Feudal war in Russia 1433 1453. Internecine war in Moscow Russia (1425–1453)

Background of the dynastic war

The struggle of the family (direct - from father to son) and tribal (indirect - by seniority from brother to brother) began in the inheritance of the princely throne;
The controversial testament of Dmitry Donskoy, which could be interpreted from different hereditary positions;
Personal rivalry for power in Moscow of the descendants of Prince Dmitry Donskoy

Rivalry for the power of the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy

Course of events of the dynastic war

	Occupation by Vasily II of the Moscow throne without the khan's label. Yuri Zvenigorodsky's claims to the Moscow prince
	Receipt by Vasily Norda of the yarlyk to the Moscow princely throne
	Scandal during the wedding of Vasily II and Borovskaya Princess Maria Yaroslavna, when cousin Vasily Kosoy puts on a symbol of grand ducal power - a golden belt. Conflict and outbreak of hostilities
	The military defeat of Basil 11. Yuri Zvenigorodsky occupies Moscow, begins to mint a coin with the image of George the Victorious. But suddenly dies in Moscow
	The adventure of Vasily Kosoy, who occupies the Moscow throne without the consent of his relatives. He was not supported even by his brothers - Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny. The Moscow princely throne again passes to Vasily II
	Prince Vasily Kosoy tries to continue the armed struggle, but suffers a decisive defeat from Vasily I. He is captured and blinded (hence the nickname - Kosoy). New aggravation of relations between Vasily II and Dmitry Shemyaka
	The capture of Vasily II by the Kazan Tatars. Transfer of power in Moscow to Dmitry Shemyaka. The return of Vasily II from captivity and the expulsion of Shemyaka from Mo-
	Capture and blinding of Vasily II by supporters of Dmitry Shemyaka. The second reign of Dmitry Shemyaka in Moscow. Link Vasily And to Uglich, and then to Vologda
	The conclusion of Vasily II alliance with the Prince of Tver Boris Alexandrovich to fight Dmitry Shemyaka, who was finally expelled from Moscow
	Unsuccessful military attempts by Dmitry Shemyaka to overthrow Vasily 11
	Death of Prince Dmitry Shemyaka in Novgorod. End of the dynastic war

At the end of the XIV century. within the Moscow principality, several specific principalities were formed, allocated by Dmitry Donskoy to his younger sons (except for the pre-existing inheritance of his cousin Vladimir Andreevich Serpukhov). Of these, the largest and most economically developed was the Principality of Galicia, inherited (together with Zvenigorod) by the second son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri. After the death of Vasily I, Yuri began to fight with his nephew Vasily II for the Grand Duke's throne, justifying his rights to it by the already archaic principle of clan seniority of uncles over nephews. Having not met support for his claims from Metropolitan Photius and the Moscow boyars, Yuri tried to get a label for a great reign in the Horde. But the rulers of the Horde, where another turmoil took place, did not want to quarrel with Moscow, and Yuri began an armed struggle, relying on the resources of his principality. Twice (in 1433 and 1434) he managed to capture Moscow. However, Yuri did not manage to establish himself in it because of the hostile attitude towards him from the Moscow boyars, townspeople and grand-ducal "service people, who saw in him, first of all, a rebellious appanage prince.

Expansion of the territory of the feudal war

After the death of Yuri in 1434, the struggle against Vasily II was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. Outwardly, the struggle between them continued to maintain the appearance of a dynastic dispute for the grand throne between the two lines of Dmitry Donskoy's descendants, although the sons of Yuri no longer had any reason to dispute the rights of Vasily II. The struggle between them essentially became a decisive clash between supporters and opponents of state centralization. The question was decided: on what grounds should the relations of the Moscow princes with other princes be built, since the role of Moscow as the leading political center of Russia became an obvious fact. The coalition of appanage princes, led by the Galician princes, which unleashed a feudal war, represented a feudal-conservative reaction to the successes achieved by Moscow in the political unification of the country and the strengthening of grand ducal power by narrowing and eliminating the political independence and sovereign rights of the princes in their possessions - "fatherlands".
The initially successful struggle of Vasily II with a coalition of specific princes (in 1436, Yuri's son Vasily Kosoy was captured and blinded) was soon complicated by the active intervention of the Tatars. Expelled from the Golden Horde by Yedigei, the grandson of Tokhtamysh Khan Ulu-Mukhammed (the founder of the future Kazan Khanate), having settled in 1436-1437. with his horde in the Middle Volga region, used the feudal turmoil in Russia to capture Nizhny Novgorod and devastating raids into the depths of Russian lands. In 1445, in the battle near Suzdal, the sons of Ulu-Mohammed defeated the Moscow army, capturing Vasily II. He was released from captivity for a huge ransom, the severity of which and the violence of the Tatars who arrived to receive it caused widespread discontent, depriving Vasily II of support from the townspeople and serving feudal lords. This was taken advantage of by Dmitry Shemyaka and the appanage princes who supported him, who plotted against Vasily II, which was joined by part of the Moscow boyars, merchants and clergy. In February 1446, Vasily II, who arrived at the Trinity-Sergius Monastery on a pilgrimage, was handed over by the monks to the conspirators, blinded and exiled to Uglich. Moscow for the third time passed into the hands of the Galician princes.

