integral analysis of the dynamics of the genetic load, i.e., in the study and evaluation of the frequency of mutations of genes and chromosomes induced by pollutants in relation to mutations historically accumulated in the process of evolution, evolutionarily established systems of balanced genetic polymorphism.

Currently, several approaches are used to register changes in the genetic structure of human populations.

One of these approaches is related to taking into account population characteristics. As an indicator for assessing the genetic burden, medical and statistical indicators are used (frequency of spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, birth weight, survival probability, sex ratio, incidence of congenital and acquired diseases, indicators of growth and development of children).

Another approach is related to taking into account "watchdog" phenotypes, i.e., with the definition of phenotypes that arise due to certain mutations inherited dominantly. An example of such a phenotype is a dislocation of the hip joint. In the selected population, the dynamics of the frequency of interest phenotypes among newborns is monitored, for example, the dynamics of the frequency of hip dislocation.

Another approach is associated with the use of electrophoresis of blood serum proteins and erythrocytes to detect mutant proteins based on their mobility in an electric field, since the change in the charge of a protein molecule can be caused by the replacement or insertion of one or more nitrogenous bases in the gene. Finally, the approach associated with the cytogenetic study of spontaneously aborted embryos, stillborns, live births and children with congenital defects is used.

There is no doubt that some of the damage already done to the biosphere cannot be repaired. Therefore, humanity is faced with the task of creating conditions for balanced development. The most important task is to create technologies that would completely eliminate or limit the release of pollutants into the environment.

We are talking about such technologies both in industry and agriculture.

Many countries have national programs for the protection of nature and the environment. These programs are based on taking into account the specifics of local conditions. However, no matter what measures are taken in individual countries, they cannot provide a solution to the whole range of issues related to pollution of the atmosphere, open seas, and the World Ocean.

Since the biosphere is politically indivisible, and the pollution of the human environment has global consequences, international cooperation in the field of nature protection and the human environment is of great importance.

In addition to addressing issues at government levels, the activities of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the World Wide Fund for Nature, as well as the UN specialized agencies are of great importance.

June 5 is World Environment Day. In 1986, WHO adopted the Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000. In accordance with this strategy, a sine qua non for achieving the goals

is the preservation and strengthening of peace on Earth. Nowadays we are talking

about the preservation of life on earth.

The principles of environmental protection include:

1) observance of the human right to a favorable environment;

2) ensuring favorable conditions for human life;

3) a scientifically based combination of environmental, economic and social interests of a person, society and the state in order to ensure sustainable development and a favorable environment;

4) protection, reproduction and rational use of natural resources as necessary conditions for ensuring a favorable environment and environmental safety;

5) responsibility of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of subjects of the Federation, local governments for ensuring a favorable environment and environmental safety in the respective territories;

6) payment for nature use and compensation for damage to the environment;

7) independence of control in the field of environmental protection;

8) presumption of environmental danger of the planned economic and other activities;

9) the obligation to assess the impact on the environment when making decisions on the implementation of economic and other activities;

10) the obligation to conduct a state environmental review of projects and other documentation justifying economic and other activities that may have a negative impact on the environment, create a threat to the life, health and property of citizens;

11) taking into account the natural and socio-economic characteristics of the territories in the planning and implementation of economic and other activities;

12) priority of preservation of natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes;

13) the admissibility of the impact of economic and other activities on the natural environment based on the requirements in the field of environmental protection;

14) ensuring the reduction of the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment in accordance with the standards in the field of environmental protection, which can be achieved through the use of the best existing technologies, taking into account economic and social factors;

15) obligatory participation in environmental protection activities of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of subjects of the Federation, local governments, public and other non-profit associations, legal entities and individuals;

16) conservation of biological diversity;

17) ensuring an integrated and individual approach to the establishment of requirements in the field of environmental protection for business entities and other activities that carry out such activities or plan to carry out such activities;

18) prohibition of economic and other activities, the consequences of which are unpredictable for the environment, as well as the implementation of projects that may lead to the degradation of natural ecological systems, change and (or) destruction of the genetic fund of plants, animals and other organisms, depletion of natural resources and other negative changes in the environment;

19) observance of the right of everyone to receive reliable information about the state of the environment, as well as the participation of citizens in decision-making regarding their rights to a favorable environment, in accordance with the law;

20) liability for violation of legislation in the field of environmental protection;

21) organization and development of the system of environmental education and upbringing, formation of environmental culture;

22) participation of citizens, public and other non-profit associations in solving problems of environmental protection;

23) international cooperation of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection.

Let us consider the objects of the environment that are subject to protection with the help of law.

The objects of legal protection of the environment are understood as its components that are in an ecological relationship, the relations for the use and protection of which are regulated by law, since they are of economic, environmental, aesthetic interest.

Objects of legal protection of the environment can be classified into three groups.

The first group of objects of legal protection consists of the main individual natural objects, of which there are six: land; its subsoil, water, forests, wildlife, atmospheric air.

The second group includes natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes that are not subject to anthropogenic impact and are of global importance, subject to protection as a matter of priority.

The third group consists of objects of special protection. All attainable natural objects - components of the environment are subject to protection, but the territories and parts of nature specially allocated in the legislation deserve special protection:

Sites included in the World Cultural Heritage List and the World Natural Heritage List;

Reserves, national, natural and dendrological parks, sanctuaries, botanical gardens, monuments of nature, plants and animals, other organisms, their habitats, especially those listed in the Red Book;

Continental shelf and exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation.

Main aspects of nature protection, principles and rules of nature protection

1. Principles of nature conservation

1. Principles of nature conservation.

Nature protection is a set of state and public activities aimed at preserving the atmosphere, flora and fauna, soils, waters and earth's interior.

In the history of the formation of the environmental concept, several successive stages can be distinguished: species and reserved nature protection - resource protection - nature protection - rational use of natural resources - protection of the human habitat - protection of the natural environment. Accordingly, the very concept of environmental protection activities expanded and deepened.

In recent years, the term "protection of the natural environment" has been increasingly used. The term “protection of the biosphere” is very close in content and volume to this concept. Biosphere protection is a system of measures carried out at the national and international levels and aimed at eliminating undesirable anthropogenic and natural influences on functionally interconnected blocks of the biosphere (atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil cover, lithosphere and the sphere of organic life), at maintaining its evolutionarily developed organization and ensuring normal functioning.

Nature protection is closely connected with nature management - one of the sections of applied ecology. Nature management is a social production activity aimed at meeting the material and cultural needs of society through the use of various types of natural resources and natural conditions.