End of the feudal war

The policy of Shemyaka, who seized the throne of the Grand Duke, contributed to the restoration and strengthening of the order of feudal fragmentation. The principality of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod, liquidated by Vasily I, was restored to the rights of the great principality. Shemyaka pledged to observe and protect the independence of the Novgorod boyar republic. The letters of commendation he issued to secular and spiritual feudal lords expanded the scope of the immunity rights of the feudal nobility. Shemyaka's policy, which eliminated the successes achieved by Moscow in the political unification of the country and the organization of an all-Russian rebuff to the aggression of the Horde, could not but cause a broad movement against him among the service feudal lords, the mass of townspeople and that part of the clergy that was interested in strengthening the grand duke's power and its unifying policy. The protracted feudal war led to the economic ruin of a number of regions, to a sharp deterioration in the situation of the working population of the city and countryside, to the arbitrariness and violence of the feudal nobility and local authorities, from which the lower strata of the ruling class also suffered. The growth of the anti-feudal movement in the country was one of the most important reasons that forced the bulk of the ruling class to rally around the power of the grand dukes.
At the end of 1446, Shemyaka was expelled from Moscow, and the great reign again passed into the hands of Vasily the Dark. Shemyaka still tried to continue the fight, but its outcome was a foregone conclusion. Having suffered a series of military defeats, he was forced to flee to Novgorod, where he died in 1453 (possibly poisoned by agents of Vasily II).
The feudal war, which was an important stage in the formation of a unified Russian state, ended in the defeat of the coalition of appanage princes, who tried to stop the liquidation of the feudal fragmentation order, to defend the independence of their principalities. The defeat of the specific princes and the strengthening of the grand duke's power created the conditions for the transition to the final stage of the unification process.

Grand Duke Vladimir Vasily I Dmitrievich died on February 25, 1425. According to the will of the prince, his ten-year-old son Vasily became the heir under the regency of Princess Sophia Vitovtovna, her father, Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, as well as princes Andrei and Peter Dmitrievich. The rights of Vasily II (1425-1462) to the great reign were immediately challenged by his elder uncle, the Galician prince Yuri Dmitrievich. A talented commander who had extensive possessions (Galych, Zvenigorod, Ruza, Vyatka), he relied in his claims on the spiritual diploma of Dmitry Donskoy, which provided for the transfer of power to the eldest in the family. The advantage in the struggle for the great reign of Yuri Dmitrievich was also given by the fact that Vasily II ascended the throne without the sanction of the Horde khans. The Moscow government launched military operations against Yuri, but he avoided a decisive battle, preferring to enlist the support of the Horde. In an effort to avoid bloodshed, Metropolitan Photius, one of the main figures in the government of Vasily II, achieved a truce. According to an agreement concluded in the middle of 1425, Prince Yuri promised not to "seek" a great reign himself, but to transfer the final decision to the Horde. A trip in the fall of 1431 to the Horde by Yuri Dmitrievich and Vasily Vasilyevich brought success to the latter.

Prince Yuri did not accept defeat and, returning from the Horde, began to prepare for military operations. The confrontation turned into a war that began in the spring of 1433. Yuri Dmitrievich and his two eldest sons, Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, set out on a campaign against Moscow. On April 25, a battle took place with Vasily II on the river. Klyazma. The Grand Duke was defeated and fled to Tver, and then to Kostroma. Yuri Dmitrievich entered Moscow. Following tradition, the winner granted Vasily II to Kolomna in Moscow. Boyars and Moscow service people began to leave for Kolomna to their prince. As a result, Yuri Dmitrievich was forced to return the throne to his nephew, concluding an agreement with him recognizing Vasily II as "the elder brother." However, the war was continued by the sons of Prince Yuri, who in September 1433 defeated the Moscow troops near Galich. Vasily II went on a campaign against the Galician princes. The decisive battle between them took place in March 1434 and ended with the complete defeat of the troops of Vasily II. Yuri entered Moscow for the second time.

The steps taken by Yuri Dmitrievich then testify to his desire to establish autocracy in Russia. He tried to rebuild the system of relations between the Grand Duke, his relatives and allies. Yuri even carried out a monetary reform. Coins began to be issued - kopecks with the image of George the Victorious, striking a serpent with a spear (the serpent symbolized the Horde). Having created a coalition of princes against Vasily II, he sent his sons Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny on a campaign to Nizhny Novgorod, where he was hiding. But in June 1434, Prince Yuri died unexpectedly, which led to an aggravation of the situation. The eldest son of Yuri Vasily Kosoy declared himself the heir to the grand duke's power. However, the brothers did not support him and took the side of Vasily II, as a result of which Vasily Kosoy left Moscow. In May 1436, the troops of Vasily II defeated the Galician prince. Vasily Kosoy was captured and blinded, and an agreement was concluded between Dmitry Shemyaka and Vasily II, according to which the Galician prince recognized himself as a "young brother". It was obvious that this was a temporary compromise and the struggle would flare up again. Relations became even more aggravated when, in 1440, after the death of Shemyaka's younger brother Dmitry the Red, Vasily II took most of his inheritance and reduced Dmitry Shemyaka's judicial privileges.

Significant changes that influenced the course of the struggle for autocracy in Russia also took place in the Horde. Khan Ulu-Muhammed, having been defeated by one of the sons of Tokhtamysh, in 1436-1437. settled in the Middle Volga region. He used the internecine "jam" in Russia to capture Nizhny Novgorod and raids deep into Russian lands. In the summer of 1445, in the battle near Suzdal, the sons of Ulu-Mohammed defeated the Russian army and captured Vasily II. Power in Moscow passed to Shemyaka. Soon Vasily II was released by the Horde for a large ransom. Upon learning of his return, Shemyaka fled to Uglich. The military defeat, the hardships of the ransom and the violence of the Tatars who arrived to receive it, led to the emergence of widespread opposition. Many Moscow boyars, merchants and clergy went over to Shemyaka's side. A conspiracy arose against Vasily II. In February 1446, Shemyaka captured Vasily, who had come on a pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and blinded him. This gave rise to the nickname Vasily - Dark.

The position of Dmitry Shemyaka as the Grand Duke was difficult. His reprisal against Vasily II caused indignation. To raise his authority, Shemyaka tried to enlist the support of the church, as well as to conclude an alliance with Veliky Novgorod. The fragility of the position of the new Grand Duke forced him to enter into negotiations with Vasily the Dark. In September 1446, Vasily II was released to Vologda, granted to him by Dmitry, which became a gathering place for supporters of his return. Boris Alexandrovich, Prince of Tver, provided effective assistance to Vasily II. At the beginning of 1447, near Uglich, Dmitry Shemyaka was defeated by the troops of Vasily I, and on February 17 he returned to Moscow in triumph. The Galician prince still tried to continue the struggle, but its outcome was already a foregone conclusion. Shemyaka was defeated in the battle of Galich (1450), and then near Ustyug (1451). In 1453 he died in Novgorod under rather mysterious circumstances. After his death, the internecine war ended.

The struggle for a great reign showed the inevitability of the unity of the Russian lands into one state. Its main reason was the achievement of power: which of the princes would rule in Moscow - the already recognized capital of northeastern Russia. At the same time, the contenders for the Grand Ducal throne of Moscow had two opposite trends in the further development of the country. The Galician princes relied on trade and craft settlements and the free peasantry of the North. Vasily II supported by the military service landowners of the central regions. The victory of the center over the north foreshadowed the establishment of feudal relations.