Nature management can be rational and irrational. Irrational use does not ensure the preservation of the natural resource potential, leads to the impoverishment and deterioration of the quality of the natural environment, is accompanied by pollution and depletion of natural systems, disruption of the ecological balance and destruction of ecosystems.

Rational nature management means a comprehensive scientifically based use of natural resources, which achieves the maximum possible conservation of natural resource potential, with minimal disruption of the ability of ecosystems to self-regulate and self-recovery.

According to Y. Odum, rational nature management has a dual goal:

· To ensure such a state of the environment in which it could satisfy, along with material needs, the demands of aesthetics and recreation;

· To ensure the possibility of continuous harvesting of useful plants, production of animals and various materials by establishing a balanced cycle of use and renewal;

At the current, modern stage of development of the problem of environmental protection, a new concept is born - environmental safety, which is understood as the state of protection of important environmental interests of a person and, above all, his rights to a favorable natural environment. The scientific basis for all measures to ensure the environmental safety of the population and rational nature management is theoretical ecology, the most important principles of which are focused on maintaining the homeostasis of ecosystems.

Environmentally sound rational nature management should consist in the maximum possible increase in the limits of existence and functioning and the achievement of high productivity of all links in the trophic chains of natural ecosystems.

Irrational nature management ultimately leads to an ecological crisis, and environmentally balanced nature management creates the prerequisites for overcoming it.

The way out of the global ecological crisis is the most important scientific and practical problem of our time. Thousands of scientists, politicians, practitioners in all countries of the world are working on its solution. The task is to develop a set of reliable anti-crisis measures that will actively counteract further degradation of the natural environment and achieve sustainable development of society. Attempts to solve this problem by any means alone, for example, technological ones (treatment facilities, non-waste technologies), are potentially incorrect and will not lead to the necessary results, because compared to the repeated use of a product, waste incineration is an inefficient way to deal with waste. First of all, this is a destructive process, during which both raw materials and energy are consumed. This pollutes both the atmosphere and water. Incinerators emit nitrogen oxides, acid precipitation-producing sulfur, hydrogen oxide, dioxin and furan, which are believed to have carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. There are tons of toxic ash left, which is also dangerous for groundwater.

Overcoming the ecological crisis is possible only if the harmonious development of nature and man, the removal of antagonism between them.

The most general principle or rule of environmental protection should be considered: the global initial natural resource potential is continuously depleted in the course of historical development, which requires scientific and technological improvement from mankind aimed at a wider and fuller use of this potential. From this law follows another fundamental principle for the protection of nature and the environment: environmentally-economical, i.e. the more prudent the approach to natural resources and habitat, the less energy and other costs are required. Reproduction of the natural resource potential and efforts to implement it should be comparable with the economic results of the exploitation of nature. Another important environmental rule is that all components of the natural environment - atmospheric air, water, soil - must be preserved not separately, but as a whole, as unified natural ecosystems of the biosphere. Only with such an ecological approach is it possible to ensure the preservation of landscapes, subsoil, the gene pool of plants and animals.

According to the law of the Russian Federation on environmental protection, the main principles of environmental protection are as follows:

Priority of protection of human life and health;

Science-based combination of environmental and economic interests;

Rational and sustainable use of natural resources;

Payment for nature use;

Compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation, the inevitability of liability for its violation;

Publicity in the work of environmental organizations and their close connection with public associations and the population in solving environmental problems;

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection.

2. Alternative nature management (industry, agriculture, energy)

The main directions of engineering protection of the natural environment from pollution and other types of anthropogenic impacts are the introduction of resource-saving, waste-free and low-waste technology, biotechnology, recycling and detoxification of waste, and most importantly, the greening of all production, which would ensure the inclusion of all types of interaction with the environment in natural cycles circulation of matter. Of great importance for reducing the level of environmental pollution, saving raw materials and energy is the reuse of material resources, i.e. recycling. Thus, the production of aluminum from scrap metal requires only 5% of the energy costs of smelting from bauxite, and the remelting of 1 ton of secondary raw materials saves 4 tons of bauxite and 700 kg of coke, while simultaneously reducing emissions of fluoride compounds into the atmosphere by 35 kg.

The initial stage of complex measures for the creation of low-waste technologies is the introduction of circulating, up to completely closed, water use systems. Recycled water supply is a system that provides for the repeated use of waste water with a minimum discharge (up to 3%) into water bodies. A closed water cycle is a system of industrial water supply and sanitation, in which wastewater is not discharged into water bodies in the same production cycle.

In the field of agriculture, the transition from mineral to organic fertilizers is being considered. The example of Australia shows the possibility of "biodynamic agriculture", in which mineral fertilizers and pesticides are replaced with colloidal solutions and composts with a high content of colloid, which, among other things, allows to reduce irrigation by 4 times. Another method of alternative nature management is reclamation. This is a set of works carried out with the aim of restoring disturbed territories and bringing land plots to a safe state. Biological reclamation is carried out after the technical one to create a vegetation cover on the prepared areas. With its help, they create conditions for the habitat of animals, plants, create hay and pasture lands.

The world energy system should not be dominated by the use of energy resources that cause global environmental problems, this is, first of all, the use of oil, coal, natural gas. Some countries, such as Brazil and Norway, already meet more than half of their energy needs from renewable sources, the potential of which is unlimited, such as solar energy, wind energy. So in remote, inaccessible areas, solar panels represent a real alternative to traditional electrification, as they are a more reliable and cheaper source of energy. Experts are confident that wind turbines will soon be improved and become effective not only in areas with strong winds. It is assumed that by 2030 wind energy will provide more than 10% of world production. The use of biomass (agricultural waste), firewood and garbage in the energy sector has great prospects, since in many countries thermal power plants operating on wood and garbage are already being built, and in developing countries biomass accounts for 50% of the energy received. Another example of efficient use of electricity can be household 18-watt fluorescent lamps, which give the same illumination as conventional 75-watt incandescent lamps.

3. Preservation of water and air quality

Increasing human influence on the environment leads to the fact that almost any adverse impact takes on a global character. The most acute problems usually include the global consequences of atmospheric pollution (climate warming, a decrease in the ozone layer, acid precipitation) and pollution of the hydrosphere (problems of the world's oceans, a decrease in fresh water reserves).

To protect the air basin from negative anthropogenic impact, the following measures are used:

· Ecologization of technological processes;

· Purification of gas emissions from harmful impurities;

· Dissipation of gaseous emissions in the atmosphere;

· Arrangement of sanitary and protective norms, architectural and planning solutions.