Consolidation of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II largely dependent on the success of the fight against political separatism. In the summer of 1445, he organized a punitive campaign against Prince Ivan Andreevich of Mozhaisk as punishment "for his failure to correct him." Vasiliy II was afraid of Ivan Andreevich's contacts with Lithuania. Moscow troops occupied Mozhaisk, the inheritance was liquidated, and its territory was divided between the Grand Duke and Serpukhov Prince Vasily Yaroslavich. In the spring of 1456, after the death of the Ryazan prince, who left his young son in the care of Vasily the Dark, Moscow governors were sent to Ryazan. In the summer of the same year, Prince Vasily Yaroslavich of Serpukhov was unexpectedly captured and sent to prison. His inheritance, like Mozhaisk, became the "fatherland" of the Grand Duke.

The largest state entity, along with the Moscow principality, remained "Mr.

Veliky Novgorod": during the period of "jail" he managed to maintain his privileges, maneuvering between the opposing sides. After the death of Dmitry Shemyaki, Novgorod provided patronage to his family. In his confrontation with Moscow, part of the Novgorod boyars and clergy relied on the support of Lithuania. In 1456, Vasily Dark went on a campaign against Novgorod. Having defeated the Novgorod militia near Russa, Vasily II forced the Novgorodians to sign peace. In addition to a huge indemnity, the treaty concluded in Yazhelbitsy included conditions that limited the Novgorod "old times". Novgorod was deprived of the right to external relations and was obliged to no longer to support the opponents of the Grand Duke, the legislative power of the veche was abolished.

In 1460, Vasily II made a "peaceful" campaign against Novgorod, during which he agreed on the payment by the inhabitants of the Novgorod land of the "black forest" - a tribute to the Grand Duke. All this foreshadowed the end of Novgorod liberty. In the same 1460, Pskov turned to Grand Duke Vasily II with a request to protect him from the Livonian Order. The son of Vasily the Dark Yuri was appointed to the Pskov reign, who concluded a truce with the Order. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the territory under his rule disproportionately exceeded the possessions of the rest of the Russian princes, who by that time had lost sovereignty and were forced to obey Moscow.

During the period of the great reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505), who became co-ruler of the Muscovite state during the life of his father, "gathering lands under the hand of Moscow" continued. Distinguished by his mind and great willpower, this great Moscow prince annexed Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka (1489), liquidated the independence of "Lord of Veliky Novgorod". At first, the siege and capture of the city (1478) were undertaken, and then the confiscation of the lands of the Novgorod boyars and the resettlement of their owners to the central regions was gradually carried out. From 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde, and in 1480 the confrontation between the Russian and Horde troops near one of the tributaries of the Oka (“standing on the Ugra”) ended bloodlessly, marking the symbolic liberation of Russia from vassal Horde dependence. Ivan III actually became the creator of the Muscovite state. It was he who laid the foundations of the Russian autocracy , not only significantly expanding the territory of the country (in addition to the Russians, other nationalities also entered the composition: Mari, Mordovians, Komi, Pechora, Karelians, etc.), but also strengthening its political system and state apparatus, significantly increasing the international prestige of Moscow. The final fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and the marriage of Ivan III to the niece of the last emperor of the "Romans" Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog in 1472 allowed the Grand Duke of Moscow to proclaim himself the successor of the Byzantine emperors, and Moscow - the capital of the entire Orthodox world. This was reflected in the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome", formulated at the beginning of the 16th century. The Muscovite state under Ivan III inherits from Byzantium the state emblem - the double-headed eagle, and the Grand Duke himself in 1485 takes the title of the Great Sovereign of All Russia. Under him, our state began to be called Russia.

In an effort to elevate grand ducal power over the boyar-princely nobility, Ivan III consistently formed a multi-stage system of service classes. The boyars, swearing allegiance to the Grand Duke, assured their loyalty with special "swearing letters". The Moscow sovereign could impose disgrace, remove from public service, confiscate estates. The "departure" of princes and boyars from Moscow was regarded as high treason, and they lost the right to own their estates.

Under Ivan III, a local system was introduced - giving to service people (nobles) the possession of free lands (estates) on the basis of non-inherited personal property for military or civil service. Thus, in the Muscovite state, in addition to specific land ownership, three more forms of it developed: the state, which included the palace grand duke's inheritance, the church and monastery, and the local. Gradually, the functions of state administration became more complicated. Posts have appeared official clerk - manager Treasury yard, and clerks, in charge of business. From the end of the XV century. issued Boyar Duma - the highest state advisory body under the "great sovereign". In addition to the Moscow boyars, the Duma also included former appanage princes. In order to centralize and unify judicial and administrative activities in 1497, a new code of laws was introduced - the Code of Laws, which established uniform tax norms, the general procedure for conducting investigations and trials. The Sudebnik of Ivan III primarily protected the life and property of the feudal landowner; established (Article 57) the right of peasants to leave their feudal lord for other lands only within a strictly defined period - a week before St. George's autumn day (November 26) and within a week after it with mandatory payment "elderly" (ransom). With the introduction of the Sudebnik, the process begins attaching peasants to the land. Legislative restriction of slavery in the cities increased the number of taxpayers ("taxpayers") among their population.