Given the exceptional relevance of the protection of atmospheric air from pollution by automobile gases, the priority is to create environmentally friendly modes of transport. As a substitute for gasoline, environmentally friendly gas fuel is considered - methanol, low-toxic ammonia and ideal fuel - hydrogen. Work continues on the creation of a car powered by solar cells.

Since the current level of development of the greening of technological processes is insufficient to completely prevent emissions of toxic substances into the atmosphere, various methods of cleaning exhaust gases are used. Various types of devices are used to treat emissions, depending on the degree of dust content in the air, the size of the particulate matter and the level of purification required.

Dry dust collectors (cyclones, dust settling chambers) are designed for coarse cleaning. Wet dust collectors (scrubbers, turbulent, scrubbers) provide 99% removal of particles larger than 2 microns. Filters (fabric and granular) are capable of retaining fine particles up to 0.05 microns in size. Electrostatic precipitators are the most effective cleaning method, since they clean from 99.0 to 99.5%%, but have the main drawback - they require a lot of electricity.

To reduce dangerous concentrations of impurities to the level of the corresponding MPC, such a measure as the dispersion of gaseous impurities in the atmosphere is used. Dispersion of dust and gas emissions is carried out with the help of high chimneys. The higher the pipe, the greater its scattering effect. This measure is far from the best solution to the problem associated with air pollution, since the higher the gases are released from the surface of the earth, the further they spread from their source. What was once a smoky haze over Pittsburgh became an acid snowfall in Labrador. Impurity over London in the form of smog destroys the foliage in the forests of Scandinavia. Therefore, the dispersion of harmful impurities in the atmosphere is a temporary, forced measure.

The protection of atmospheric air from harmful emissions from enterprises is largely associated with the arrangement of sanitary protection zones and architectural and planning solutions. The sanitary protection zone is a strip separating sources of industrial pollution from residential and public buildings to protect the population from the influence of harmful production factors. The width of the zones is set depending on the degree of harmfulness and the amount of substances released into the atmosphere and is assumed to be from 50 to 1000 m. For example, a cement plant - 1000 m, and a plant for the production of reeds - 50 m. The sanitary protection zone should be landscaped with gas-resistant rocks, for example, white locust, Canadian poplar, prickly spruce, mulberry, Norway maple, leafy elm.

The effectiveness of landscaping is evidenced by the following data: the needles of 1 hectare of a spruce forest capture 32 tons of dust, the foliage of a beech forest - 68 tons.

Architectural and planning measures include the correct mutual placement of emission sources and populated areas, taking into account the direction of the winds, the choice of a flat, elevated place for the construction of an industrial enterprise, well blown by the winds, the construction of roads bypassing populated areas.

In addition to the measures discussed above, the protection of the ozone layer is also envisaged. The Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Environment" has a separate article devoted to this problem.

The development and implementation of measures to reduce emissions of sulfur compounds, nitrogen oxides and other hazardous air pollutants is also underway.

The most important and most difficult task is to protect surface waters from pollution. To this end, the following measures are envisaged:

· Development of low-waste and waterless technologies; introduction of water recycling systems;

· Sewage treatment;

· Injection of sewage into deep aquifers;

· Purification and disinfection of surface waters.

The main source of surface water pollution is sewage, so wastewater treatment is an urgent and environmentally important task.

The most effective way to protect surface waters from pollution by sewage is the development and implementation of a waste-free production technology, the initial stage of which is the creation of a recycling water supply. When organizing a recycling water supply system, it includes a number of treatment facilities and installations. Due to the diversity of wastewater composition, there are various ways to treat them: mechanical, physico-chemical, chemical, biological, etc.

During mechanical treatment, up to 90% of insoluble mechanical impurities (sand, clay) are removed from industrial effluents by straining, settling and filtering, and 60% from domestic wastewater.

The main chemical methods include neutralization and oxidation. In the first case, special reagents (lime, soda ash, ammonia) are introduced into wastewater to neutralize acids and alkalis, in the second case, various oxidizing agents.

For physical and chemical treatment, the following are used:

Coagulation - the introduction of coagulants (ammonium salts, iron, copper, sludge waste) into wastewater to form flocculent sediments, which are then easily removed;

Sorption - the ability of some substances (activated carbon, zeolites, silica gel, peat) to absorb pollution;

Flotation is the passage of air through wastewater. Gas bubbles capture oil and oils as they move upwards and form an easily removable foamy layer on the surface.

The biological method is widely used for cleaning domestic wastewater from pulp and paper, oil refineries, and food enterprises. It is based on the ability of artificially introduced microorganisms to use organic and inorganic compounds contained in wastewater (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, sulfites, nitrites) for their development. Cleaning is carried out by natural methods (irrigation fields, filtration fields, etc.) and artificial methods (biofilters, circulating oxidizing channels). The resulting sediment is removed to sludge beds for drying, and then used as fertilizer. Water after settling is chlorinated and reused in circulating water supply or discharged into surface waters.

One of the promising methods of surface water treatment is the injection of wastewater into deep aquifers. This method is suitable for particularly toxic wastewater, which is not amenable to conventional methods.

4. The problem of waste disposal

In our era of wholesale production and the use of artificial, rather than natural, natural materials, waste disposal for the ecology of our planet is not just a sick issue, but a paramount one. The problem of waste disposal is one of the essential aspects of any process, be it construction, production or even creativity. And the larger the process itself, the larger the waste processing takes. Production waste disposal is a specific type of activity that requires special knowledge, compliance with technologies, norms and rules, as well as the availability of special machinery and equipment. The removal and disposal of industrial waste from various types of production is carried out separately, in compliance with the characteristics inherent in each type of waste.

The largest amount of industrial waste is formed by the coal industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, thermal power plants, and the building materials industry.

The emerging environmental crisis situations are caused by the impact of hazardous waste, which in its composition contains substances with dangerous properties (toxicity, infectiousness, fire hazard, etc.). In Russia, 10% of the mass of all solid waste is classified as hazardous waste. These are metal and galvanic sludge, fiberglass waste, asbestos waste, tar and tar residues. This type of waste is usually taken to landfills or taken to unauthorized dumps, as only 20% of the waste is neutralized and recycled. The greatest threat to humans is radioactive waste. These are wastes containing radioactive isotopes, dioskins, pesticides, and benzapyrene. The world's nuclear power plants and nuclear fuel processing plants are steadily accumulating huge amounts of radioactive waste. Liquid waste from nuclear power plants is stored in special containers, while solid waste is stored in special storage facilities. Such "hoarding" has a limit, so the elimination of radioactive waste requires an immediate scientific approach.