The Russian lands, united by Moscow "under the hand of the great sovereign," experienced an upsurge not only in the sphere of state structure. It is not by chance that Russian culture of this period is evaluated in modern literature as a true "Russian Renaissance".

This video lesson is intended for self-acquaintance with the topic “Rus in the second quarter of the 15th century. feudal war. Vasily II. From it, students will be able to learn about the causes of the war - the death of Dmitry Donskoy and the reign of Vasily I. Next, the teacher will talk about the policy of all the rulers of the second quarter of the 15th century.

Topic: Russia in the XIV - the first half of the XV centuries

Lesson: Russia in the second quarter15th century feudal war. VasiliyII

1. Basil's reignI (1389-1425)

After the death of Dmitry Donskoy, his 15-year-old son Vasily I (1389-1425) occupied the thrones of Moscow and the Grand Duke, who successfully continued his father's policy of uniting the Russian lands. In 1392-1395. Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Tarusa, Suzdal and Murom were annexed to Moscow. At the same time, the Grand Duke of Moscow began a war with Novgorod, during which he captured Torzhok, Volokolamsk and Vologda. True, the following year, having been defeated by the Novgorodians, Vasily was forced to return the Dvina land, but the most important shopping centers - Torzhok and Volokolamsk - remained with Moscow.

At the same time, Vasily I, taking advantage of the new “zamyatna” in the Horde, broke off tributary relations with the Tatars and stopped paying the hateful “Horde exit” to Sarai. But in 1408, one of the former emirs of Tamerlane, Edigei, who became the Khan of the Golden Horde, made a devastating raid on Russia and forced Moscow to resume paying tribute.

In 1406-1408. an unsuccessful Russian-Lithuanian war took place, during which Smolensk fell out of Moscow's sphere of influence for a century.

Rice. 1. Muscovite-Lithuanian war 1406-1408

The second half of the reign of Vasily I was not rich in events, except for a new war with Novgorod (1417), as a result of which Moscow annexed Vologda.

2. Feudal war and the reign of BasilII (1425-1462)

The process of political unification of the Russian lands around Moscow was significantly influenced by the feudal war of the second quarter of the 14th century, the causes of which many historians (L. Cherepnin, A. Zimin) traditionally saw as a dynastic crisis. The essence of the problem was this: for a long time in Russia there was a tribal order of succession to the throne, but after the famous plague epidemic of 1353, during which most members of the grand-ducal family died, it naturally transformed into a family order, which was not legally fixed anywhere. Moreover, according to the will of Dmitry Donskoy (1389), his sons Vasily and Yuri were to inherit his throne in turn. However, Grand Duke Vasily I, violating his father's will, transferred the throne to his 10-year-old son Vasily II (1425-1462), and not to his younger brother Yuri Zvenigorodsky (1374-1434).

Rice. 2. Monument to Yuri Zvenigorodsky ()

At the same time, Professor A. Kuzmin, the greatest connoisseur of Russian history, rightly points out that the cause of this war lay not only in the dynastic crisis. More significant was the fact that the actual ruler of Russia under Vasily II was his grandfather, the great Lithuanian prince Vitovt (1392-1430), which caused sharp rejection among many specific princes and boyars who united around Yuri Zvenigorodsky and his sons.

When studying the feudal war in Russia in historical science, they traditionally argued over two key issues:

1) what was the chronological framework of this war;

2) what was this war.

In the historical literature, one can find completely different chronological frames of this war, in particular, 1430-1453, 1433-1453. and 1425-1446. However, most historians (A. Zimin, L. Cherepnin, R. Skrynnikov, V. Kobrin) date this war to 1425-1453. and there are several main stages in it:

- 1425-1431 - the initial, "peaceful" period of the war, when Yuri Zvenigorodsky, not wanting to go into open conflict with Vitovt and Metropolitan Fitiy, tried to legally obtain a label for the great reign of Vladimir in the Golden Horde;

- 1431-1436 - the second period of the war, which began after the death of Vitovt and Metropolitan Photius and was associated with the active hostilities of Yuri and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka against Vasily II, during which the Zvenigorod princes twice occupied the Moscow throne (1433-1434). However, after the death of Yuri, who was reputed to be an outstanding commander, Moscow troops defeated the Zvenigorod regiments at Kotorosl (1435) and Skoryatin (1436) and captured Vasily Kosoy, who was blinded.