Dioxins are synthetic organic substances, dioxin-like substances are the most toxic of man-made substances. They have mutagenic, carcinogenic and embryotoxic effects; suppress the immune system (dioxin AIDS) and, if received by a person through food or in the form of aerosols, causes "exhaustion syndrome" - gradual exhaustion and death without clearly expressed pathological symptoms. The biological effect of dioxins is manifested in extremely small doses. However, landfills are burning, water is being chlorinated, and people will continue to do this, believing that this does not concern them, and if they are lucky today, they will be lucky tomorrow. Despite human passivity on the issue of ecology, science does not stand still and, through the joint efforts of the Institute of Thermal Physics, the Berdsk Scientific and Technical Organization "Tekhenergoprom" and the Novosibirsk Design and Survey Institute "VNIPIET", waste incineration plants were developed - KRST (complex of district thermal stations). The station's capabilities are the elimination of "fresh" and "stale" waste, a modern gas purification system and the use of solid waste (ash, slag) in the production of building materials. This project looks like a very interesting solution to the problem of waste from regional centers. But, unfortunately, not too much fuel savings does not impress officials, who apparently believe that it is still much less expensive to produce landfills than to invest a lot of money in order to eliminate these landfills. From an ecological point of view, we live in one day. And we are not very concerned about how our children will live on the planet.

Bibliography

1. Korobkin V.I. Peredelsky L.V. Ecology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2005.

2. Petrov K.M. General ecology: interaction of society and nature. - St. Petersburg: Chemistry, 1998.

4. Faleev V.I. Ecology: textbook. - Novosibirsk: SibUPK, 2001.

Pollution is the introduction of pollutants into the natural environment that cause adverse changes. Pollution can take the form of chemicals or energy such as noise, heat or light. Pollution components can be either foreign substances/energy or natural pollutants.

The main types and causes of environmental pollution:

Air pollution

Coniferous forest after acid rain

Smoke from chimneys, factories, vehicles, or from burning wood and coal makes the air toxic. The effects of air pollution are also obvious. The release of sulfur dioxide and dangerous gases into the atmosphere causes global warming and acid rain, which in turn increase temperatures, causing excessive rainfall or droughts around the world, and making life difficult. We also breathe every polluted particle in the air and as a result, the risk of asthma and lung cancer increases.

Water pollution

It caused the loss of many species of flora and fauna of the Earth. This was due to the fact that industrial wastes dumped into rivers and other water bodies cause an imbalance in the aquatic environment, which leads to serious pollution and death of aquatic animals and plants.

In addition, spraying insecticides, pesticides (such as DDT) on plants pollute the groundwater system. Oil spills in the oceans have caused significant damage to water bodies.

Eutrophication in the Potomac River, USA

Eutrophication is another important cause of water pollution. Occurs due to untreated sewage and fertilizer runoff from the soil into lakes, ponds or rivers, due to which chemicals enter the water and prevent the penetration of sunlight, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen and making the reservoir uninhabitable.

Pollution of water resources harms not only individual aquatic organisms, but the whole, and seriously affects people who depend on them. In some countries of the world, due to water pollution, outbreaks of cholera and diarrhea are observed.

Soil pollution

soil erosion

This type of pollution occurs when harmful chemical elements enter the soil, usually caused by human activities. Insecticides and pesticides absorb nitrogen compounds from the soil, after which it becomes unsuitable for plant growth. Industrial waste, and also adversely affect the soil. Because plants cannot grow as they should, they are unable to hold the soil, resulting in erosion.

Noise pollution

This pollution occurs when unpleasant (loud) sounds from the environment affect a person's hearing and lead to psychological problems, including tension, high blood pressure, hearing loss, etc. It can be caused by industrial equipment, aircraft, cars, etc.

Nuclear pollution

This is a very dangerous type of pollution, it occurs due to failures in the operation of nuclear power plants, improper storage of nuclear waste, accidents, etc. Radioactive contamination can cause cancer, infertility, loss of vision, birth defects; it can make the soil infertile, and also adversely affects the air and water.

light pollution

Light pollution of planet earth

Occurs due to noticeable over-illumination of the area. It is common, as a rule, in large cities, especially from billboards, in gyms or entertainment venues at night. In residential areas, light pollution greatly affects people's lives. It also interferes with astronomical observations by making the stars almost invisible.

Thermal/thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes the temperature of the surrounding water. The main cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a refrigerant by power plants and industrial plants. When water used as a refrigerant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature reduces the supply of oxygen and affects the composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to a particular temperature range can be killed by sudden changes in water temperature (or rapid increases or decreases).

Thermal pollution is caused by excess heat in the environment creating unwanted changes over long periods of time. This is due to the huge number of industrial enterprises, deforestation and air pollution. Thermal pollution increases the Earth's temperature, causing drastic climate change and extinction of wildlife species.

Visual pollution

Visual pollution, Philippines

Visual pollution is an aesthetic problem and refers to the effects of pollution that impair the ability to enjoy the outside world. It includes: billboards, open dumps, antennas, electrical wires, buildings, cars, etc.

Overcrowding of the territory with a large number of objects causes visual pollution. Such pollution contributes to distraction, eye fatigue, loss of identity, and so on.

plastic pollution

Plastic pollution, India

Includes the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that have adverse effects on wildlife, animal or human habitats. Plastic products are inexpensive and durable, which has made them very popular among people. However, this material decomposes very slowly. Plastic pollution can adversely affect soil, lakes, rivers, seas and oceans. Living organisms, especially marine animals, become entangled in plastic waste or are affected by chemicals in plastic that cause interruptions in biological function. People are also affected by plastic pollution, causing a hormonal imbalance.

Objects of pollution

The main objects of environmental pollution are such as air (atmosphere), water resources (streams, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans), soil, etc.

Pollutants (sources or subjects of pollution) of the environment

Pollutants are chemical, biological, physical or mechanical elements (or processes) that harm the environment.

They can be harmful both in the short and long term. Pollutants originate from natural resources or are produced by humans.

Many pollutants have a toxic effect on living organisms. Carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide) is an example of a substance that harms humans. This compound is taken up by the body instead of oxygen, causing shortness of breath, headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, and in severe cases can lead to serious poisoning, and even death.

Some pollutants become hazardous when they react with other naturally occurring compounds. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides are released from impurities in fossil fuels during combustion. They react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Acid rain adversely affects aquatic ecosystems and leads to the death of aquatic animals, plants, and other living organisms. Terrestrial ecosystems also suffer from acid rain.

Classification of pollution sources

According to the type of occurrence, environmental pollution is divided into:

Anthropogenic (artificial) pollution

Deforestation

Anthropogenic pollution is the impact on the environment caused by the activities of mankind. The main sources of artificial pollution are:

• industrialization;
• the invention of automobiles;
• the growth of the world's population;
• deforestation: destruction of natural habitats;
• nuclear explosions;
• overexploitation of natural resources;
• construction of buildings, roads, dams;
• the creation of explosive substances that are used during military operations;
• use of fertilizers and pesticides;
• mining.

Natural (natural) pollution

Eruption

Natural pollution is caused and occurs naturally, without human intervention. It can affect the environment for a certain period of time, but it can be regenerated. Sources of natural pollution include:

• volcanic eruptions, with the release of gases, ash and magma;
• forest fires emit smoke and gas impurities;
• sandstorms raise dust and sand;
• decomposition of organic matter, during which gases are released.

Consequences of pollution:

environmental degradation

Left photo: Beijing after the rain. Right photo: smog in Beijing

The environment is the first victim of atmospheric pollution. An increase in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to smog, which can prevent sunlight from reaching the earth's surface. As a result, it becomes much more difficult. Gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide can cause acid rain. Water pollution in terms of an oil spill can lead to the death of several species of wild animals and plants.

Human health

Lung cancer

Decreased air quality leads to some respiratory problems, including asthma or lung cancer. Chest pain, sore throat, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease can be caused by air pollution. Water pollution can create skin problems, including irritation and rashes. Similarly, noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep disturbance.

Global warming

Male, the capital of the Maldives, is one of the cities facing the prospect of being flooded by the ocean in the 21st century.

The release of greenhouse gases, especially CO2, leads to global warming. Every day new industries are created, new cars appear on the roads, and the number of trees is reduced to make room for new homes. All these factors, directly or indirectly, lead to an increase in CO2 in the atmosphere. Rising CO2 causes the polar ice caps to melt, which increases sea levels and endangers people living near coastal areas.

Ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer is a thin shield high in the sky that prevents ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth. As a result of human activity, chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons are released into the atmosphere, which contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer.

Badlands

Due to the constant use of insecticides and pesticides, the soil can become infertile. Various types of chemicals from industrial waste end up in water, which also affects soil quality.

Protection (protection) of the environment from pollution:

International protection

Many of these are particularly vulnerable as they are subject to human influence in many countries. As a result, some states unite and develop agreements aimed at preventing damage or managing human impact on natural resources. They include agreements that affect the protection of the climate, oceans, rivers and air from pollution. These international environmental treaties are sometimes binding instruments that have legal consequences in case of non-compliance, and in other situations are used as codes of conduct. The most famous include:

• The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), approved in June 1972, provides for the protection of nature for the present generation of people and their descendants.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed in May 1992. The main goal of this agreement is "stabilizing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"
• The Kyoto Protocol provides for the reduction or stabilization of the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. It was signed in Japan at the end of 1997.

State protection

The discussion of environmental issues often focuses on the level of government, legislation and law enforcement. However, in the broadest sense, the protection of the environment can be seen as the responsibility of the whole people, and not just the government. Decisions that affect the environment will ideally include a wide range of stakeholders, including industrial sites, indigenous groups, representatives of environmental groups and communities. Decision-making processes in the field of environmental protection are constantly evolving and becoming more active in different countries.

Many constitutions recognize the fundamental right to protect the environment. In addition, in various countries there are organizations and institutions dealing with environmental issues.

While protecting the environment is not simply the responsibility of government agencies, most people consider these organizations paramount in creating and maintaining basic standards that protect the environment and the people who interact with it.

How to protect the environment yourself?

Population and technological advances based on fossil fuels have seriously affected our natural environment. Therefore, now we need to do our part to eliminate the consequences of degradation so that humanity continues to live in an ecologically safe environment.

There are 3 main principles that are still relevant and important more than ever:

• use less;
• reuse;
• recycle.

• Create a compost heap in your garden. This helps to recycle food waste and other biodegradable materials.
• When shopping, use your eco-bags and try to avoid plastic bags as much as possible.
• Plant as many trees as you can.
• Think about how you can reduce the number of trips you make with your car.
• Reduce car emissions by walking or cycling. These are not just great alternatives to driving, but also health benefits.
• Use public transport whenever you can for your daily commute.
• Bottles, paper, waste oil, old batteries and used tires must be properly disposed of; All this causes serious pollution.
• Do not pour chemicals and used oil onto the ground or down drains leading to waterways.
• If possible, recycle selected biodegradable waste, and work to reduce the amount of non-recyclable waste used.
• Reduce the amount of meat you consume or consider a vegetarian diet.

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Chapter XI. NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Nature is a single and very complex set of interrelated phenomena. Human society as a part of nature can only exist in constant interaction with it. In the growing process of its production activity, a natural process of removing essential substances from nature takes place: raw materials for industry, water, food products, forests and other natural resources. At the same time, the release of industrial and domestic waste, used items, etc. into nature is growing. In addition, human society is rebuilding nature for its own needs, primarily for agricultural production, significantly changing it.

At the dawn of mankind, the impact of society on nature was little noticeable, but with the development of cattle breeding and especially agriculture, it increased dramatically. Intensive grazing, plowing of the steppes, deforestation and burning of forests led to a radical change in the appearance of nature over large areas. It became noticeable not only a decrease in the number of animals, but also the impoverishment of rivers, the growing desertification of large areas.

In the future, the impact of man on nature became even more noticeable: some species of animals disappeared, entire landscapes were threatened with existence. It was at this time, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, that the concept of nature protection arose, but it was understood only as the protection of certain species of animals, plants and other unique natural objects or individual areas of wildlife.

In the 30s of the 20th century, the danger of depleting most of the natural resources necessary for industrial activity became obvious; the concept of conservation of natural resources.

In the 50-60s, when, as a result of the rapid development of technology, it turned out that the entire biosphere of the Earth (shell) is under the influence of radioactive fallout, pesticides, industrial waste and other factors that threaten human health, the economy and the normal functioning of the biosphere, the concept of environmental protection.

In the USSR, it is customary to understand nature protection as a planned system of state, international and public measures aimed at the rational use, protection and restoration of natural resources, at protecting the environment from pollution and destruction in order to create optimal conditions for the existence of human society, to meet material and cultural needs. current and future generations of mankind.

Environmental protection includes the protection of land, water, atmospheric air, subsoil, vegetation, animals and landscapes.

Atmospheric air protection. For human life, air is the most important product of consumption. A person can go without food for five weeks, without water for five days, without air for five minutes. But the normal life of people requires not only the presence of air, but also its sufficient purity. Air pollution adversely affects human health.

One of the main sources of air pollution are industrial enterprises, including heating boilers.

In the USSR, maximum allowable concentrations (MACs) of elements in the atmosphere have been developed. This is necessary to establish the harmlessness of certain concentrations of the element for humans, animals and plants.