Rice. 3. Date of Dmitry Shemyaka with Vasily II ()

- 1436-1446 - the third period of the war, marked by a shaky truce of the parties, which ended with the capture and blinding of Vasily II (the Dark) and his abdication in favor of Dmitry Shemyaka;

- 1446-1453 - the fourth, final stage of the war, which ended with the complete victory of Vasily II and the death of Dmitry Shemyaka in Novgorod.

As regards the evaluation of the feudal war, there are three main approaches. One group of historians (L. Cherepnin, Yu. Alekseev V. Buganov) believed that the feudal war was a war between "reactionary" opponents (Zvenigorod princes) and "progressive" supporters (Vasily II) of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. At the same time, the sympathies of these historians were clearly on the side of Vasily the Dark. Another group of historians (N. Nosov, A. Zimin, V. Kobrin) argued that during the feudal war the question was decided which branch of the Moscow princely house would lead and continue the process of unification of Russia. At the same time, this group of authors clearly sympathized with the “industrial North” and its princes, and not with the “serf center” and Vasily II, whom they considered “outstanding mediocrity”, since they believed that with the victory of the Galician-Zvenigorod princes, Russia could go more progressive ( pre-bourgeois) path of development than it actually happened. The third group of historians (R. Skrynnikov) believe that in the above concepts, a discrepancy between theoretical constructions and actual material is striking. According to these scholars, the feudal war was an ordinary, princely civil strife, well known from past centuries.

After the end of the feudal war, Vasily II successfully continued the policy of collecting lands around Moscow, in 1454 he conquered Mozhaisk from Lithuania, in 1456 he defeated the Novgorodians near Russa and imposed the Yazhelbitsky Treaty on them, which significantly limited the sovereign status of Novgorod in external relations with foreign powers ; in 1461 the grand duke sent his governor to Pskov for the first time.

In addition, during the reign of Vasily the Dark, another epoch-making event took place: refusing to sign the Union of Florence (1439), a new metropolitan was elected in Moscow for the first time without the sanction of Constantinople - Archbishop Jonah of Ryazan (1448), and ten years later the Moscow the metropolis became completely autocephalous, that is, independent of the Patriarchate of Constantinople (1458).

Rice. 4. Basil rejects the Union of Florence ()

List of references for studying the topic "Feudal war in Russia. Vasily II":

1. Alekseev Yu. G. Under the banner of Moscow. - M., 1992

2. Borisov N. S. Russian Church in the political struggle of the XIV-XV centuries. - M., 1986

3. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618 - M., 2003

4. Zimin A. A. Knight at the crossroads. Feudal war in Russia in the 15th century. - M., 1991

5. Skrynnikov R. G. State and Church in Russia XIV-XVI centuries. - M., 1991

6. Cherepnin L. V. Formation of the Russian centralized state in the XIV-XV centuries. - M., 1960

A long war between supporters of centralized grand ducal power and the boyars of independent principalities flared up in the second quarter of the 15th century. The war was started by Yuri Dmitrievich, prince of the specific Galician principality, and his sons. The foreign policy situation favored the plans of the Galician prince. At this time, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, in alliance with the Tver prince Boris, launched an offensive against Pskov and Novgorod. The princes of Ryazan and Pronsk went over to the side of the invaders.

The troops of the Galician prince occupied Moscow twice, forcing the Moscow prince Vasily II Vasilyevich to flee. The death of Yuri did not interrupt the feudal strife between the princes. The struggle of opponents of the grand-princely policy was led by the sons of Yuri - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. The territory covered by hostilities expanded. The war has already gone beyond the boundaries of the Moscow principality. The Novgorod boyar republic, the lands of the possessions of Khlynov, Vologda, Ustyug were drawn into the war.

The situation was complicated by the intervention of neighboring states in the outbreak of war. So the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV concluded an agreement with the Novgorod boyars, according to which he received the right to collect indemnity from some Novgorod regions, as well as appoint his governors in the Novgorod suburbs.