MPCs are divided into maximum one-time over a 30-minute period of increasing the level of atmospheric pollution and average daily.

In table. 23 shows the MPC values ​​for harmful substances that can be emitted into the atmosphere with the combustion products of heating boilers.

At present, the USSR is preparing a scientific substantiation of the norms for maximum permissible emissions (MAE) of the main air pollutants in populated areas. The speedy development and implementation of these standards is especially necessary for the largest industrial centers, where, on the one hand, the concentration of most pollutants in the atmospheric air exceeds the MPC, on the other hand, it is difficult to identify a specific pollution culprit for sanctions.

The main source of CO emissions is road transport, which emits 75-90% of the total. A significant place is occupied by heating boilers, which emit 20 times more CO into the atmosphere than industrial ones, and 50 times more than CHPs per unit of heat generated (860 g/GJ compared to 43 and 2 g/GJ, respectively). Heat losses in the amount of 0.1% due to chemical incompleteness of fuel combustion are considered quite acceptable during the commissioning and operation of boilers, however, in this case, the concentration of carbon monoxide in the flue gases reaches 0.02%, and the daily CO emission during such operation of all boiler houses at gas will be 30-40 tons (with a daily gas fuel consumption of 10-106 m3).

Despite the fact that fuel combustion processes can be attributed to a low-carcinogenic technology, under certain conditions, even when natural gas is burned, the concentration of benzo(a)pyrenes [B(a)P] in flue gases can reach 50 μg per 100 m3 of combustion products. When bituminous coal is burned in a mechanical furnace in boilers with an average heat output of -100 µg/m3.

The source of nitrogen oxide emissions is primarily boiler plants for various purposes, which account for more than half of all man-made emissions, and transport. Up to 80% of sulfur oxide emissions and about 50% of particulate matter also come from boiler plants. Moreover, the share I of emissions of solid particles by small boilers is significant (Table 24). The data in the table are consistent with the results obtained during a survey in 1977 of heating boiler houses in the Leningrad Region (Table 25). Attention is drawn to the increased emission of carbon monoxide.

Recently, close attention has been paid to the issues of reducing pollutant emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.

The conditional indicator of toxicity of combustion products of cast-iron heating boilers is given below, kg CO per 1 m3:

• Coal - 0.051
• Liquid fuel-0.026
• Natural gas-0.014

In addition to the absolute reduction of pollutant emissions, their dispersion in the ambient air has become widespread in order to reduce specific concentrations that do not reach MPC values. This is the use of tall pipes.

To date, there are four areas of combating surface air pollutants:

• optimization of the fuel combustion process;
• purification of fuel from elements that form pollutants during combustion;
• purification of flue gases from pollutants;
• dispersion of pollutants in the atmospheric air.

Ensuring the combustion process with an optimal amount of air has a great influence on the reduction of harmful emissions into the atmosphere. The air penetrating through the non-density of the lining, in the event of a malfunction of the boiler headset, does not participate in the oxidation process and enters the gas ducts in transit. When fuel is thrown onto the grate incorrectly or when ordinary low-grade fuel is burned, i.e., air passes not through the fuel layer, but through these craters, according to the least resistance. As a result, the chemical incompleteness of fuel combustion increases.

When burning liquid fuels, it is important to supply a sufficient amount of air to the flame root to intensify the fuel gasification processes. Good atomization of the fuel, which ensures high-quality mixing with air, makes it possible to achieve the absence of chemical incomplete combustion at cst = 1.10-1.15.

When burning gaseous fuel and stepwise air supply, the absence of chemical incompleteness of combustion can be achieved by an excess of primary air a " = 0.28-0.35 or by ensuring good mixing of the mixture. In full pre-mixing burners (IGK, BIG), the absence of soot and CO is achieved already at at = 1.03-1.05.At the same time, when hearth diffusion burners operate at at = 1.3, the concentration of CO reaches 2000 mg/m3, and soot 100 mg/m3.

Experience shows that the transfer of boilers from hearth diffusion burners to low-pressure injection burners "0.3" makes it possible to reduce CO and soot emissions by 3-5 times, B (a) P by 10-15 times, in addition, the output is reduced by 25%. nitrogen oxides. The latter is achieved due to the stepped air supply and the dispersal of the flame front (when using multi-torch burners).

The dependence of nitrogen oxides on a during the combustion of natural gas is largely determined by the type of burner and the unit heat output of the boiler.

The main factor in optimizing the air supply in all cases is its quantitative mixing with fuel. For solid fuels, this is the combustion of fine-grained fuels with a size of pieces of no more than 35-50 mm, but not dust, the transition to mechanized furnaces with fuel crushing before burning, proper operation and serviceable equipment. In this case, it is possible to achieve chemical incompleteness of combustion in the form of CO, soot and B(a)P at excess air coefficients in the furnace less than 2.2-2.5, which will lead to a decrease in the concentrations of these harmful emissions by 7-10%. The concentration of SO* and NO* will remain unchanged.

When burning liquid fuels, it is necessary to achieve, above all, the absence of chemical incompleteness of combustion and to maintain a minimum excess of air.

When burning natural gas, it is advisable to use a stepped air supply, which can be carried out using injection burners with a "^ 0.4. First of all, these are multi-torch burners or group burners of Lengiproinzhproekt, blast burners with a premixing channel (for example, a reconstructed GNP or a burner of block L1 -m). This is the reason for the higher concentrations of NO* in hearth horizontally slotted burners compared to multi-torch injection burners. ceramic tunnel.

Experiments have shown that the ceramic tunnel, on the one hand, sharply intensifies the combustion of fuels, reducing emissions of CO, soot and B(a)P, on the other hand, increases NO* emissions. Emissions can be reduced by operating boilers with 50-60% load. In this case, chemical incompleteness of combustion is almost completely absent, and emissions of nitrogen oxides are reduced by 40-45%.

An important place in the choice of optimal operating modes of the boiler is occupied by operational and adjustment tests, in] the scope of which it is mandatory to include not only) work to improve the efficiency, but also studies on the release of pollutants with combustion products. As experience has shown, the timely and high-quality conduct of such tests makes it possible to achieve a significant reduction in emissions of harmful substances and, first of all, CO, soot and B (a) P. In this way, it is possible to achieve a reduction in NO* by 10-15%, chemical combustion incompleteness by 20 -25% or more. It is recommended that adjustment work be carried out at least once every 3 years.