The Roman curia did not leave attempts to subjugate the new lands to its sphere of influence. The war with Turkey forced Byzantium to ask for help from the pope and the West non-European states. Byzantium began to negotiate a church union. The Byzantine government proposed the Greek Isidore, who was a supporter of the conclusion of a church union, as a candidate for the metropolitan of Russia. In 1437, Isidore arrived in Moscow, and then went to Italy, to Ferrara and Florence, where he actively advocated the union. In 1439, at the Council of Florence, a resolution was adopted on the union of churches on the terms of the acceptance by the Orthodox Church of Catholic dogmas and recognition of the primacy of the Pope, while maintaining Orthodox rites. However, representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church refused to sign the act of union. On the initiative of Grand Duke Vasily II, the council of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Church decided to depose Isidore.

In 1448, Bishop Jonah, who was actually managing the affairs of the Russian Church, was approved as metropolitan. The Patriarch of Constantinople recognized this decision as illegal and excommunicated the Russians from the church. Thus, the Russian Church gained independence from the Byzantine Church, which increased its political position.

The Tatar princes still sought to seize the Russian lands and consolidate their power over them. In the second quarter of the 15th century, Tatar-Mongol attacks on Russia became more frequent. One of the descendants of Jochi-Ulu Mohammed, expelled from the Horde by Edigey, settled in the city of Belev, bordering on the possessions of Moscow and Lithuania. Then Ulu Mohammed moved with his horde to Nizhny Novgorod and from there made predatory raids on the surrounding Russian lands and even on Moscow.

In the spring of 1445, the Tatar-Mongolian troops, led by the sons of Ulu Muhammad, made another raid on Russia. They defeated the Moscow army near Suzdal and captured the Moscow prince Vasily II himself. When the news of the capture of the prince reached Moscow, panic began there. In addition, a terrible fire destroyed almost the entire capital. The princely family and the boyars fled to Rostov. But the townspeople, just as during the invasion of Tokhtamysh, decided to defend their capital and brutally dealt with those who dared to flee. Tatar troops did not dare to attack Moscow prepared for defense and retreated to Nizhny Novgorod.

After some time, Grand Duke Vasily II was released to his capital. A promise was taken from him to pay a ransom for himself. Vasily II returned to Moscow, bound by an oath to repay a huge debt. Due to miscalculations in domestic politics and military failures made by the prince during the struggle against the Mongol conquerors, the Moscow population and service people stopped supporting him. Dmitry Shemyaka took advantage of this position. He organized a conspiracy to overthrow the Moscow prince. The Tver and Mozhaisk princes, a number of Moscow boyars, the monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and large merchants took part in the conspiracy. Vasily II was deposed, blinded, hence his nickname "Dark", and exiled to Uglich. Moscow passed into the hands of the Galician prince.

Unlike the Moscow princes who ruled before him, Dmitry Shemyaka pursued a policy of restoring the independence of individual parts of the state. So he recognized the independence of the Novgorod principality, returned the local princes to the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality. Such a policy of Dmitry Shemyaka caused acute dissatisfaction with the Moscow settlement and service people. They began to seek the return to Moscow to the throne of Vasily the Dark. Dmitry Shemyaka, seeing that many of his former supporters were leaving him, was forced to release Vasily II from prison.

Having found himself at large, Vasily the Dark begins the struggle for the return of the Moscow throne to himself. He goes to the Prince of Tver Boris Alexandrovich, who took his side. Moscow boyars and service people began to come to Vasily the Dark in Tver. At the end of 1445, Vasily the Dark regained power by sending a small detachment to Moscow led by the boyar Mikhail Pleshcheev. This detachment occupied Moscow without actually meeting any resistance. Dmitry Shemyaka, supported by the Novgorod boyars hostile to the Moscow prince, for a number of years made raids on the northern regions of the Moscow principality - Ustyug, Vologda.

After the defeat of Dmitry Shemyaka, almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Russia submitted to the Moscow prince. The war with the Novgorod principality began in 1456. Novgorod squads were defeated by Vasily the Dark. In Yazhelbitsy, an agreement was concluded, according to which a large indemnity was imposed on Novgorod. Novgorod was significantly constrained in the right to pursue an independent policy. The sovereignty of the Pskov boyar republic was almost as severely limited.

The political unification of the main part of the Russian lands was completed under the son of Vasily the Dark - Ivan III, who ruled from 1462 to 1505.