A survey of heating boiler houses equipped with low-power boilers in Leningrad and the region showed that in a number of cases, burner devices (BU) do not correspond to either the type of boiler or its heat output. which leads to a malfunction of the boiler as a whole. More powerful than necessary, GU work with reduced loads. As a result, the amount of mixing of air with fuel decreases, and if a is not increased, then chemical incompleteness of combustion will appear, and the flame length will increase. In this case, less NO* is not compensated by reduced economy and increased emissions of CO, soot and B(a)P.

So far, in small boiler houses, the installation of hearth diffusion burners has taken place. The use of the latter has an extremely negative effect on the efficiency of using natural gas in small boilers. In addition, these burners give an increased emission of harmful substances.

The radical method in this case is the replacement of obsolete burner designs with more advanced ones. In the presence of medium pressure gas, injection burners of full pre-triple mixing can be recommended. These are IGK burners, which are widely used in the central regions of our country, BIG burners (Table 26).

As can be seen from the table, block injection burners (BIG) have a number of advantages compared to IGK burners. Providing, like the IGK burners, an excess air ratio equal to 1.03–1.05, the BIG burners have a mass and length smaller by 36 and 29%, respectively. In addition, BIG burners create less noise that does not exceed established standards. When operating at nominal gas pressure, the sound pressure at a distance of 1 m from the burner does not exceed 82 dB. Sound pressure levels measured at standard frequencies were even lower, ranging from 68 dB at 31.5 Hz to 78 dB at 16,000 Hz.

In the presence of only low pressure gas in the boiler room, incomplete premix injection burners can be recommended. These are multi-torch burners and group burners designed by Lengiproinzhproekt.

The use of automated burner units provides greater efficiency in reducing emissions. Positive results were obtained in the study of block L1-n, which was intended for installation on a specialized Fakel type boiler, and later used on the Bratsk-1 G boiler. In addition, burners with forced air supply, for example, designs of Mosgazproekt, modernized burners of the GNP type, give good results.

When burning liquid fuels, the best performance in terms of pollutant emissions was obtained with rotary nozzles.

Comparison of the test results of the FAZh-type pneumatic injector and the R-1-150 rotary injector showed that, other things being equal, in the design mode, CO emissions with a rotary injector turned out to be 2.5 times lower, soot 2 times lower, and NO* emissions higher by 30— 35%.

When operating a solid fuel boiler, it is advisable to switch to mechanized combustion devices with a continuous combustion process. At present, improved designs of furnaces with a "screwing bar" of the Research Institute of Plumbing have been developed, which are equipped with boilers "Bratsk-I", "Universal-6", etc. In this case, an increase in boiler efficiency up to 85-90% and a decrease in harmful emissions are achieved.

The exclusion of cyclicity in the operation of a mechanized furnace eliminates the peak of emissions of harmful substances, which was observed during the period of "burning up" of the fuel. The height of this peak reached 13-103 mg/m3 for CO - 10* J O3, 100-180 mg/m3 for soot, and 100-110 mg/m3 for NO*. In addition, a continuous combustion process will reduce B(a)P emissions by 70-100 times.

The above methods of suppressing pollutant emissions have the most radical effect on the chemical incompleteness of combustion, but insignificantly on nitrogen oxide emissions and are ineffective in combating SOx. An effective way to combat SO* is the combustion of fuel in a "fluidized bed" (FB).

For small boilers, fluidized bed furnaces are under development. The data below refers to larger boilers, such as DKV, etc.

It is possible to burn all main types of fuels and their wastes in the CS. For the binding of sulfur in the COP, Ca limestone or dolomite is added with the addition of fireclay crumbs. At $" - 1%, the optimal ratio Ca / 5 = 3, the SOi content in the combustion products is reduced by 90%. At Ca / S<2- на 80—85%.

The temperature of the "fluidized bed" usually varies between 750 and 900°C. Fractions of inert filler KS - fireclay chips or dolomite -0.6 -1.0 mm. limestone (ground chalk) - up to 2-2.5 mm. The sizes of coal fractions can be up to 10 mm, but not more than 30 mm. Fuels with a moisture content of up to 50% and an ash content of up to 60% are burned in the combustion chamber with a fairly high efficiency. Reduction of nitrogen oxides in comparison with traditional methods of coal combustion by more than 2 times.

The disadvantages of furnaces with a "fluidized bed" include, firstly, increased inertia, which increases losses during start-up and shutdown, and secondly, increased removal of solid particles, i.e., removal of small particles.

Atmospheric air pollution during the operation of boiler houses is affected by the quality of solid fuel.

A large share in the fuel supply of heating boiler houses is occupied by ordinary coals, the use of which on manual grates is extremely inefficient. As a result, both chemical and mechanical incompleteness of combustion increases. With an increase in the proportion of fines in excess of the allowable, it leads to a sharp increase in entrainment. In general, emissions of particulate matter (ash, coke, soot), carbon monoxide and carcinogens are increasing.

An increase in the ash content of fuel (there is a trend towards constant growth from year to year) has the same negative consequences. As shown by numerous studies, a significant increase in ash content is observed with improperly organized fuel storage.

in consumable warehouses at boiler houses. In many cases, these are completely unprepared sites, often cluttered. As a result of such storage, the amount of non-combustible impurities in the fuel increases by 8-13%. W increases the moisture content of the fuel.

In order to identify the influence on the quality of the fuel of the method of its storage B, under identical conditions, comparative combustion in the boilers "Energy-3" of differently stored fuel was carried out. In one of the boiler houses, fuel was stored on a specially prepared site, in the other directly on the ground with various materials, waste, etc. The efficiency in the first case turned out to be 1.8-2.4% higher, mainly only due to a decrease in Cl and q *. Accordingly, pollutant emissions were lower: particulate matter by 50-60%, CO2 by 20-30%.

Of great importance in improving the atmosphere of cities and towns is the transfer of small heating boilers from solid to liquid, and at best to gas fuel. Thus, the conditional indicator of the toxicity of combustion products will decrease, respectively, from solid to liquid and from solid to gas fuel by 2 and 3.5 times. This does not include B(a)P and other carcinogenic substances in the combustion products.

In the light of improving the environment, issues of improving the thermal and technical characteristics of combusted fuels, such as fuel enrichment, are extremely important. Fuel enrichment primarily involves increasing the calorific value by reducing the ash content and moisture content of the fuel.

The reduction of harmful emissions is influenced by various additives to fuel oil, which are widely used in the energy sector, but are practically not used in industrial and heating boilers, due to the lack of a sufficient amount of additives and the equipment necessary for their introduction.

The main effect of additives "po-" "y"

Quality of combustion, reduction of pollution, and corrosion of heating surfaces. A study on the TGMG1-N4 boiler of the effect of the additive "Kremalnt-1" (at a dose of 0.3 - 0.4 kg / t of fuel oil on combustion products showed that the amount of soot, B (a) P, SO * and NO * in them decreased 1.5-2 times.

Magnesium oxide additives to fuel oil reduce the formation of products of chemical incompleteness of combustion and soot, high-temperature corrosion and pipe contamination, nozzle coking is less. Magnesium additives (magnesite, dolomite) help prevent the formation of vanadium deposits on the heating surface.

In recent years, domestic stove fuel (TE1B, TU38 101-656-76) has been used for heating boilers. Studies have shown that such fuel without preheating can be burned in small-sized boiler furnaces with high efficiency and a low content of harmful components and combustion products. Since this fuel is not supplied enough, studies were carried out on the operation of boilers on heating oil with the addition of a certain amount of domestic furnace fuel to it. These studies have shown that such an additive leads not only to a sharp decrease in the viscosity of the liquid mixture, but also to the intensification of mixture formation due to earlier boiling and evaporation of light fractions. In addition, the speed and completeness of the mixture burning out within the stomp at the nominal and exceeding its boiler power increased. Experimental studies were carried out in heating boiler rooms on boilers of the "Tula-b" type. "Energia-3", "Universal-6" and MG-2T, equipped with R-1-150 type nozzles. AR-90, FAZh and pneumatic nozzles with fungal nozzles designed by "Lenoblenergo"

The reliability of the operation of boiler sections is closely related to the intensification of the process of burning liquid fuel into a torch. due to the length of the latter, preventing1 touching the flame of the cast-iron sections, the local thermal stresses of the walls of the sections are reduced. Their pollution with soot particles is sharply reduced. As a result, the heating surfaces operate under more favorable temperature conditions, which prevent the section wall temperature from rising in excess of permissible values.

Another direction that increases the efficiency of fuel oil combustion in cast iron heating boilers. is the use of specially prepared oil-water emulsions as fuel.

With an increase in the water content in the water-oil emulsion from 2 to 10 -12%, a sharp decrease occurs

the formation of soot particles, CO and nitrogen oxides. With a further increase in water in the emulsion, the content of products of incomplete combustion stabilizes and then increases. The content of nitrogen oxides continues to decrease evenly with the increase in water in the emulsion. The stabilization and subsequent growth of products of incomplete combustion is explained by the fact that a decrease in the flame temperature due to an increase in the amount of water begins to have a more significant effect on the combustion rate than the effect of microcrushing of emulsified droplets. At N" = 10% in the emulsion, the content of NO decreased by 34%. The decrease in emissions of products of incomplete combustion is explained by the intensification of the process of their burning out due to the microcrushing of emulsified fuel droplets, as well as the intensification of carbon oxidation with an increase in the partial pressure of water vapor. Reducing emissions in atmosphere of CO and soot reaches 50% at WME humidity of the order of 10-11%.

Comparing the data on the volume of emissions of harmful substances and the efficiency of work, we can conclude that the optimal water content in the water-oil emulsion is 9-12%. However, this value will be optimal only for these methods of preparing WME and only for cast-iron boilers of the types indicated above. For other cases, this optimum value must be found experimentally.

All solid fuel boilers must be equipped with a gas cleaning system. In reality, in most cases, these ash collectors are not available in boiler houses, or, where these devices are installed, their efficiency is lower than passport data due to poor maintenance.

Ash collectors of the NIIGAZ type and battery cyclones in the design modes have a fractional coefficient of catching particles with a size of 3 microns less than 50%. At the same time, smaller particles pose the greatest health hazard. With the help of these devices, it is possible to capture these 9-12%. However, this value will be optimal only for these methods of preparing WME and only for cast-iron boilers of the types indicated above. For other cases, this optimum value must be found experimentally.

Another important aspect of research on the combustion of water-fuel emulsions and suspensions is the possibility of using as an additive not pure water, but various bottom waters containing impurities of oil, oils, circulating waters of technological production, etc. Thermal neutralization of such waste waters during their combustion in the form water-fuel emulsions are beneficial both from an economic and environmental point of view due to a reduction in the cost of wastewater treatment and a decrease in pollution of the water basin as a whole.

As ash collectors are used:

blocks of cyclones TsKTI or NIIOGAZ with a volume of flue gases from 6000 to 20 000 m3/h (boiler rooms equipped with 2-6 cast-iron boilers). The cleaning ratio is not lower than 85 ^ 90%;

battery cyclones with a volume of gases from 15,000 to 150,000 m3 / h (heating boiler houses with more than 5 boilers). The cleaning ratio is not lower than 85-92%.

All solid fuel boilers must be equipped with a gas cleaning system. In reality, in most cases, these ash collectors are not available in boiler houses, or, where these devices are installed, their efficiency is lower than passport data due to poor maintenance.

Ash collectors of the NIIGAZ type and battery cyclones in the design modes have a fractional coefficient of catching particles with a size of 3 microns less than 50%. At the same time, smaller particles pose the greatest health hazard. With the help of these devices, it is possible to capture about

10% of sooty particles adsorbed on the surface of large ash and coke fractions.

At present, only large CHPPs and TPPs use more modern systems with fabric filters made of temperature-resistant materials, scrubbers capable of capturing particles with a size of 0.5 microns with an efficiency of 70-90%, high-temperature electrostatic precipitators that capture particles larger than 1 micron with an efficiency of 97, 6-99.9%.

The use of the latter is economically unprofitable and difficult to implement in heating boiler houses, two other methods are available.

Chimneys are used to disperse harmful emissions into the atmospheric air. Pipes ensure the spread of pollutants in the ambient air, thereby reducing their hazardous impact on human health and the environment in the surface zone. Chimneys do not reduce absolute emissions, but allow them to be scattered over a large area.

It should be emphasized that this expensive measure should be used after all possible ways to reduce pollutant emissions have been exhausted.

Pest control and cleaning methods should not be opposed. fuels and gases dispersing them in the atmosphere.

Chimneys that have a significant height (up to 300 m or more) and powerful exhaust gases work most efficiently. Small heating boilers cannot provide such gas removal. In addition, the construction of high pipes in residential areas for heating boilers is technically difficult and expensive.

High wind speeds increase and accelerate the dilution of pollutants in the atmosphere, resulting in lower ground concentrations downwind of the stack.

Under certain conditions, the speed

wind can reach "dangerous" values ​​when it is close to or higher than the speed of the exit of gases from the mouth of the pipe. In this case, under a certain state of the atmosphere, maximum concentrations of harmful impurities are observed at the level of people's breathing. To prevent this phenomenon, it is necessary that the flue exit rate.